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The [[interwar period]], coinciding with the First Republic, is one of the apogees of Czech literature - the new state brought with it a plurality of thinking, religion, and philosophy, leading to a great flowering of literature and culture. The first major theme of the interwar period was the war - the inhumanity, violence, terror, but also the heroic actions of the [[Czech Legion]] ([[Rudolf Medek]], [[Josef Kopta]], [[František Langer]], [[Jaroslav Hašek]].) A new generation of poets ushered in the return of the avantgarde: poetry of the heart (early [[Jiří Wolker]], [[Zdeněk Kalista]]) and [[naivism]] (Čapek brothers, [[Josef Hora]], [[Jaroslav Seifert]], and S. K. Neumann). The avantgarde soon split, however, into the radical proletarian socialist and communist authors (Wolker, Seifert, Neumann, [[Karel Teige]], [[Antonín Matěj Píša]], Hora, [[Jindřich Hořejší]]), the Catholics (Durych, Deml), and to the centrists (brothers Čapek, Dyk, Fischer, Šrámek, Langer, [[Jan Herben]].) A specifically Czech literary style, [[poetism]], was developed by the group [[Devětsil]] ([[Vítězslav Nezval]], Jaroslav Seifert, [[Konstantin Biebl]], [[Karel Teige]]), which argued that poetry should pervade everyday life, that poetry is inseparable from daily life, that everyone it a poet. Prose of the interwar period distanced itself even more from the traditional, single perspective prose of the previous century, in favor of multiple perspectives, subjectivity, and fractured narratives. [[Utopian]] and [[fantastic]] literature came into the forefront ([[Jan Weiss]], [[Karel Čapek]], [[Eduard Bass]], [[Jiří Haussmann]]), as well as the genres of documentary prose, which sought to paint as accurate a picture of the world as possible (Karel Čapek, [[Egon Erwin Kisch]], [[Jiří Weil]], [[Rudolf Těsnohlídek]], Eduard Bass, [[Jaromír John]], [[Karel Poláček]]); lyrical, imaginative prose that allied itself with the poetic poetry of the time ([[Karel Konrád]], [[Jaroslav Jan Paulík]], [[Vladislav Vančura]]); and Catholically-oriented prose (Jaroslav Durych, [[Jan Čep]], Jakub Deml.) The drama of the time also followed the same stylistic evolution as poetry and prose - expressionism, followed by a return to realistic, civilian theater (František Langer, Karel Čapek). Along with avantgarde poetry, avantgarde theater also flourished, focusing on removing the barriers between actors and audience, breaking the illusion of the unity of a theatrical work ([[Osvobozené divadlo]], [[Jiří Voskovec]] and [[Jan Werich]].)
The [[interwar period]], coinciding with the First Republic, is one of the apogees of Czech literature - the new state brought with it a plurality of thinking, religion, and philosophy, leading to a great flowering of literature and culture. The first major theme of the interwar period was the war - the inhumanity, violence, terror, but also the heroic actions of the [[Czech Legion]] ([[Rudolf Medek]], [[Josef Kopta]], [[František Langer]], [[Jaroslav Hašek]].) A new generation of poets ushered in the return of the avantgarde: poetry of the heart (early [[Jiří Wolker]], [[Zdeněk Kalista]]) and [[naivism]] (Čapek brothers, [[Josef Hora]], [[Jaroslav Seifert]], and S. K. Neumann). The avantgarde soon split, however, into the radical proletarian socialist and communist authors (Wolker, Seifert, Neumann, [[Karel Teige]], [[Antonín Matěj Píša]], Hora, [[Jindřich Hořejší]]), the Catholics (Durych, Deml), and to the centrists (brothers Čapek, Dyk, Fischer, Šrámek, Langer, [[Jan Herben]].) A specifically Czech literary style, [[poetism]], was developed by the group [[Devětsil]] ([[Vítězslav Nezval]], Jaroslav Seifert, [[Konstantin Biebl]], [[Karel Teige]]), which argued that poetry should pervade everyday life, that poetry is inseparable from daily life, that everyone it a poet. Prose of the interwar period distanced itself even more from the traditional, single perspective prose of the previous century, in favor of multiple perspectives, subjectivity, and fractured narratives. [[Utopian]] and [[fantastic]] literature came into the forefront ([[Jan Weiss]], [[Karel Čapek]], [[Eduard Bass]], [[Jiří Haussmann]]), as well as the genres of documentary prose, which sought to paint as accurate a picture of the world as possible (Karel Čapek, [[Egon Erwin Kisch]], [[Jiří Weil]], [[Rudolf Těsnohlídek]], Eduard Bass, [[Jaromír John]], [[Karel Poláček]]); lyrical, imaginative prose that allied itself with the poetic poetry of the time ([[Karel Konrád]], [[Jaroslav Jan Paulík]], [[Vladislav Vančura]]); and Catholically-oriented prose (Jaroslav Durych, [[Jan Čep]], Jakub Deml.) The drama of the time also followed the same stylistic evolution as poetry and prose - expressionism, followed by a return to realistic, civilian theater (František Langer, Karel Čapek). Along with avantgarde poetry, avantgarde theater also flourished, focusing on removing the barriers between actors and audience, breaking the illusion of the unity of a theatrical work ([[Osvobozené divadlo]], [[Jiří Voskovec]] and [[Jan Werich]].)


After the heady optimism of the [[1920's]], the [[1930's]] brought with them an economic crisis, which helped spur a political crisis: both the left ([[Communist]]) and right (anti-German and [[fascist]]) parties radicalized and threatened the stability of the democracy. This led the authors of the time to focus on public matters and spirituality; Catholicism gained in importance (Kalista, [[Karel Schulz]], Halas, Vančura, Durych). Changes were apparent first in poetry: the new generation of poets ([[Bohuslav Reynek]], [[Vilém Závada]], [[František Halas]], [[Vladimír Holan]], [[Jan Zahradníček]]) began as poetists, but their work is much darker, full of images of death and fear. The older avantgarde (Teige, Nezval) also turned away from poetism to [[surrealism]], and a third group (Hora, Seifert, [[František Hrubín]]) turned instead to lyricism, to quiet, memory-filled poetry. Prose, after the years of realistic journalism, turned to epics, existential novels, and subjective perspectives. Folk-inspired ballads ([[Josef Čapek]], K. Čapek, Vančura, [[Ivan Olbracht]]), social-themed novels (Olbracht, Vančura, Poláček, [[Marie Majerová]], [[Marie Pujmanová]]), and psychological novels ([[Jarmila Glazarová]], [[Egon Hostovský]], [[Jaroslav Havlíček]]) appreared. During this period, Karel Čapek wrote his most politically charged (and well-known) plays in response to the rise of fascist dictators. After the [[Munich Agreement]] in 1938, literature once more mirrored the current political present and called for national solidarity and return to the past.
After the heady optimism of the [[1920's]], the [[1930s]] brought with them an economic crisis, which helped spur a political crisis: both the left ([[Communist]]) and right (anti-German and [[fascist]]) parties radicalized and threatened the stability of the democracy. This led the authors of the time to focus on public matters and spirituality; Catholicism gained in importance (Kalista, [[Karel Schulz]], Halas, Vančura, Durych). Changes were apparent first in poetry: the new generation of poets ([[Bohuslav Reynek]], [[Vilém Závada]], [[František Halas]], [[Vladimír Holan]], [[Jan Zahradníček]]) began as poetists, but their work is much darker, full of images of death and fear. The older avantgarde (Teige, Nezval) also turned away from poetism to [[surrealism]], and a third group (Hora, Seifert, [[František Hrubín]]) turned instead to lyricism, to quiet, memory-filled poetry. Prose, after the years of realistic journalism, turned to epics, existential novels, and subjective perspectives. Folk-inspired ballads ([[Josef Čapek]], K. Čapek, Vančura, [[Ivan Olbracht]]), social-themed novels (Olbracht, Vančura, Poláček, [[Marie Majerová]], [[Marie Pujmanová]]), and psychological novels ([[Jarmila Glazarová]], [[Egon Hostovský]], [[Jaroslav Havlíček]]) appreared. During this period, Karel Čapek wrote his most politically charged (and well-known) plays in response to the rise of fascist dictators. After the [[Munich Agreement]] in 1938, literature once more mirrored the current political present and called for national solidarity and return to the past.


The German [[protectorate]] and [[WWII]] left its mark on Czech literature - many of the authors of the interwar generations did not survive or went into exile. During [[1938]]-[[1940]], society was still relatively free, but during [[1941]], most of the free newspapers, magazines, and publishers were shut down, and authors were silenced. WWII thus marks the origin of the 3-way split of literature that continued throughout the socialist years until [[1989]]: domestic published, domestic illegal, and exile literature. As a result of the war, all forms of literature turned even more toward tradition and history: poetry became more subdued, and greater emphasis was laid upon language as an expression of national identity (Hora, Halas, Seifert, Nezval), and on spirituality and religious values (Hrubín, Závada, Zahradníček, Holan). The same occurred in prose: gone were the experimental works of the interwar period, but the social and psychological novel ([[Václav Řezáč]], [[Vladimír Neff]], [[Miloš Václav Kratochvíl]]) remained. The historical novel marked a new resurgence (Kratochvíl, Vančura, Durych, Schulz) as a way to write about the present while cloaking it in historical novels, as did prose inspired by folk tales and folk culture ([[Josef Štefan Kubín]], [[Jan Drda]], Vančura, [[Jaromír John]], [[Zdeněk Jirotka]]). The generation of authors that debuted during the war and shortly afterwards ([[Jiří Orten]], [[Group 42]]) all shared a similar harrowing experience of the war; their works all bear the hallmark of tragedy, [[existentialist]] thought, and the focus on the person as an isolated being.
The German [[protectorate]] and [[WWII]] left its mark on Czech literature - many of the authors of the interwar generations did not survive or went into exile. During [[1938]]-[[1940]], society was still relatively free, but during [[1941]], most of the free newspapers, magazines, and publishers were shut down, and authors were silenced. WWII thus marks the origin of the 3-way split of literature that continued throughout the socialist years until [[1989]]: domestic published, domestic illegal, and exile literature. As a result of the war, all forms of literature turned even more toward tradition and history: poetry became more subdued, and greater emphasis was laid upon language as an expression of national identity (Hora, Halas, Seifert, Nezval), and on spirituality and religious values (Hrubín, Závada, Zahradníček, Holan). The same occurred in prose: gone were the experimental works of the interwar period, but the social and psychological novel ([[Václav Řezáč]], [[Vladimír Neff]], [[Miloš Václav Kratochvíl]]) remained. The historical novel marked a new resurgence (Kratochvíl, Vančura, Durych, Schulz) as a way to write about the present while cloaking it in historical novels, as did prose inspired by folk tales and folk culture ([[Josef Štefan Kubín]], [[Jan Drda]], Vančura, [[Jaromír John]], [[Zdeněk Jirotka]]). The generation of authors that debuted during the war and shortly afterwards ([[Jiří Orten]], [[Group 42]]) all shared a similar harrowing experience of the war; their works all bear the hallmark of tragedy, [[existentialist]] thought, and the focus on the person as an isolated being.

Revision as of 22:40, 8 May 2006

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Czech literature is the literature of the historical regions of Bohemia, Moravia, and the Czech-speaking part of Silesia, (now part of the Czech Republic, formerly of Czechoslovakia). This most often means literature written by Czechs, in the Czech language, although Old Church Slavonic, Latin, and German were also used, mostly in the early periods. Modern authors from the Czech territory who wrote in other languages (e.g. German) are generally considered separately, and their writing usually existed in parallel with Czech-language literature and did not interact with it. Thus Franz Kafka, for example, who wrote in German (though he also knew Czech rather well), falls within Austrian literature, though he lived his entire life in Bohemia.

Czech literature is divided into several main time periods: the Middle Ages; the Hussite period; the years of re-Catholicization and the baroque; the Enlightenment and Czech reawakening in the 19th century; the avantgarde of the interwar period; the years under Communism and the Prague Spring; and the literature of the post-Communist Czech Republic. Czech literature and culture played a major role on at least two occasions when Czech society lived under oppression and no political activity was possible. On both of these occasions, in the early 19th century and then again in the 1960s, the Czechs used their cultural and literary effort to create political freedom and to establish a confident, politically aware nation.

Middle Ages

Literature in the Czech lands originates in the 8th century AD, in the kingdom of Greater Moravia. The saints Konstantin (Cyril) and Methodius, sent by the Byzantine Emperor Michael III to complete the Christianization of the kingdom, created there the first written Slavic language, Old Church Slavonic, written in the Glagolitic alphabet. Their translations of Latin liturgy into Slavonic are the earliest surviving literature created in the Czech lands.

After the collapse of Greater Moravia at the end of the 9th century, the political and cultural orientation of the Bohemian lands shifted from Byzantium to Rome. Very little is known about the next two centuries of literary development - fragments of works exist, but many are imply inferred from citations in works found elsewhere. The close of the century heralded the ultimate victory of Latin over Old Church Slavonic as the official language of liturgy and culture in the Bohemia and the shift of cultural alliance for all the Czech lands from east to west. The Legend of Christian, written in Latin verse in the latter half of the 10th century, describing the lives of Saint Ludmila and Saint Wenceslas is the greatest surviving work; its authenticity is under some dispute, however.

In Přemyslid Bohemia of the 12th and early 13th centuries, all preserved literary works are written in Latin. Historical chronicles and hagiography comprise the majority of preserved works. Bohemian hagiographies focus exclusively on Bohemian saints (Sts. Ludmila, Wenceslas, Procopius, Cyril and Methodius, and Adalbert), although numerous legends about Bohemian saints were also written by foreign authors. The most important chronicle of the period is the Chronia Boeemorum (Bohemian Chronicle) by Kosmas, a compilation of history colored though the needs of the political rulers of the time, serving to legitimize the ruling dynasty. Kosmas' work was updated and extended by several authors in the latter part of the 12th and during the 13th centuries.

During the first part of the 13th century, the Přemyslid rulers of Bohemia expanded their political and economic influence westward and came into contact with the political and cultural kingdoms of Western Europe. This cultural exchange was evident in literature through the introduction of German courtly poetry, or minnesang, in the latter part of the 13th century. After the murder of Wenceslas III and the subsequent upheavals in the kingdom in 1306, however, the Bohemian nobles distanced themselves from Western culture and looked for literature in their native tongue. Despite this, German remained an important literary language in Bohemia until the 19th century. This new literature in Czech consisted largely of epic poetry of two types: the legend and the knightly epic, both based on apocryphal tales from the Bible, as well as hagiographic legends of earlier periods. Prose was also first developed during this period: administrative and teaching texts, which necessitated the development of a more extensive and specialized vocabulary (the first Czech-Latin dictionaries date from this time), extensive chronicles, of which the Chronicle of Dalimil and Chronicon Aulae Regiae (the Zbraslav Chronicle), are the two best examples, and artistic prose (Smil Flaška z Pardubic, Johannes von Saaz.)

The Hussite revolution of the 15th century created a definite break in the literary evolution of Czech literature and forms its own separate history within Czech literature as a whole. The aim of this literature was mainly to communicate and argue for a religious doctrine - the form was generally prose. Jan Hus' theological writing first appears at the beginning of the 15th century; he wrote first in Latin, later in Czech, and this divide remained for much of the later period: poetry and intellectual prose used primarily Latin, whereas popular prose was written in Czech and German. Hus' writings center on technical, theological questions; however, he did publish a set of his Czech sermons and created rules of writing and grammar that would later be used to create the foundations of modern Czech in the 17th and 18th centuries. Only fragments remain of the literary works of the radical Taborite faction - these were generally Latin apologia defending the Taborite doctrine (Mikuláš Biskupec z Pelhřimova, Petr Chelčický). In general, Hussite writings differed from the preceding era by their focus on social questions - their audience was the common people and lower middle classes. The Catholics also wrote works defending Catholicism and attacking the Hussite ultraquists (Jan Rokycana). The Hussite period for the first time also truly developed the genre of Czech religious songs as replacement for Latin hymns and liturgy (Jistebnický kancionál (The Jistebnice Hymnal)).

After the election of George of Poděbrady to the Czech throne following the Hussite wars, a new cultural wave swept into Bohemia: humanism, which saw in the classics of antiquity the ideal of literature and culture. The roots of humanist thought reach back to the court of Charles IV, who brought Italian scholars to his court, but its flowering is associated with the rule of the Jagiellon dynasty and later Habsburg rulers until the Battle of White Mountain. The main feature of the literature of this period is the competition between Latin-writing Catholics (Bohuslav Hasištejnský, Jan Dubravius) and Czech-writing Protestants (Viktorin Kornel z Všehrd, Václav Hájek, Jan Melantrich, Daniel Adam of Veleslavín, Hynek z Poděbrad, Mikuláš Dačický z Heslova, the Hussite Biblí České (Kralická Bible)). The new literature laid heavier demands on the Czech language and thus necessitated a richer and more complex grammatical structure and vocabulary based upon Latin - especially Veleslavín had a decided influence on these developments. Gutenberg's printing press also made written works more accessible and thus slowly changed the status of literary work in society.

Baroque

The defeat of the Czech Protestants at the Battle of White Mountain decidedly affected Czech literary development. The forceful re-Catholicization and Germanization of Bohemia and the ensuing confiscations and expulsions virtually eliminated the Protestant middle classes and split the literature into two parts: the domestic Catholic and the émigré Protestant branches. Unlike other European countries of the time, the nobility in Bohemia was not a part of the literary audience and thus this split of literary effort led to a certain lack of development and stagnation of Czech baroque literature in comparison to other European countries of the time, especially in genres that were written for noble courts (love and occasion poetry, stage works, etc.) The largest personality of Czech evangelical baroque writing is Jan Amos Komenský, who spent his youth in Bohemia but was forced into exile later in life. He was a pedagogue, theologian, reformer of schools, and philosopher; his works include language textbooks, theoretical tracts about education, and works on theology. With his death in the early 18th century, Protestant literature in Czech virtually disappeared. Catholic baroque works span two types: religious poetry (Adam Michna z Otradovic, Fridrich Bridel, Václav Jan Rosa) and prose (homiletic prose, hagiography, and historical accounts - Bohuslav Balbín, the Jesuit St. Wenceslas Bible).

Reawakening

At the end of the 18th century, the Bohemian lands went through a considerable change - the Habsburg emperor Josef II ended feudalism and instated a new religious and ideological tolerance. Enlightened classicism emerged, which sought to apply the principles of rational science to all aspects of daily life. A culture in one's own language began to be seen as a prerequisite for the unification of a nation. In literature, this meant a renewed interest in prose novels (Matěj Václav Kramerius), in Czech history and the historical development of Czech culture (Josef Dobrovský codified the grammar of the Czech language, Antonín Jaroslav Puchmayer systematically developed Czech poetry.) Both the audience and the background of creators of literature evolved from priests and monks to the laity and general public and literature began to be seen as a vehicle of artistic expression. Bohemia, however, remained within the sphere of Austrian and German cultural influence. The new national literature thus first mimicked popular German genres and only later evolved to independent creative efforts; this was especially true in the hteater (Václav Kliment Klicpera.)

19th century

Pre-romanticism formed the transition between enlightened classicism and romanticism - pre-romantics did not completely abandon the emphasis on poetic forms drawn from antiquity, but relaxed the strict separation between the genres and turned away from didactic genres toward more lyric, folk-inspired works (Jan Kollár, František Ladislav Čelakovský.) It was during this period that the idea of a truly national literature and culture developed as a rejection of Bernard Bolzano's vision of a bi-lingual and bi-cultural Czech-German state. The era is often named after Josef Jungmann, who translated many classics of world literature and spent his life establishing Czech literature as a serious, rich literature capable of great development. František Palacký and Pavel Jozef Šafárik took up the challenge of revising Czech history. As part of the effort to establish the pedigree of Czech literature, Czech historians of the time sought evidence of heroic epics of the Middle Ages. They appeared to find such evidence in the Rukopis královédvorský and Rukopis zelenohorský (The Manuscript from Hradec Králové and Zelená Hora, respectively), although both were later proved to have been falsified.

By the 1830's, the foundations of Czech literature were laid and authors now began to focus more on the artistic merits of their work and less on developing the idea of Czech literature and culture as a whole. During this time period two main types of literature were produced: literature of the Biedermeier, which strove to educate the reader and encourage him to be a loyal subject of the Austro-Hungarian empire (Karel Jaromír Erben, Božena Němcová), and romanticism, which emphasized the freedom of the individual and focused on subjective and subconscious thoughts (Karel Hynek Mácha.) These authors were generally published in either newspapers (Karel Havlíček Borovský) or in the literary magazine Květy (Blooms) published by Josef Kajetán Tyl.

The year 1848 brought to the fore a new generation of Czech authors who followed in the footsteps of K. H. Mácha and who published their work in the new almanac Máj (May) (Vítězslav Hálek, Karolina Světlá, Jan Neruda.) These authors rejected the narrow ideal of a purely national culture for one that incorporated Czech literature into European culture and drew inspiration from the progress made outside of the Czech lands. Their work, however, also commented on the encroachment of industrialization and focused increasingly on the ordinary life as opposed to the unfettered romantic ideal.

The May generation was followed by the neo-romantics, who continued in the romantic tradition, but also incorporated more contemporary styles: realism, symbolism, decadence. Three periods are apparent: the first reacted to the disappointment in the lack of political and social progress during the 1870's (Václav Šolc, Jakub Arbes); the second was the great return to poetry, especially epic poetry (Josef Václav Sládek, Svatopluk Čech, Jaroslav Vrchlický, Julius Zeyer); and the third focused on prose (Alois Jirásek, Zikmund Winter.)

In conversation with the neo-romantics, the next generation of authors leaned toward realism and naturalism, the ordinary and banal. They favored contemporary subjects over historical ones, and sought to deemphasize the personal voice of the author in comparison to the often highly colored speech of the characters. Two main topics were of interest: the exploration of the Czech village, and the extent to which it remained an oasis of good morals (Jan Herben, Karel Václav Rais, Alois Mrštík); and Prague, especially the life of the lower classes (Ignát Herrman, Karel Matěj Čapek Chod).

The last literary generation of the 19th century signaled a decided break with the past and the advent of modernism - after the wave of optimism in the wake of the French Revolution at the beginning of the century, the lack of progress in implementing these ideals of freedom and brotherhood led to both a skepticism toward the possibility of ever achieving these ideals, and renewed efforts to do so. The common link between authors of this generation is their adherence to a particular style over their own voices, and their often very critical perspectives on the work of the previous generations. The modernists also inaugurated the cult of the artist, and this period saw the birth of the literary critic as an independent profession, as an ally of the artist, helping to both define and present work to the public (František Xaver Šalda). Notable poets of this period include Josef Svatopluk Machar, Antonín Sova, Otokar Březina, Karel Hlaváček); prose authors: (Vilém Mrštík, Růžena Svobodová, Josef Karel Šlejhar.)

20th century

The turn of the 20th century marked a profound shift in Czech literature - after nearly a century of work, literature finally freed itself from the confines of needing to educate and serve the nation and spread Czech culture, and became literature simply for the sake of art. The orientation toward France, Northern Europe, and Russia intensified, and new demands began to be laid on the cultural knowledge of authors and their audience.

The new generation of poets distanced themselves from both the neo-romantics and the modernists: led by S. K. Neumann, their work focused on concrete reality, free of any pathos, or complicated symbolism. Many of the new poets (Karel Toman, Fráňa Šrámek, Viktor Dyk, František Gellner, Petr Bezruč) allied themselves with anarchism and the women's movement, although this influence waned throughout the decade. In prose, the work of the modernist generation was only now coming into its own, but the different stylist waves that affected their prose are also evident in the work of the new generation - naturalism (A. M Tilšchová); impressionism (Šrámek, Gellner, Jiří Mahen, Jan Opolský, Rudolf Těsnohlídek); the Vienna Secession (Růžena Svobodová, Jan Karásek).

After their rebellious first decade, the new generation of poets (Toman, Neumann, Šrámek) turned toward nature and life in their work. This decade also marked the return of Catholic authors (Josef Florian, Jakub Deml, Jaroslav Durych, Josef Váchal) and the first entrance of the avantgarde into Czech literature, seeking to document the rapid changes in society and modernization. The first avantgarde style was neoclassicism, which soon gave way to cubism, futurism, and civilism (S. K. Neumann, the young brothers Čapek.)

The first world war brought with it a wave of repression of the newly emergent Czech culture, and this meant a return to the past, to traditional Czech values and history: the Hussites and the Awakening. The war, however, also precipitated a crisis of values, of faith in progress, religion, and belief, which found outlet in expressionism (Ladislav Klíma, Jakub Deml, Richard Weiner), civilism (Čapek brothers) and visions of a universal brotherhood of mankind (Ivan Olbracht, Karel Matěj Čapek Chod, F. X. Šalda.)

The interwar period, coinciding with the First Republic, is one of the apogees of Czech literature - the new state brought with it a plurality of thinking, religion, and philosophy, leading to a great flowering of literature and culture. The first major theme of the interwar period was the war - the inhumanity, violence, terror, but also the heroic actions of the Czech Legion (Rudolf Medek, Josef Kopta, František Langer, Jaroslav Hašek.) A new generation of poets ushered in the return of the avantgarde: poetry of the heart (early Jiří Wolker, Zdeněk Kalista) and naivism (Čapek brothers, Josef Hora, Jaroslav Seifert, and S. K. Neumann). The avantgarde soon split, however, into the radical proletarian socialist and communist authors (Wolker, Seifert, Neumann, Karel Teige, Antonín Matěj Píša, Hora, Jindřich Hořejší), the Catholics (Durych, Deml), and to the centrists (brothers Čapek, Dyk, Fischer, Šrámek, Langer, Jan Herben.) A specifically Czech literary style, poetism, was developed by the group Devětsil (Vítězslav Nezval, Jaroslav Seifert, Konstantin Biebl, Karel Teige), which argued that poetry should pervade everyday life, that poetry is inseparable from daily life, that everyone it a poet. Prose of the interwar period distanced itself even more from the traditional, single perspective prose of the previous century, in favor of multiple perspectives, subjectivity, and fractured narratives. Utopian and fantastic literature came into the forefront (Jan Weiss, Karel Čapek, Eduard Bass, Jiří Haussmann), as well as the genres of documentary prose, which sought to paint as accurate a picture of the world as possible (Karel Čapek, Egon Erwin Kisch, Jiří Weil, Rudolf Těsnohlídek, Eduard Bass, Jaromír John, Karel Poláček); lyrical, imaginative prose that allied itself with the poetic poetry of the time (Karel Konrád, Jaroslav Jan Paulík, Vladislav Vančura); and Catholically-oriented prose (Jaroslav Durych, Jan Čep, Jakub Deml.) The drama of the time also followed the same stylistic evolution as poetry and prose - expressionism, followed by a return to realistic, civilian theater (František Langer, Karel Čapek). Along with avantgarde poetry, avantgarde theater also flourished, focusing on removing the barriers between actors and audience, breaking the illusion of the unity of a theatrical work (Osvobozené divadlo, Jiří Voskovec and Jan Werich.)

After the heady optimism of the 1920's, the 1930s brought with them an economic crisis, which helped spur a political crisis: both the left (Communist) and right (anti-German and fascist) parties radicalized and threatened the stability of the democracy. This led the authors of the time to focus on public matters and spirituality; Catholicism gained in importance (Kalista, Karel Schulz, Halas, Vančura, Durych). Changes were apparent first in poetry: the new generation of poets (Bohuslav Reynek, Vilém Závada, František Halas, Vladimír Holan, Jan Zahradníček) began as poetists, but their work is much darker, full of images of death and fear. The older avantgarde (Teige, Nezval) also turned away from poetism to surrealism, and a third group (Hora, Seifert, František Hrubín) turned instead to lyricism, to quiet, memory-filled poetry. Prose, after the years of realistic journalism, turned to epics, existential novels, and subjective perspectives. Folk-inspired ballads (Josef Čapek, K. Čapek, Vančura, Ivan Olbracht), social-themed novels (Olbracht, Vančura, Poláček, Marie Majerová, Marie Pujmanová), and psychological novels (Jarmila Glazarová, Egon Hostovský, Jaroslav Havlíček) appreared. During this period, Karel Čapek wrote his most politically charged (and well-known) plays in response to the rise of fascist dictators. After the Munich Agreement in 1938, literature once more mirrored the current political present and called for national solidarity and return to the past.

The German protectorate and WWII left its mark on Czech literature - many of the authors of the interwar generations did not survive or went into exile. During 1938-1940, society was still relatively free, but during 1941, most of the free newspapers, magazines, and publishers were shut down, and authors were silenced. WWII thus marks the origin of the 3-way split of literature that continued throughout the socialist years until 1989: domestic published, domestic illegal, and exile literature. As a result of the war, all forms of literature turned even more toward tradition and history: poetry became more subdued, and greater emphasis was laid upon language as an expression of national identity (Hora, Halas, Seifert, Nezval), and on spirituality and religious values (Hrubín, Závada, Zahradníček, Holan). The same occurred in prose: gone were the experimental works of the interwar period, but the social and psychological novel (Václav Řezáč, Vladimír Neff, Miloš Václav Kratochvíl) remained. The historical novel marked a new resurgence (Kratochvíl, Vančura, Durych, Schulz) as a way to write about the present while cloaking it in historical novels, as did prose inspired by folk tales and folk culture (Josef Štefan Kubín, Jan Drda, Vančura, Jaromír John, Zdeněk Jirotka). The generation of authors that debuted during the war and shortly afterwards (Jiří Orten, Group 42) all shared a similar harrowing experience of the war; their works all bear the hallmark of tragedy, existentialist thought, and the focus on the person as an isolated being.

Czech postwar literature is tightly intertwined with the political state of postwar Czechoslovakia; as during the war, literature broke apart into three main branches: domestic published, domestic illegal, and exile literature. Literature under the communist regime became the refuge of freedom and democracy, and literary works and authors were valued not only for their literary merits, but also for their struggle against the regime. The literature of the entire postwar period thus enjoyed great attention, despite its often precarious position. During the first three years after the end of the war (1945-8), however, literature maintained a certain degree of freedom, although the strengthening of the extreme left gradually pushed out of the public sphere first the Catholic authors (Deml, Durych, Čep, Zahradníček), then the moderate Communists.

1948 brought the ultimate victory of the Communists, and the subsequent end of civil freedoms - any literature contrary to the official perspective was banned and the authors prosecuted. The official literary style became socialist realism, all avantgarde leanings we suppressed. Many authors went into exile - to Germany, the US, the Vatican. Of those that stayed, many chose to write in secret and remain unpublished (the surrealists (Zbyněk Havlíček, Karel Hynek), Holan, Zahradníček, Jiří Kolář, Josef Jedlička, Jan Hanč, Jiřina Hauková, Josef Škvorecký, Egon Bondy, Jan Zábrana, Bohumil Hrabal). Most of their works could be published only during the 1960s or 1990s.

Only at the end of the 1950s did the tight censorial control begin to ease - some poets were allowed to publish again (Hrubín, Oldřich Mikulášek, Jan Skácel) and a new literary group formed around the magazine Květen, striving to break the hold of socialist realism (Miroslav Holub, Karel Šiktanc, Jiří Šotola.) Prose lagged behind poetry for much of the period, with the exception of Edvard Valenta and Josef Škvorecký. Shorter works, such as the short story also became popular again.

The 1960s brought with them the beginnings of reform efforts in the Communist party, and the subsequent liberalization of literature and increasing prestige of authors. Beginning with 1964, literature began to broaden in scope beyond the officially approved style. In poetry, intimate lyricism became popular (Vladimír Holan), as well as epic poetry (Karel Šiktanc, Hrubín), and the realism of Group 42. In prose, new authors abandoned polemics about socialism, and instead turned toward personal and civic morality (Jan Trefulka, Milan Kundera, Ivan Klíma), the theme of war and occupation (Jiří Weil, Arnošt Lustig), especially the fate of Jews. Bohumil Hrabal became the most prominent of the contemporary prose authors, with his works full of colloquialisms, and non-traditional narrative structures, and absence of official moral frameworks. Toward the end of the decade, novels of disillusionment, scepticism, a need to find on's place in the world and history begin to appear (Vaculík, M. Kundera, Hrubín), as do modern historical novels (Oldřich Daněk, Jiří Šotola, Vladimír Korner, Ota Filip). The 1960's also brought the debuts a new generation of authors who grew up during the excesses of Stalinism, and thus had no ideals about world utopias - their works dealt not with changing the world, but with living in it: authenticity, responsibility both moral and literary. These included the poets Jiří Gruša, Josef Hanzlík, Antonín Brousek, Jiří Kuběna, and playwrights Ivan Vyskočil, Jiří Šlitr, Václav Havel, Milan Uhde, Josef Topol. The close of the reform years also saw a return to experiments: surrealism (Milan Nápravník, Vratislav Effenberger), nonsense poetry (Emanuel Frynt), abstract poetry and dada (Ladislav Novák), gritty realistic prose (Jan Hanč, Vladimír Páral) and ornate, symbol filled fantasy (Věra Linhartová). The era of literary freedom and experiments, which reached its apogee during the Prague Spring of 1968, came to an abrupt end the same summer, with the Soviet invasion and subsequent "normalization."

Normalization reinstated the severe censorship of the 1950's, shut down most of the literary magazines and newspapers, and silenced authors who did not conform. More than ever before, literature split into the legal, illegal, and exile branches. Many authors fled to the US and Canada (Škvorecký), Germany (Peroutka), France (M. Kundera), but they generally didn't fare much better than their contemporaries in Czechoslovakia, largely due to the absence of a readership and their works became better known only through translations. The work of experimental, avantgarde authors who continued to publish as "official" authors generally shrank in quality, conformed to the official dogma, although in comparison to the 1950's, the literature was less rigid, less wooden. On the border between official and unofficial literature stood authors of historical novels (Korner, Karel Michal), and well as Bohumil Hrabal and Ota Pavel. Seifert, Mikulášek, Skácel were all also barred from publishing; their work was published as samizdat, small underground presses that hand-published much of the work of the underground, illegal authors. Ludvík Vaculík, Jan Vladislav, and Václav Havel and Jan Lopatka organized the largest samizdat editions. It was many of these illegal authors who signed Charta 77, and were jailed for it. Samizdat literature again returned to Catholicism, to memoirs and diaries of daily life (Vaculík.) Memory and history were also chief motifs of samizdat literature (Karel Šiktanc, Jiřina Hauková), as were brutally honest, factual testimonials of daily life (Ivan Martin Jirous). The new literary generation of the 1980s was marked by the need to rebel, to act outside of the bounds of society - their work draws on the war generation (Group 42), and is often brutal, aggressive, and vulgar (Jáchym Topol, Petr Placák, Zuzana Brabcová); postmodernism also influenced literature as a whole (Jiří Kratochvíl, Daniela Hodrová.)

The fall of communism in 1989 marked another break in Czech literature - plurality and freedom returned. The works of many of the illegal and exiled authors working under the communist regime were published for the first time (Jan Křesadlo) and many of them returned to public life and publishing. On the whole, though, contemporary Czech literature (since 1989) is relatively marginalised. Its place has been taken over by contemporary Czech cinema, which has been particularly vibrant over the past 10 years or so, bringing distant reminiscences of the famous "Czech New Wave" in the cinema of the 1960s.

Contemporary Czech authors

See also

 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domainHerbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)