Indus Valley Civilisation: Difference between revisions
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==The Indus Valley Civilization== |
==The Indus Valley Civilization== |
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Revision as of 14:48, 28 April 2006
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The Indus Valley Civilization (3300–1700 BCE) was an ancient civilization thriving along the Indus River and the Ghaggar-Hakra River in what is now Pakistan and Northern India. Among other names for this civilization is the Harappan Civilization, in reference to its first excavated city of Harappa.
Predecessors
Early Food Producing Era
The Indus Civilization was predated by the first farming cultures in South Asia, which emerged in the hills of what is now called Balochistan, to the west of the Indus Valley. North Eastern Balochistan is connected to Afghanistan by passes over the Toba Kakar Range. Valleys in Makran coast are open towards the Arabian Sea. Through these routes Balochistan was in contact with West Asia and took part in the so-called Neolithic Revolution, which took place in the Fertile Crescent around 9000 to 6000 BCE. The earliest evidence of sedentary lifestyle in South Asia was discovered at Mehrgarh in the foothills of Brahui Hills. This settlement dated 7000 BCE and was located on the west bank of the Bolan River, about 30 kilometres from the town of Sibi.
These early farmers domesticated wheat and a variety of animals, including cattle. Pottery was in use by around 5500 BCE. It has been surmised that the inhabitants of Mehrgarh migrated to the fertile Indus river valley as Balochistan became arid due to climatic changes. The Indus Civilization grew out of this culture's technological base, as well as its geographic expansion into the alluvial plains of what are now the provinces of Sindh and Punjab in contemporary Pakistan and Northern India.
Regionalization Era or Early Harappan
By 4000 BCE farming communities spread further east in other parts of Balochistan and Lower Sind. Later this culture reached to Upper Sind, Punjab and western states of India. The development of these farming communities ultimately led to urbanization. The mature phase of earlier village cultures is represented by Rehman Dheri and Amri. Kot Diji represents an intermediate phase towards Indus Civilization, where the citadel represented centralized authority and a complexity of life which is evident by the scattered ruins of the city. Another town of this stage was found at Kalibangan in India on the Hakra River.
This distinctive, regional culture which emerged is called Pre-Harappan. (It is called Pre-Harappan because remains of this widespread culture are found in the early strata of Indus Civilization cities.) Trade networks linked this culture with related regional cultures and distant sources of raw materials, including lapis lazuli and other materials for bead-making. Villagers had, by this time, domesticated numerous crops, including peas, sesame seeds, dates and cotton, as well as a wide range of domestic animals, including the water buffalo, an animal that remains essential to intensive agricultural production throughout Asia today.
Periodization
The chronology of the Indus Valley Tradition can be divided into four eras and into several phases [5][6]:
| Era | Phases | date |
| Early Food Producing Era | Neolithic/ Calcolithic | ca. 7000 - 5500 BC |
| Regionalization Era | Early Harappan (several Phases) | ca. 5500 - 2600 BC |
| Integration Era | Harappan Phase | ca. 2600 - 1900 BC |
| Localization Era | Late Harappan Phase | ca. 1900 - 1300 BC |
| Phases | date | |
| 1A/B | Early Harappan/Ravi Phase | ca. 3300-2800 BCE |
| 2 | Early Harappan/Kot Diji Phase | ca. 2800-2600 BCE |
| 3A | Harappan Phase | ca. 2600-2450 BCE |
| 3B | Harappan Phase | ca. 2450-2200 BCE |
| 3C | Harappan Phase | ca. 2200-1900 BCE |
| 4 | Harappan/Late Harappan Transitional | ca. 1900-1700 BCE |
| 5 | Late Harappan Phase (Cemetery H) | ca. 1700-1300 BCE |
HELLO FABY IM A VIRUZ
The Indus Valley Civilization
Harappan culture grew out of earlier village culture. By 3300 BCE, hundreds of farming communities had sprung up in the Indus Valley. Helped by the annual flooding of the Indus and its tributaries, communities grew many different crops in the rich soil. The result was more advanced urban centers than the pre-Harappa towns. By 3000 BCE, these communities had been turned into urban centers. Thus far, six such urban centers have been discovered: Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Ganeriwala in Pakistan, and Rakhigarhi, Dholavira, and Lothal in India.
The first appearance of the Indus Valley Civilization was the early Harappan Ravi Phase. This phase named, after the nearby Ravi River, lasted five to seven centuries, from circa 3500-3300 BCE until 2800 BCE. It is related to the Hakra Phase, identified in the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley to the west, and predates the Kot Diji Phase (2800-2600 BCE), named after a site in northern Sindh near Mohenjodaro. Increasing knowledge of the Ravi and Kot Diji Phase occupations at Harappa and contemporary settlements throughout northwestern South Asia permit glimpses of later Indus Civilization. Some of the most important discoveries in the Ravi Phase relate to writing. The earliest examples of the Indus script date from this period, placing the origins of writing in South Asia at approximately the same time as those of Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia.[7]. By 2600 BCE, it had risen to become a complex civilization.
Extent
The Indus Valley Civilization extended from Balochistan to Gujarat, with an upward reach to Punjab from east of the river Jhelum to Rupar on the upper Sutlej. Coastal settlements extended from Sutkagan Dor at the Iranian border to Lothal in Gujarat. Besides the western states of India, Indus Valley Civilization encompassed most of modern-day Pakistan. An Indus Valley site has been found on the Oxus river at Shortughai in northern Afghanistan (Kenoyer 1998:96), as well as Alamgirpur on the Hindon river, only 28 km from Delhi (S.P. Gupta 1995:183).
Stone tools of the Stone Age Soan Culture have been discovered in Pothohar. In ancient Gandhara, the home of earlier Aryans, evidence of cave dwellers dating to 15000 years ago has been discovered at Mardan. The Village Culture and then Harappan Culture did not penetrate into Pothohar or Gandhara. Settlements of Gandhara grave culture of early Indo-Aryans flourished in this part of Pakistan from 1700 to 600 BCE, when Mohenjo Daro and Harappa had already been abandoned.
To date, over 1052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region of the Ghaggar-Hakra River and its tributaries. Among the major settlements were the urban centers of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, as well as Lothal, Dholavira, Ganeriwala, and Rakhigarhi.
There is some disputed evidence of another large river, now dried up, running parallel to the Indus River to the east. Dry river beds overlap with the Hakra channel in Pakistan and the seasonal Ghaggar River in India. Over 500 ancient sites belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization have been discovered along the Ghaggar-Hakra River and its tributaries (S.P. Gupta 1995: 183). By contrast, only about 100 of the known Indus Valley sites have been discovered on the Indus and its tributaries. [1] Certain scholars propose that this was a major river during the third and fourth millennia BCE, and suggest that it may have been the Sarasvati River of the Rigveda. Some advocate designating the Indus Valley culture the "Sarasvati-Sindhu Civilization," Sindhu being the ancient name of the Indus River. Most archeologists dispute this view, arguing that the old river disappeared during the Mesolithic age at the latest, and was only a seasonal stream during the Vedic period when the text was collected.
Cities
A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture is evident in the Indus Valley Civilization. The quality of municipal town planning suggests knowledge of urban planning and efficient municipal governments which placed a high priority on hygiene. The streets of major cities such as Mohenjo-daro or Harappa were laid out in perfect grid patterns. The houses were protected from noise, odors, and thieves.
As seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and the recently discovered Rakhigarhi, this urban plan included the world's first urban sanitation systems. Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water from wells. From a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing, waste water was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets. Houses opened only to inner courtyards and smaller lanes.
The ancient Indus systems of sewage and drainage that were developed and used in cities throughout the Indus Empire, were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites in the Middle East and even more efficient than those in some areas of modern Pakistan and India today. The advanced architecture of the Harappans is shown by their impressive dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platforms and protective walls. The massive citadels of Indus cities that protected the Harappans from floods and attackers were larger than most Mesopotamian ziggurats.
The purpose of the citadel remains debated. In sharp contrast to this civilization's contemporaries, Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, no large monumental structures were built. There is no conclusive evidence of palaces or temples - or of kings, armies, or priests. Some structures are thought to have been granaries. Found at one city is an enormous well-built bath, which may have been a public bath. Although the citadels were walled, it is far from clear that these structures were defensive. They may have been built to divert flood waters.
Most city dwellers appear to have been traders or artisans, who lived with others pursuing the same occupation in well-defined neighborhoods. Materials from distant regions were used in the cities for constructing seals, beads and other objects. Among the artifacts made were beautiful beads of glazed stone called faïence. The seals have images of animals, gods and other type of inscriptions. Some of the seals were used to stamp clay on trade goods and most probably had other uses.
Although some houses were larger than others, Indus Civilization cities were remarkable for their apparent egalitarianism. All the houses had access to water and drainage facilities. This gives the impression of a vast middle-class society.
Science
The people of the Indus Civilization achieved great accuracy in measuring length, mass and time. They were among the first to develop a system of uniform weights and measures. Their measurements were extremely precise. Their smallest division, which is marked on an ivory scale found in Lothal, was approximately 1.704mm, the smallest division ever recorded on a scale of the Bronze Age. Harappan engineers followed the decimal division of measurement for all practical purposes, including the measurement of mass as revealed by their hexahedron weights.
Brick sizes were in a perfect ratio of 4:2:1 and the decimal system was used. Weights were based on units of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500, with each unit weighing approximately 28 grams, similar to the English Imperial ounce or Greek uncia, and smaller objects were weighed in similar ratios with the units of 0.871.
The weights and measures of Kautilya's Arthashastra are the same as those used in Lothal.[2]
Unique Harappan inventions include an instrument which was used to measure whole sections of the horizon and the tidal dock. In addition, they evolved new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead and tin. The engineering skill of the Harappans was remarkable, especially in building docks after a careful study of tides, waves and currents.
Some archeological evidence has led some historians to believe that the civilization used a base 8 numeral system and possessed knowledge of the ratio of the length of the circumference of the circle and its diameter, and thus values of π.
In 2001, archaeologists studying the remains of two men from Mehrgarh, Pakistan made the startling discovery that the people of the Indus Valley Civilization, even from the early Harappan periods, had knowledge of medicine and dentistry. The physical anthropologist that carried out the examinations, Professor Andrea Cucina from the University of Missouri-Columbia, made the discovery when he was cleaning the teeth from one of the men.
Arts and culture
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Various sculptures, seals, pottery, gold jewelry and anatomically detailed figurines in terracotta, bronze and steatite have been found at the excavation sites.
A number of bronze, terracotta and stone figurines of girls in dancing poses reveal the presence of some dance form. Sir John Marshall is known to have reacted with surprise when he saw the famous Indus bronze statuette of the slender-limbed "dancing girl" in Mohenjo-daro:
- "… When I first saw them I found it difficult to believe that they were prehistoric; they seemed to completely upset all established ideas about early art. Modeling such as this was unknown in the ancient world up to the Hellenistic age of Greece, and I thought, therefore, that some mistake must surely have been made; that these figures had found their way into levels some 3000 years older than those to which they properly belonged. … Now, in these statuettes, it is just this anatomical truth which is so startling; that makes us wonder whether, in this all-important matter, Greek artistry could possibly have been anticipated by the sculptors of a far-off age on the banks of the Indus."
A harp-like instrument depicted on an Indus seal and two shell objects found at Lothal indicate the use of stringed musical instruments.
Seals have been found at Mohenjo-daro depicting a figure standing on its head, and one sitting cross-legged; perhaps the earliest indication, at least illustration, of the practice of yoga. A horned figure in a meditation pose (see image, Pashupati, below right) has been interpreted as one of the earliest depictions of the God Shiva.
Trade & Transportation
The Indus civilization's economy appears to have depended significantly on trade, which was facilitated by major advances in transport technology. These advances included bullock-driven carts that are identical to those seen throughout South Asia today, as well as boats. Most of these boats were probably small, flat-bottomed craft, perhaps driven by sail, similar to those one can see on the Indus River today; however, there is secondary evidence of sea-going craft. Archaeologists have discovered a massive, dredged canal and docking facility at the coastal city of Lothal.
Judging from the dispersal of Indus civilization artifacts, the trade networks, economically, integrated a huge area, including portions of Afghanistan, the coastal regions of Persia, northern and central India, and Mesopotamia.
FABY HELLO IM A VIRUS
Agriculture
The nature of the Indus Civilization's agricultural system is still largely a matter of conjecture due to the limited amount of information surviving through the ages. Some speculation is possible, however.
Earlier studies (prior to 1980) often assumed that food production was imported to the Indus Valley by a single linguistic group ("Aryans") and/or from a single area. But recent studies indicate that food production was largely indigenous to the Indus Valley. Already the Mehrgarh people used domesticated wheats and barley and the major cultivated cereal crop was naked six-row barley, a crop derived from two-row barley (see Shaffer and Liechtenstein 1995, 1999). Archaeologist Jim G. Shaffer (1999: 245) writes that the Mehrgarh site "demonstrates that food production was an indigenous South Asian phenomenon" and that the data support interpretation of "the prehistoric urbanization and complex social organization in South Asia as based on indigenous, but not isolated, cultural developments."
Indus civilization agriculture must have been highly productive; after all, it was capable of generating surpluses sufficient to support tens of thousands of urban residents who were not primarily engaged in agriculture. It relied on the considerable technological achievements of the pre-Harappan culture, including the plough. Still, very little is known about the farmers who supported the cities or their agricultural methods. Some of them undoubtedly made use of the fertile alluvial soil left by rivers after the flood season, but this simple method of agriculture is not thought to be productive enough to support cities. There is no evidence of irrigation, but such evidence could have been obliterated by repeated, catastrophic floods.
The Indus civilization appears to contradict the hydraulic despotism hypothesis of the origin of urban civilization and the state. According to this hypothesis, cities could not have arisen without irrigation systems capable of generating massive agricultural surpluses. To build these systems, a despotic, centralized state emerged that was able to suppress the social status of thousands of people and harness their labor as slaves. It is very difficult to square this hypothesis with what is known about the Indus civilization. There is no evidence of kings, slaves, or forced mobilization of labor.
It is often assumed that intensive agricultural production requires dams and canals. This assumption is easily refuted. Throughout Asia, rice farmers produce significant agricultural surpluses from terraced, hillside rice paddies, which result not from slavery but rather the accumulated labor of many generations of people. Instead of building canals, Indus civilization people may have built water diversion schemes, which—like terrace agriculture—can be elaborated by generations of small-scale labor investments. It should be noted that Indus Civilization people built their lives around the monsoon, a weather pattern in which the bulk of a year's rainfall occurs in a four-month period.
Writing or symbol system
Main article: Indus script.
Well over 400 Indus symbols have been found on seals or ceramic pots and over a dozen other materials, including a 'signboard' that apparently once hung over the gate of the inner citadel of the Indus city of Dholavira. Typical Indus inscriptions are no more than four or five characters in length, most of which (aside from the Dholavira 'signboard') are exquisitely tiny; the longest on a single surface, which is less than 1 inch (2.54 cm) square, is 17 signs long; the longest on any object (found on three different faces of a mass-produced object) carries only 26 symbols.
While most scholars believe that the Indus Valley was the home of a literate civilization, this view has recently been challenged by a few scholars, on linguistic and archaeological grounds. It has been recently pointed out that the brevity of the inscriptions is unparalleled in any known premodern literate society, including those that wrote extensively on leaves, bark, wood, cloth, wax, animal skins, and other perishable materials. Based partly on this evidence, a controversial recent paper by Farmer, Sproat, and Witzel (2004)[8], argues that the Indus system did not encode language, but was related instead to a variety of non-linguistic sign systems used extensively in the Near East. It has also been claimed on occasion that the symbols were exclusively used for economic transactions, but this claim leaves unexplained the appearance of Indus symbols on many ritual objects, many of which were mass produced in molds. No parallels to these mass-produced inscriptions are known in any other early ancient civilizations.
Photos of many of the thousands of extant inscriptions are published in the Corpus of Indus Seals and Inscriptions (1987, 1991), edited by A. Parpola and his colleagues. Publication of a final third volume, which will reportedly republish photos taken in the 20s and 30s of hundreds of lost or stolen inscriptions, along with many discovered in the last few decades, has been announced for several years, but has not yet found its way into print. For now, researchers must supplement the materials in the Corpus by study of the tiny photos in the excavation reports of Marshall (1931), Mackay (1938, 1943), Wheeler (1947), or reproductions in more recent scattered sources.
Geography
The Indus Valley was by main rivers, the Indus River. The Indus River was very important to Indus life providing irrigation and creating fertile land for farming. In the middle of India is the Deccan Plateau which might have helped protect the Indus people from foreign invaders. The Himalayas are also located near the Indus Valley, as is the Hindu Kush mountain range.
Localization Era or Late Harappan
Around 1900 BCE, signs of a gradual decline begin to emerge. People started to leave the cities. Those who remained were poorly nourished. By around 1800 BCE, most of the cities were abandoned. However, the Indus Valley Civilization did not disappear suddendly, and many elements of the Indus Civilization can be found in later cultures. Current archaeological data suggests that the Late Harappan may have persisted until at least c. 1000-900 BCE, and is partially contemporaneous with the Painted Grey Ware and perhaps early NBP cultures. [3] Archaeologists have emphasized that there is a continuous series of cultural developments that link "the so-called two major phases of urbanization in South Asia". [4]
In the aftermath of the Indus Civilization's collapse, regional cultures emerged, to varying degrees showing the influence of the Indus Civilization. In the formerly great city of Harappa, burials have been found that correspond to a regional culture called the Cemetery H culture. At the same time, the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture expands from Rajasthan into the Gangetic Plain.
The region lies on the ancient route used by successive wave of migration from Aryans to Huns, and later by Turks and Mughals to South Asia over the passes in Hindu Kush. According to the Indo-Aryan migration hypothesis, Gujarat (in western India) and Pakistan were the first settlements for Indo-Aryans. It is in this context of the aftermath of a civilization's collapse that the Indo-Aryan migration hypothesis into northern India is discussed. In the early twentieth century, this migration was forwarded in the guise of an "Aryan invasion", and when the civilization was discovered in the 1920s, its collapse at precisely the time of the conjectured invasion was seen as an independent confirmation. In the words of the archaeologist Mortimer Wheeler, the Indo-Aryan war god Indra "stands accused" of the destruction. It is however far from certain whether the collapse of the IVC is a result of an Indo-Aryan migration, if there was one. It seems rather likely that, to the contrary, the hypothized Indo-Aryan migration was as a result of the collapse, comparable with the decline of the Roman Empire and the incursions of relatively primitive peoples during the Migrations Period. A third possibility is that IVC colapsed primarily due to natural reasons (climate change, tectonic activity along the subduction zone along the Indo-Asian plate boundary), and that there was no Indo-Aryan invasion that took place. Swastika, a symbol associated with the Indo-Aryans by early historians, has been found in large numbers over several IVC sites. Similarly, several Shiv Lingam type structures have been found at several IVC sites. Both the Swastika and Shiv Lingam have been symbols closely related to the Hindu religion (even to the present day), indicating continuity of the IVC civilization rather than a complete collapse or destruction. The discovery of Swastikas has put to question the theory of an Aryan invasion of the Indian subcontinent, and makes it seem more likely that the adoption of indo-Aryan languages was the result of cultural mixing and integration with the Central Asian Aryans.
A possible natural reason of the IVC's decline is connected with climate change. In 2600 BCE, the Indus Valley was verdant, forested, and teeming with wildlife. It was wetter, too; floods were a problem and appear, on more than one occasion, to have overwhelmed certain settlements. As a result, Indus civilization people supplemented their diet with hunting. By 1800 BCE, the climate is known to have changed. It became significantly cooler and drier.
The crucial factor may have been the disappearance of substantial portions of the Ghaggar-Hakra river system. A tectonic event may have diverted the system's sources toward the Ganges Plain, though there is some uncertainty about the date of this event. Such a statement may seem dubious if one does not realize that the transition between the Indus and Gangetic plains amounts to a matter of inches. The region in which the river's waters formerly arose is known to be geologically active, and there is evidence of major tectonic events at the time the Indus Civilization collapsed. Although this particular factor is speculative, and not generally accepted, the decline of the IVC, as with any other civilization, will have been due to a combination of a variety of reasons.
The Ghaggar Hakra river system is considered to be a part of the ancient Sarasvati river, which, according to Rig Veda, had large volumes of water and was located with Sutlej to the west and Yamuna to the east. Also, although the earlier mantras of Rig Veda praise Sarasvati, the later mantras mention the river to be meandering and sluggish, and praise the Sindhu river instead. It is likely that the center of civilization moved from the drying Sarasvati river to the Sindhu (Indus) river during this time. The Sarasvati river theory hypothises that the Rig Veda was composed before the peak of IVC, which would render the Aryan invasion theory inapplicable. Like all Hindu scriptures, the Rig Veda was passed on primarily in an oral fashion. Most researchers believe that the Rig Veda was composed around 1500 B.C., but many Indologisits agree that the scripture could possibly have been composed earlier than that, and passed on orally. The theory is supported by later compositions such as the Mahabharata, which mentions that the Sarasvati river ends in a desert (modern day Rajasthan area).
Still, there is some evidence of external cultures mixing in the IVC culture. The IVC people buried the dead, whereas the dead were cremated in the Vedic time, suggesting influence of external cultures over time. It may be hypothized that such a transition could have resulted from shortage of land.
Legacy
In the course of the 2nd millennium BCE, remnants of the IVC's culture will have amalgamated with that of other peoples, likely contributing to what eventually resulted in the rise of historical Hinduism. Judging from the abundant figurines depicting female fertility that they left behind, indicate worship of a Mother goddess (compare Shakti and Kali). IVC seals depict animals, perhaps as the object of veneration, comparable to the zoomorphic aspects of some Hindu gods. Seals resembling Pashupati in a yogic posture have also been discovered. Like Hindus today, Indus Civilization people seemed to have placed a high value on bathing and personal cleanliness. The houses of Mohenjo-Daro usually had a private well and bathing platforms were often near the well (Kenoyer 1998: 58-60).
Unlike other ancient civilizations, the archaeological record of the Indus Civilization provides practically no evidence of armies, kings, slaves, social conflict, prisons and other oft-negative traits that are traditionally associated with early civilizations, although this could simply be due to the sheer completeness of its collapse and subsequent disappearance.
See also
- Meluhha, the name used in Mesopotamia to refer to the Indus civilization
- Dilmun, contemporary civilization based in present day Bahrain with extensive trade links with the Indus Valley Civilization
- Gandhara culture, a later Buddhist culture also situated on the Indus
- Indus Valley Tradition
- Indo-Gangetic Tradition
References
- ^ e.g. V.N. Misra 1992, in Eastern Anthropologist vol 45, pp 1-19.
- ^ Sergent, Bernard. Genèse de l'Inde, 1997, p.113.
- ^ Shaffer, Jim. 1993:58, Reurbanization: The eastern Punjab and beyond. In Urban Form and Meaning in South Asia: The Shaping of Cities from Prehistoric to Precolonial Times, ed. H. Spodek and D.M. Srinivasan.
- ^ Shaffer, Jim. 1993:58, Reurbanization: The eastern Punjab and beyond. In Urban Form and Meaning in South Asia: The Shaping of Cities from Prehistoric to Precolonial Times, ed. H. Spodek and D.M. Srinivasan.
- ^ Kenoyer, J. Mark (1991). "The Indus Valley tradition of Pakistan and Western India". Journal of World Prehistory. 5: 1–64.
- ^ Jim G. Shaffer. 1992. "The Indus Valley, Baluchistan and Helmand Traditions: Neolithic Through Bronze Age." In Chronologies in Old World Archaeology. Second Edition. R.W. Ehrich, (Ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. I:441-464, II:425-446.
Bibliography
- Chakrabarti, D.K. (2004). Indus Civilization Sites in India: New Discoveries. Mumbai: Marg Publications. ISBN 8185026637.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - Gupta, S.P. (ed.). 1995. The lost Sarasvati and the Indus Civilization. Kusumanjali Prakashan, Jodhpur.
- Gupta, S.P. (1996). The Indus-Saraswati Civilization : Origins, Problems and Issues. ISBN 8185268460.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - Kenoyer, J. Mark. 1998. Ancient cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195779401
- Kenoyer, J. Mark (1991). "The Indus Valley tradition of Pakistan and Western India". Journal of World Prehistory. 5: 1–64.
- Lahiri, Nayanjot (editor) (2000). The Decline and Fall of the Indus Civilization. ISBN 81-7530-0345.
{{cite book}}:|first=has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - Lal, B.B. (1997). The Earliest Civilization of South Asia (Rise, Maturity and Decline).
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - Lal, B.B. (1998). India 1947-1997 : New Light on the Indus Civilization. ISBN 8173051291.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - Jim G. Shaffer. 1992. "The Indus Valley, Baluchistan and Helmand Traditions: Neolithic Through Bronze Age." In Chronologies in Old World Archaeology. Second Edition. R.W. Ehrich, (Ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. I:441-464, II:425-446.
- Shaffer, Jim G. (1995). Cultural tradition and Palaeoethnicity in South Asian Archaeology. In: Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia. Ed. George Erdosy. ISBN 0948-1923.
- Shaffer, Jim G. (1999). Migration, Philology and South Asian Archaeology. In: Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia. Ed. Bronkhorst and Deshpande. ISBN 1-888789-04-2.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|1=(help) - Rao, S.R. (1991). Dawn and Devolution of the Indus Civilization. ISBN 8185179743.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - Dani, Ahmad Hassan, Short History of Pakistan, Book 1, 1984, University of Karachi.
- Basham, A.L., The Wonder That Was India, Sidgwick & Jackson, London, 1967, p 11-14
External links
- An invitation to the Indus Civilization (Tokyo Metropolitan Museum)
- Harrapa and Indus Valley civilization at harrapa.com
- Ancient Civilizations Timeline
- The Harappan Civilization
- Prehistoric dentistry evidence found in Indus - BBC News
- Indus artefacts
- Ancient Indian History
- Cache of Seal Impressions Discovered in Western India
- Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization
- image collection
- Kathiroli et al. 2004. "Recent Marine Archaeological Finds in Khambhat, Gujarat". Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology No 1, p. 141-149.