Western Interior Seaway anoxia: Difference between revisions
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[[File:Paleogeography of North America during the late Campanian Stage of the Late Cretaceous.png|thumb|250px|Western Interior Seaway during the late [[Campanian]] Stage, about 75 million years ago]] |
[[File:Paleogeography of North America during the late Campanian Stage of the Late Cretaceous.png|thumb|250px|Western Interior Seaway during the late [[Campanian]] Stage, about 75 million years ago]] |
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Three '''Western Interior Seaway anoxic events''' occurred during the [[Cretaceous]] in the shallow |
Three '''Western Interior Seaway anoxic events''' occurred during the [[Cretaceous]] in the shallow [[Epicontinental_sea|inland seaway]]. During these [[anoxic event|anoxic events]] much of the water column was depleted in dissolved oxygen. [[Western Interior Seaway]] anoxic events exhibit a unique paleonenvironment compared to other [[sedimentary basin|basins]]. Cretaceous anoxic events of note in the Western Interior Seaway are Oceanic Anoxic Events I, II, and III at the [[Aptian]]-[[Albian]], [[Cenomanian]]-[[Turonian]], and [[Coniacian]]-[[Santonian]] stage boundaries, respectively. The anoxia events came about due to very high sea level and the nearby Sevier Orogeny and Caribbean [[Large igneous province|large igneous province]], which delivered nutrients and oxygen-adsorbing compounds into the water column. |
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Most anoxic events are recognized using the [[Carbon_isotope|<sup>13</sup>C isotope]] as a proxy to indicate total organic carbon preserved in sedimentary rocks. If there is very little oxygen, then organic material that settles to the bottom of the water column will not be degraded as readily compared to normal oxygen settings and can be incorporated into the rock. <sup>13</sup>C<sub>organic</sub> is calculated by comparing the amount of <sup>13</sup>C to a standard, and using multiple samples can track changes (δ) in organic carbon content through rocks over time, forming a δ<sup>13</sup>C<sub>organic</sub> curve. The δ<sup>13</sup>C<sub>organic</sub>, |
Most anoxic events are recognized using the [[Carbon_isotope|<sup>13</sup>C isotope]] as a proxy to indicate total organic carbon preserved in sedimentary rocks. If there is very little oxygen, then organic material that settles to the bottom of the water column will not be degraded as readily compared to normal oxygen settings and can be incorporated into the rock. <sup>13</sup>C<sub>organic</sub> is calculated by comparing the amount of <sup>13</sup>C to a standard, and using multiple samples can track changes (δ) in organic carbon content through rocks over time, forming a δ<sup>13</sup>C<sub>organic</sub> curve. The δ<sup>13</sup>C<sub>organic</sub>, as a result, serves as a [[benthic]] oxygen curve. |
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The excellent organic carbon preservation brought about by these successive anoxic events makes Western Interior Seaway strata some of the richest [[Source_rock|source rocks]] for oil and gas. |
The excellent organic carbon preservation brought about by these successive anoxic events makes Western Interior Seaway strata some of the richest [[Source_rock|source rocks]] for oil and gas. |
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[[Image:North America subduction.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Farallon, Kula, and North American Plate distribution between 64 and 74 million years ago. Arrows represent vectors (magnitude and direction) of plate motion.]] |
[[Image:North America subduction.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Farallon, Kula, and North American Plate distribution between 64 and 74 million years ago. Arrows represent vectors (magnitude and direction) of plate motion.]] |
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==Western Interior Seaway Tectonics and Geography== |
==Western Interior Seaway Tectonics and Geography== |
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During the Cretaceous Period, along the western shore of the Western Interior Seaway there was active volcanism and foreland subsidence brought about by the Sevier Orogeny. The [[Sevier orogeny|Sevier Orogeny]] formed by the convergence of the oceanic [[Farallon Plate|Farallon]] and [[Kula Plate|Kula]] Plates with the North American Plate.<ref name="Shurr">Shurr, G.W., Ludvigson, G.A., Hammond, R.H. 1994. Perspectives on the Eastern Margin of the Cretaceous Western Interior Basin. Geological Society of America, Boulder: Special Paper #287, 264 p.</ref> Active volcanism during the Sevier Orogeny was the product of [[Partial melting|partial melting]] of the subducting Farallon and Kula Plates, and that |
During the Cretaceous Period, along the western shore of the Western Interior Seaway there was active volcanism and foreland subsidence brought about by the Sevier Orogeny. The [[Sevier orogeny|Sevier Orogeny]] formed by the convergence of the oceanic [[Farallon Plate|Farallon]] and [[Kula Plate|Kula]] Plates with the North American Plate.<ref name="Shurr">Shurr, G.W., Ludvigson, G.A., Hammond, R.H. 1994. Perspectives on the Eastern Margin of the Cretaceous Western Interior Basin. Geological Society of America, Boulder: Special Paper #287, 264 p.</ref> Active volcanism during the Sevier Orogeny was the product of [[Partial melting|partial melting]] of the subducting Farallon and Kula Plates, and that resulting melt traveling up through the overlying North American Plate. Most active volcanism occurred in the northern and southern portions along the western shoreline of the seaway. <ref name="Shurr"/> |
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===Stratification=== |
===Stratification=== |
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A significant loss of oxygen leads to environmental perturbations. Water column [[Stratification (water)|stratification]] can occur when the zone below the [[Sediment-water interface|sediment-water interface]] that is normally devoid of oxygen moves up above the sediment and into the water column. While this is a common phenomenon in deep water, this is interpreted to have occurred during anoxic settings in the shallow Western Interior Seaway, as evidenced by extinctions of [[Benthic zone|benthic]] fauna at the [[Cenomanian-Turonian boundary event|Cenomanian-Turonian Boundary Event]] brought about by Oceanic Anoxic Event II. The extinction can be explained by ocean stratification causing low-oxygen conditions in the [[Benthic zone|benthic zone]]. Further, increasing primary production causes an excess of metabolism waste products like CO<sub>2</sub>. When CO<sub>2</sub> combines with water the water can become slightly acidic. Eventually the ocean can become so acidified that calcite cannot be incorporated into the hard parts of shelly organisms ([[Biomineralization|biomineralization]]) and therefore toxic to live in. |
A significant loss of oxygen leads to environmental perturbations. Water column [[Stratification (water)|stratification]] can occur when the zone below the [[Sediment-water interface|sediment-water interface]] that is normally devoid of oxygen moves up above the sediment and into the water column. While this is a common phenomenon in deep water, this is interpreted to have occurred during anoxic settings in the shallow Western Interior Seaway, as evidenced by extinctions of [[Benthic zone|benthic]] fauna at the [[Cenomanian-Turonian boundary event|Cenomanian-Turonian Boundary Event]] brought about by Oceanic Anoxic Event II. The extinction can be explained by ocean stratification causing low-oxygen conditions in the [[Benthic zone|benthic zone]]. Further, increasing primary production causes an excess of metabolism waste products like CO<sub>2</sub>. When CO<sub>2</sub> combines with water the water can become slightly acidic. Eventually the ocean can become so acidified that calcite cannot be incorporated into the hard parts of shelly organisms ([[Biomineralization|biomineralization]]) and therefore toxic to live in. <ref name="Hen" /> |
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Revision as of 18:19, 16 November 2012
Three Western Interior Seaway anoxic events occurred during the Cretaceous in the shallow inland seaway. During these anoxic events much of the water column was depleted in dissolved oxygen. Western Interior Seaway anoxic events exhibit a unique paleonenvironment compared to other basins. Cretaceous anoxic events of note in the Western Interior Seaway are Oceanic Anoxic Events I, II, and III at the Aptian-Albian, Cenomanian-Turonian, and Coniacian-Santonian stage boundaries, respectively. The anoxia events came about due to very high sea level and the nearby Sevier Orogeny and Caribbean large igneous province, which delivered nutrients and oxygen-adsorbing compounds into the water column.
Most anoxic events are recognized using the 13C isotope as a proxy to indicate total organic carbon preserved in sedimentary rocks. If there is very little oxygen, then organic material that settles to the bottom of the water column will not be degraded as readily compared to normal oxygen settings and can be incorporated into the rock. 13Corganic is calculated by comparing the amount of 13C to a standard, and using multiple samples can track changes (δ) in organic carbon content through rocks over time, forming a δ13Corganic curve. The δ13Corganic, as a result, serves as a benthic oxygen curve.
The excellent organic carbon preservation brought about by these successive anoxic events makes Western Interior Seaway strata some of the richest source rocks for oil and gas.
Western Interior Seaway Tectonics and Geography
During the Cretaceous Period, along the western shore of the Western Interior Seaway there was active volcanism and foreland subsidence brought about by the Sevier Orogeny. The Sevier Orogeny formed by the convergence of the oceanic Farallon and Kula Plates with the North American Plate.[1] Active volcanism during the Sevier Orogeny was the product of partial melting of the subducting Farallon and Kula Plates, and that resulting melt traveling up through the overlying North American Plate. Most active volcanism occurred in the northern and southern portions along the western shoreline of the seaway. [1]
To the east of the orogeny, a back-arc basin formed due to the warping of the North American plate in response to the horizontal stress of the subducting oceanic plates. The low-lying area was underwater throughout the Cretaceous due to warm climate, causing seawater to expand and flood the continent's interior. Sea level during Oceanic Anoxic Event II was at its highest of the Cretaceous due to high global temperatures, and the Western Interior Seaway stretched from the Boreal Sea (present Arctic Sea) to the Tethys Sea (present Gulf of Mexico) making it 6000 km long and 2000 km wide.[2][3][4] The deepest portions were around 500 m deep.[3]
Formation of the Caribbean Plate in the Tethys Sea near the southern region of the Western Interior Seaway created a large igneous province (called the Caribbean Plateau) that produced underwater lava flows from 95-87 million years ago.[5]
Anoxic Events
| External image | |
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 nature.com A flow chart of magma sourcing trace metals, ocean fertilization, stratification, and anoxia. |
Nutrient Sourcing
Ash and dissolved trace metals from Sevier and Caribbean eruptions provided nutrients to the water column, which was the driving mechanism for anoxia in the Western Interior Seaway. Ash from volcanic eruptions is the source of thick bentonite layers in Western Interior Seaway strata. Ash contains trace metals that, while in low concentration, provide nutrients to microorganisms that live in the water column. Caribbean Plateau lavas sourced hydrothermal fluids containing trace metals and sulfides. Together both events changed the chemistry of the water column by fertilizing microorganisms, which in turn increased production of primary producers. Increases in primary production will affect the rest of the water column by increasing the biomass (the amount of organisms in a certain volume), which will use up much of the available oxygen during metabolism. Additionally, dissolved oxygen passively binds to metals and sulfides, further depleting the oxygen in the water column. [6]
Stratification
A significant loss of oxygen leads to environmental perturbations. Water column stratification can occur when the zone below the sediment-water interface that is normally devoid of oxygen moves up above the sediment and into the water column. While this is a common phenomenon in deep water, this is interpreted to have occurred during anoxic settings in the shallow Western Interior Seaway, as evidenced by extinctions of benthic fauna at the Cenomanian-Turonian Boundary Event brought about by Oceanic Anoxic Event II. The extinction can be explained by ocean stratification causing low-oxygen conditions in the benthic zone. Further, increasing primary production causes an excess of metabolism waste products like CO2. When CO2 combines with water the water can become slightly acidic. Eventually the ocean can become so acidified that calcite cannot be incorporated into the hard parts of shelly organisms (biomineralization) and therefore toxic to live in. [7]
Alternate Theories to Anoxic Events in the Western Interior Seaway
Oceanic Anoxic Event II
Western Interior Seaway strata preserve the positive13Corganic excursion during Oceanic Anoxic Event II, meaning there was excellent preservation of organic carbon. However, other evidence is conflicting. Molybdenum is a trace metal that will be present in strata only if there is stratification, making it an oxygen-sensitive trace metal. One study showed lack of molybdenum in Oceanic Anoxic Event II strata.[8] Other studies demonstrated the persistence of benthic organisms that could not live in anoxic settings throughout the entirety of Oceanic Anoxic Event II.[7]
There is a difference in opinion of the relationship between benthic oxygen conditions and what a positive shift of the 13Corganic curve represents. Anoxia in the Western Interior Seaway during Oceanic Anoxic Event II is still an enigma.
Anoxic vs. Dysoxic Hypothesis
Oceanic Anoxic Event II is believed to have caused the longest duration and most potent water column stratification in Western Interior Seaway history.[8] Although there has been much research devoted to Western Interior Seaway strata, the impact of Oceanic Anoxic Event II on the oxygen content of the benthic zone is still contested.[6][9][10] Some relatively recent research suggests that Western Interior Seaway waters during Oceanic Anoxic Event II were dysoxic (2.0 - 0.2 mL of O2/L of H2O[with oxic being > 2.0 mL of O2/L]) rather than anoxic (< 0.2 mL of O2/L of H2O).[11] Dysoxic water can be interpreted as having a moderate amount of oxygen, or oxygen varying through time between oxic and anoxic, oxic and dysoxic, or dysoxic and anoxic conditions. If the benthic oxygen was variable, the rates of change in the oxygen will affect organic carbon preservation, benthic fossil abundance and diversity, and oxygen-sensitive trace metal concentrations.
Circulation Models
It has been argued that the Western Interior Seaway could have had patches of anoxia, or places where water is stratified. This would be represented by variations in 13Corganic levels in rocks deposited at the same time in different parts of the seaway.[7]
Some models of Western Interior Seaway water circulation indicate that waters were homogenously mixed and not stratified.[12] The seaway, when modeled as a large bay, can have a very broad gyre formed from moving warm salt-rich water from the Tethys northward along the eastern shore, and cool Boreal waters southward along the western shore. While waters of differing salinity and temperatures could become stratified, models predict that the seaway was well-mixed due to the circulation gyre.
References
- ^ a b Shurr, G.W., Ludvigson, G.A., Hammond, R.H. 1994. Perspectives on the Eastern Margin of the Cretaceous Western Interior Basin. Geological Society of America, Boulder: Special Paper #287, 264 p.
- ^ Slingerland , R.L., Kump, L.R, Arthur, M.A., Fawcett, P.J., Sageman, B.B., and Barron, E.J. 1996. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 108, 941-952.
- ^ a b Bowman, A.R. and Gale, A.S., Hardenbol, J., Hathaway, B., Kennedy, W.J., Young, J.R., and Phansalkar, V. 2002. Global correlation of Cenomanian (Upper Cretaceous) sequences: Evidence for Milankovitch control on sea level. Geology, 30, 291-294.
- ^ Bralower, T.J. 2005. Paleoceanographic significance of high-resolution carbon isotope records across the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary in the Western Interior and New Jersey coastal plain, USA. Marine Geology, 217, 305-321.
- ^ Bralower, T.J. 2008. Volcanic cause of catastrophe. Nature, 454, 285-287.
- ^ a b Sageman, B.B., Meyers, S.R., and Arthur, M.A. 2006. Orbital time scale and new C-isotope record for Cenomanian-Turonian boundary stratotype. Geology, 34, 125-128.
- ^ a b c Henderson, R.A. 2004. A Mid-Cretaceous association of shell beds and organic rich shale:bivalve exploitation of nutrient-rich, anoxic sea-floor environment. Palaios, 19, 156-169.
- ^ a b Meyers, S.R., Sageman, B.B., and Lyons, T.W. 2005. Organic carbon burial rate and the molybdenum proxy: Theoretical framework and application to Cenomanian-Turonian oceanic anoxic event 2. Paleoceanography, 20, PA2002. doi:10.1029/2004PA001068
- ^ Keller, G., Berner, Z., Adatte, T., and Stueben, D. 2004. Cenomanian-Turonian and δ13C, and δ18O, sea level and salinity variations at Pueblo, Colorado. Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 211, 19-43.
- ^ Kennedy, W.J., Walaszczyk, I., and Cobban, W.A. 2005. The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point for the base of the Turonian Stage of the Cretaceous: Pueblo, Colorado, U.S.A. Episodes: Journal of International Geoscience, 28, 93-104.
- ^ Tyson, R.V. and Pearson, T.H. 1991. Modern and ancient continental shelf anoxia: an overview.Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 58, 1-24. doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1991.058.01.01
- ^ Slingerland , R.L., Kump, L.R, Arthur, M.A., Fawcett, P.J., Sageman, B.B., and Barron, E.J. 1996. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 108, 941-952.