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Introduction

The Tenpō era is often described as the beginning of the end of bafuku government. Though the era accomplished much through its reforms, and also culturally speaking, the injury inflicted on the Tokugawa system of government during the Tenpō period was unparalleled. Public order and dissatisfaction with government with a main issue, but the bafuku was not entirely at fault for the stir amongst the people. For example, the failure of crops in 1833, which soon became a lengthy disaster endured for over four years called the Great Tenpō famine, was caused mainly due to poor weather conditions. It became simply too cold for crops to flourish or receive needed warmth and water. Prices skyrocketed, as well. These dire circumstances sparked many rebellions and riots across Japan over the course of the Tenpō years. Weary and desperate for someone to blame, the people rose up against the government, and Ōshio Heihachirō, known for leading one of the largest rebellions, even stated the crop failure due to poor weather was a sign of Heaven's disappointment and retribution aimed towards the government itself. Mizuno Tadakuni's reforms were meant to remedy these economic issues, but the reforms could not rescue the bakufu from its ultimate collapse.

The shogunate rule during the Tenpō era was that of Tokugawa Ieyoshi, the 12th shogun of the bakufu government. His reign lasted from 1837 to 1853. During this time, many factors appeared to have seen to the decline of his health: namely, the great and devastating famine, the many rebellions rising up against the bakufu, and the swift advance of foreign influence.

Great Tenpō Famine

The Great Tenpō famine of the 1830s was a devastating term in which the whole of Japan suffered sinking temperatures and loss of crops, and in turn, merchant prices began to spike. Many starved to death during this grim time. In areas like Takayama, the death rate spiked as high as nearly forty-five percent per thousand. Crops continued to fail in the countryside, prices increased and upplies diminished, forcing people to compete to survive with what meager funds they had. The samurai also suffered the effects of the famine, dealing with lower wages from the Japanese domain governments in anticipation for challenging fiscal issues to come. To further the already dire conditions of the famine, illness eventually began to spread, and many who were starving could not resist forms of sickness such as pestilence, smallpox, measles and influenza. Thousands died from hunger alone at the pinnacle of the crisis in 1836 to 1837.

Ōshio Heihachirō Rebellion

One of the rebellions sparked by the Great Tenpō famine was the Ōshio Heihachirō Rebellion. The man for whom it was named led an attempted revolt in the 1830s, and was granted the label of yonaoshi daimyojin, or "world saviour", for his attempts at moral restoration. Formally a police officer and scholar, Ōshio Heihachirō (1792-1837) had requested help from Osaka city commissioners and otherwise wealthy merchants in 1837, only to be met with indifference. Shocked by his lack of success in the endeavour, Ōshio instigated an uprising to oppose those who had refused their aid. With approximately 300 followers, including poor townsfolk and peasants from various villages, Ōshio set fire to one-fifth of Osaka city. But the rebellion was suppressed in short order, forcing Ōshio to a quick end in which he committed suicide.

The scholar Ikuta Yorozo (1801-1837) also instigated a rebellion from similar roots as that of Ōshio Heihachirō. Ikuta had opened a school for the education of adolescents, consisting mostly of peasants. Having also suffered from the Great Tenpō Famine, Ikuta despaired the lack of aid local bureaucrats were willing to provide, and in 1837, he assembled a band of peasants in retaliation. Together they launched an attack on the bureaucrats, which met with devastating results and resulted in Ikuta taking his own life.

Ogata Kōan and Tekijuku

A year following Ōshio Heihachirō's rebellion, after the fire that had scorched nearly a quarter of Osaka city, the physician Ogata Kōan founded an academy to teach medicine, healing and Dutch Studies. The school was called Tekijuku, where distinction of status was unknown and competition abounded. Ogata encouraged this competitive learning, especially of the Dutch language to which he had devoted much of his own life. However, the competition may have been too much when eventually students bent to the pressure of the academy and acted recklessly to vent frustrations, for example, "slashing their swords against the central pillar of the main boarding hall, leaving gashes and nicks". Ogata did not deem it necessary to take disciplinary measures, thinking it benign and recreational.

Morrison Incident

In 1837, the American ship Morrison endeavoured to initiate trade with Japan through the rescue of seven ship-wrecked Japanese sailors. However, as the merchant ship entered Japanese seas, the Morrison was open fired upon and driven from the waters by law of the Edict to Repel Foreign Vessels passed by Japan in 1825.

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