Camel: Difference between revisions

Camel
	Dromedary camel, Camelus dromedarius
	Bactrian camel, Camelus bactrianus
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Artiodactyla
Family:	Camelidae
Tribe:	Camelini
Genus:	Camelus; Linnaeus, 1758
	File:Afro-asiatic camelid Range.png
	range of dromedary and bactrians Camelus bactrianus; Camelus dromedarius; †Camelus gigas (fossil); †Camelus hesternus (fossil); †Camelus sivalensis (fossil); †Camelus moreli (fossil)

Browse history interactively

← Previous edit Next edit →

Content deleted Content added

VisualWikitext

Inline

Revision as of 02:59, 8 December 2012

A camel is an even-toed ungulate within the genus Camelus, bearing distinctive fatty deposits known as "humps" on its back. The two surviving species of camel are the dromedary, or one-humped camel, which is native to the Middle East and the Horn of Africa; and the Bactrian, or two-humped camel, which inhabits Central Asia. Both species have been domesticated; they provide milk, meat, hair for textiles or goods such as felted pouches, and are working animals.

Etymology

The term "camel" is derived via Latin and Greek (camelus and kamēlos respectively) from Hebrew or Phoenician gāmāl, possibly from a verb root meaning to bear or carry (related to Arabic jamala).^[4]^[5]

"Camel" is also used more broadly to describe any of the six camel-like mammals in the family Camelidae: the two true camels, and the four South American camelids: the llama and alpaca are called "New World camels", while the guanaco and vicuña are called "South American camels".^[6]^[7]

Biology

The average life expectancy of a camel is 40 to 50 years.^[8]^[9] A fully-grown adult camel stands 1.85 m (6 ft 1 in) at the shoulder and 2.15 m (7 ft 1 in) at the hump.^[10] Camels can run at up to 65 km/h (40 mph) in short bursts and sustain speeds of up to 40 km/h (25 mph).^[11]

The male dromedary camel has in its neck an organ called a dulla, a large, inflatable sac he extrudes from his mouth when in rut to assert dominance and attract females. It resembles a long, swollen, pink tongue hanging out of the side of its mouth.^[12] Camels mate by having both male and female sitting on the ground, with the male mounting from behind. The male usually ejaculates three or four times within a single mating session.^[13]^[14] Camels are the only ungulates to mate in a sitting position.^[15]

Ecobehavioral adaptations

Camels do not directly store water in their humps as was once commonly believed. The humps are actually reservoirs of fatty tissue: concentrating body fat in their humps minimizes the insulating effect fat would have if distributed over the rest of their bodies, helping camels survive in hot climates.^[16]^[17] When this tissue is metabolized, it yields more than one gram of water for every gram of fat processed. This fat metabolization, while releasing energy, causes water to evaporate from the lungs during respiration (as oxygen is required for the metabolic process): overall, there is a net decrease in water.^[18]^[19]

A leashed pack camel — The Horn of Africa has the world's largest population of camels.^[20]

Camels have a series of physiological adaptations that allow them to withstand long periods of time without any external source of water.^[17] Unlike other mammals, their red blood cells are oval rather than circular in shape. This facilitates the flow of red blood cells during dehydration^[21] and makes them better at withstanding high osmotic variation without rupturing when drinking large amounts of water: a 600 kg (1,300 lb) camel can drink 200 L (53 US gal) of water in three minutes.^[22]^[23]

Camels are able to withstand changes in body temperature and water consumption that would kill most other animals. Their temperature ranges from 34 °C (93 °F) at dawn and steadily increases to 40 °C (104 °F) by sunset, before they cool off at night again.^[17] Camels rarely sweat, even when ambient temperatures reach 49 °C (120 °F).^[8] Any sweat that does occur evaporates at the skin level rather than at the surface of their coat; the heat of vaporization therefore comes from body heat rather than ambient heat. Camels can withstand losing 25% of their body weight to sweating, whereas most other mammals can withstand only about 12–14% dehydration before cardiac failure results from circulatory disturbance.^[23]

When the camel exhales, water vapor becomes trapped in their nostrils and is reabsorbed into the body as a means to conserve water.^[24] Camels eating green herbage can ingest sufficient moisture in milder conditions to maintain their bodies' hydrated state without the need for drinking.^[25]

The camels' thick coats insulate them from the intense heat radiated from desert sand, and a shorn camel has to sweat 50% more to avoid overheating.^[26] During the summer the coat becomes lighter in color, reflecting light as well as helping avoid sunburn.^[23] Its long legs help by keeping them farther from the hot ground, which can heat up to 70 °C (158 °F).^[27]^[28]

Camels' mouths have a thick leathery lining, allowing them to chew thorny desert plants. Long eyelashes and ear hairs, together with nostrils that can close, form a barrier against sand. If sand gets lodged in their eyes, they can dislodge it using their transparent third eyelid. The camels' gait and widened feet help them move without sinking into the sand.^[29]^[30]^[27]

The kidneys and intestines of a camel are very efficient at reabsorbing water. Camel urine comes out as a thick syrup, and camel feces are so dry, the Bedouins use it to fuel fires.^[31]^[32]^[33]^[34]

Camels' immune system differs from those of other mammals. Normally, the Y-shaped antibody molecules consist of two heavy (or long) chains along the length of the Y, and two light (or short) chains at each tip of the Y. Camels, in addition to these, also have antibodies made of only two heavy chains, a trait that makes them smaller and more durable. These "heavy-chain-only" antibodies, discovered in 1993, are thought to have developed 50 million years ago, after camelids split from ruminants and pigs.^[35]

Genetics

The karyotypes of different camelid species have been studied earlier by many groups,^[36]^[37]^[38]^[39]^[40]^[41] but no agreement on chromosome nomenclature of camelids has been reached. A 2007 study flow sorted camel chromosomes, building on the fact that camels have 37 pairs of chromosomes (2n=74), and found that the karyotime consisted of one metacentric, three submetacentric, and 32 acrocentric autosomes. The Y is a small metacentric chromosome, while the X is a large metacentric chromosome.^[42]

According to molecular data, the New World and Old World camelids diverged 11 million years ago.^[43] In spite of this, these species can still hybridize and produce live offspring.^[44] The hybrid camel has one hump, though it has an indentation 4–12 cm (1.6–4.7 in) deep that divides the front from the back. The hybrid is 2.15 m (7 ft 1 in) at the shoulder and 2.32 m (7 ft 7 in) tall at the hump. It weighs an average of 650 kg (1,430 lb) and can carry around 400 to 450 kg (880 to 990 lb), which is more than either the dromedary or Bactrian can.^[45]

The cama is a camel–llama hybrid bred by scientists who wanted to see how closely related the parent species were.^[46] The scientists collected semen from a camel via an artificial vagina and inseminated a llama after stimulating ovulation with gonadotrophin injections.^[47] The cama has ears halfway between the length of camel and llama ears, no hump, longer legs than the llama, and partially cloven hooves.^[48]^[49] According to cama breeder Lulu Skidmore, cama have "the fleece of the llamas" and "the strength and patience of the camel".^[47] Like the mule, camas are sterile, despite both parents having the same number of chromosomes.^[47]

Evolution

A drawing of two early camels — Antelope-like ancient camel, *Stenomylus*

The earliest known camel, called Protylopus, lived in North America 40 to 50 million years ago (during the Eocene).^[14] It was a about the size of a rabbit and lived in the open woodlands of what is now South Dakota.^[50]^[51] By 35 million years ago, the Poebrotherium was the size of a goat and had many more traits similar to camels and llamas.^[52]^[53] The hoofed Stenomylus, which walked on the tips of its toes, also existed around this time, and the long-necked Aepycamelus developed in the Miocene.^[54]

The direct ancestor of all modern camels, Procamelus, existed in the upper Miocone and lower Pliocene.^[55] Around 3–5 million years ago, the North American Camelidae spread to South America via the Isthmus of Panama, where they gave rise to llamas and related animals, and to Asia via the Bering Strait.^[14]^[50]^[51]

The last camel native to North America was Camelops hesternus, which vanished along with horses, short-faced bears, mammoths and mastodons, ground sloths, sabertooth cats, and many other megafauna, coinciding with the migration of humans from Asia.^[56]^[2]

Domestication

Most camels surviving today are domesticated.^[34]^[57] Along with many other megafauna in North America, the original wild camels were wiped out during the spread of Native Americans from Asia into North America, 12,000 to 10,000 years ago.^[2]^[56] The only wild camels left are the Bactrian camels of the Gobi Desert.^[9]

Like the horse, before their extinction in their native land, they spread across the land bridge, moving the opposite direction from the Asian immigration to America, to survive in the Old World and eventually be domesticated and spread globally by humans.

Dromedaries may have first been domesticated by humans in southern Arabia, around 3,000 BC, the Bactrian in central Asia around 2,500 BC.^[14]^[58]^[59]

Military uses

By at least 1200 BC, the first camel saddles had appeared, and Bactrian camels could be ridden. The first Arabian saddle was put way to the back of the camel, and control of the Bactrian camel was exercised by means of a stick. However, between 500–100 BC, Bactrian camels attained military use. New saddles, which were inflexible and bent, were put over the humps and divided the rider's weight over the animal. In the seventh century BC, the military Arabian saddle appeared, which improved the saddle design again slightly.^[60]

Camel cavalries have been used in wars throughout Africa, the Middle East, and into modern-day Border Security Force of India (though as of July 2012, the BSF has planned the replacement of camels with ATVs). The first use of camel cavalries was in the Battle of Qarqar in 853 BC.^[61]^[62]^[63] Armies have also used camels as freight animals instead of horses and mules.^[64]^[65]

In the East Roman Empire, the Romans used auxiliary forces known as dromedarii, whom they recruited in desert provinces.^[66]^[67] The camels were used mostly in combat because of their ability to scare off horses at close ranges (horses are afraid of the camels' scent),^[15] a quality famously employed by the Achaemenid Persians when fighting Lydia in the Battle of Thymbra.^[45]^[68]^[69]

19th and 20th centuries

The United States Army established the U.S. Camel Corps, which was stationed in California in the late 19th century.^[15] One may still see stables at the Benicia Arsenal in Benicia, California, where they nowadays serve as the Benicia Historical Museum.^[70] Though the experimental use of camels was seen as a success (John B. Floyd, Secretary of War in 1858, recommended that funds be allocated towards obtaining a thousand more camels), the outbreak of the American Civil War saw the end of the Camel Corps: Texas became part of the Confederacy, and most of the camels were left to wander away into the desert.^[65]
France created a méhariste camel corps in 1912 as part of the Armée d'Afrique in the Sahara^[71] in order to exercise greater control over the camel-riding Tuareg and Arab insurgents, as previous efforts to defeat them on foot had failed.^[72] The camel-mounted units remained in service until the end of French rule over Algeria in 1962.^[73]
In 1916, the British created the Imperial Camel Corps. It was originally used to fight the Senussi, but was later used in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign in World War I. The Imperial Camel Corps comprised infantrymen mounted on camels for movement across desert, though they dismounted at battle sites and fought on foot. After July 1918, the Corps began to become run down, receiving no new reinforcements, and was formally disbanded in 1919.^[69]
In World War I, the British Army also created the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps, which consisted of a group of Egyptian camel drivers and their camels. The Corps supported British war operations in Sinai, Palestine, and Syria by transporting supplies to the troops.^[74]^[75]^[76]
The Somaliland Camel Corps was created by colonial authorities in British Somaliland in 1912; it was disbanded in 1944.^[77]
Bactrian camels were used by Romanian forces during World War II in the Caucasian region.^[78]
The Bikaner Camel Corps of British India fought alongside the British Indian Army in World Wars I and II.^[79]
The Tropas Nómadas (Nomad Troops) were an auxiliary regiment of Sahrawi tribesmen serving in the colonial army in Spanish Sahara (today Western Sahara). Operational from the 1930s until the end of the Spanish presence in the territory in 1975, the Tropas Nómadas were equipped with small arms and led by Spanish officers. The unit guarded outposts and sometimes conducted patrols on camelback.^[80]^[81]

Food uses

Dairy

Camel milk is a staple food of desert nomad tribes and is sometimes considered a meal in and of itself; a nomad can live on only camel milk for almost a month.^[15]^[82]^[31]^[83] Camel milk is rich in vitamins, minerals, proteins, and immunoglobulins;^[84] compared to cow's milk, it is lower in fat and higher in lactose, potassium, iron, and vitamin C.^[10] Bedouins believe the curative powers of camel milk are enhanced if the camel's diet consists of certain desert plants.^[15]^[85] Camel milk can readily be made into a drinkable yogurt, as well as butter or cheese, though the yields for cheese tend to be low.^[15]^[86]

Camel milk cannot be made into butter by the traditional churning method. It can be made if it is soured first, churned, and a clarifying agent added.^[15] Until recently, camel milk could not be made into camel cheese because rennet was unable to coagulate the milk proteins to allow the collection of curds.^[87] Under the commission of the FAO, Professor J.P. Ramet of the École Nationale Supérieure d'Agronomie et des Industries Alimentaires was able to produce curdling by the addition of calcium phosphate and vegetable rennet.^[86] The cheese produced from this process has low levels of cholesterol and is easy to digest, even for the lactose intolerant.^[88]^[89] The sale of camel cheese is limited owing to the small output of the few dairies producing camel cheese and the absence of camel cheese in local (West African) markets.^[86] Cheese imports from countries that traditionally breed camels are difficult to obtain due to restrictions on dairy imports from these regions.^[90]

Camel milk has been made into ice cream in a Netherlands camel farm.^[91]

Meat

A camel carcass can provide a substantial amount of meat. The male dromedary carcass can weigh 300–400 kg (661–882 lb), while the carcass of a male Bactrian can weigh up to 650 kg (1,433 lb). The carcass of a female dromedary weighs less than the male, ranging between 250 and 350 kg (550 and 770 lb).^[14] The brisket, ribs and loin are among the preferred parts, and the hump is considered a delicacy.^[92] The hump contains "white and sickly fat", which can be used to make the khli (preserved meat) of mutton, beef, or camel.^[93] Camel meat is reported to taste like coarse beef, but older camels can prove to be very tough,^[10]^[14] although camel meat becomes more tender the more it is cooked.^[94] The Abu Dhabi Officers' Club serves a camel burger mixed with beef or lamb fat in order to improve the texture and taste.^[95] In Karachi, Pakistan, some restaurants prepare nihari from camel meat.^[96]

Camel meat has been eaten for centuries. It has been recorded by ancient Greek writers as an available dish in ancient Persia at banquets, usually roasted whole.^[97] The ancient Roman emperor Heliogabalus enjoyed camel's heel.^[31] Camel meat is still eaten in certain regions, including Somalia, Djibouti, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Libya, Sudan, Kazakhstan, and other arid regions where alternative forms of protein may be limited or where camel meat has had a long cultural history.^[14]^[31]^[92] Camel blood is also consumable, as is the case in northern Kenya, where camel blood is drunken with milk and acts as a key source of iron, vitamin D, salts, and minerals.^[14]^[92]^[98] Camel meat is also occasionally found in Australian cuisine: for example, a camel lasagna is available in Alice Springs.^[97]^[98]

A 2005 report issued jointly by the Saudi Ministry of Health and the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention details cases of human bubonic plague resulting from the ingestion of raw camel liver.^[99]

Religion

Islam

Camel meat is halal for Muslims; however, according to some Islamic schools of thought, a state of impurity is brought on by the consumption of it. Consequently, they hold that Muslims must perform wudhu before praying.^[100]

Also, some Islamic schools of thought consider it haraam for a Muslim to perform salah in places where camels lie, as it is said to be a dwelling place of shaytan.^[100]

According to ahadith collected by Bukhari and Muslim, Muhammad ordered a certain group of people to drink camel milk and urine as a medicine.^[101]^[102] However, according to Abū Ḥanīfa, the drinking of camel urine, while not forbidden (ḥaram), is disliked (makrūh) in Islam.^[103]

Judaism

According to Jewish tradition, camel meat and milk are not kosher.^[104] Camels possess only one of the two kosher criteria; although they chew their cud, they do not possess cloven hooves:^[105]

Nevertheless these shall ye not eat of them that only chew the cud, or of them that only part the hoof: the camel, because he cheweth the cud but parteth not the hoof, he is unclean unto you.
— Leviticus 11:4

Distribution and numbers

A view into a canyon: many camels gathering around a watering hole — Camels in the Guelta d'Archei, in northeastern Chad

There are around 14 million camels alive as of 2010, with 90% being dromedaries.^[106] Dromedaries alive today are domesticated animals (mostly living in the Horn of Africa, the Sahel, Maghreb, Middle East and South Asia). The Horn region alone has the largest concentration of camels in the world,^[20] where the dromedaries constitute an important part of local nomadic life. They provide nomads people in Somalia (which has the largest camel herd in the world)^[14] and Ethiopia with milk, food, and transportation.^[83]^[107]^[108]^[109]

A world map with large camel populations marked — Commercial camel market headcount in 2003

The Bactrian camel is, as of 2010, reduced to an estimated 1.4 million animals, most of which domesticated.^[34]^[106]^[110] The only truly wild Bactrian camels, of which there are less than one thousand, are thought to inhabit the Gobi Desert in China and Mongolia.^[111]^[112]

The largest population of feral camels is in Australia. There are around 700,000 feral dromedary camels in central parts of Australia, descended from those introduced as a method of transport in the 19th and early 20th centuries.^[106]^[113]^[98] This population is growing about 8% per year.^[114] Representatives of the Australian government have culled more than 100,000 of the animals in part because the camels use too much of the limited resources needed by sheep farmers.^[115]

A small population of introduced camels, dromedaries and Bactrians, wandered through Southwest United States after having been imported in the 1800s as part of the U.S. Camel Corps experiment. When the project ended, they were used as draft animals in mines and escaped or were released. Twenty-five U.S. camels were bought and imported to Canada during the Cariboo Gold Rush.^[65]

Notes

^ "Camelus gigas". ZipcodeZoo. BayScience Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 7 December 2012.
^ ^a ^b ^c Worboys, Graeme L.; Francis, Wendy L.; Lockwood, Michael (30 March 2010). Connectivity Conservation Management: A Global Guide. Earthscan. p. 142. ISBN 9781844076048.
^ Falconer, Hugh (1868). Palæontological Memoirs and Notes of the Late Hugh Falconer: Fauna antiqua sivalensis. R. Hardwicke. p. 231.
^ "camel". The New Oxford American Dictionary (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press, Inc. 2005.
^ Herper, Douglas. "camel". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 28 November 2012.
^ "llama". Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia. wordnik. Retrieved 28 November 2012.
^ Bornstein, Set (2010). "Important ectoparasites of Alpaca (Vicugna pacos)". Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica. 52 (Suppl 1): S17. doi:10.1186/1751-0147-52-S1-S17. ISSN 1751-0147. Retrieved 28 November 2012.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
^ ^a ^b "Arabian (Dromedary) Camel". National Geographic. National Geographic Society. Retrieved 25 November 2012.
^ ^a ^b "Bactrian Camel: Camelus bactrianus". National Geographic. Retrieved 28 November 2012.
^ ^a ^b ^c "The amazing characteristics of the camels". Camello Safari. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |aaccessdate= ignored (help)
^ "How Fast Can Camels Run and How Long Can They Run For?". Big Site of Amazing Facts. Retrieved 29 November 2012.
^ Abu-Zidana, Fikri M.; Eida, Hani O.; Hefnya, Ashraf F.; Bashira, Masoud O.; Branickia, Frank (18 December 2011). "Camel bite injuries in United Arab Emirates: A 6 year prospective study". Injury. doi:10.1016/j.injury.2011.10.039. PMID 22186231. The male mature camel has a specialized inflatable diverticulum of the soft palate called the "Dulla". and During rutting the Dulla enlarges on filling with air from the trachea until it hangs out of the mouth of the camel and comes to resemble a pink ball. This occurs in only the one-humped camel. Copious saliva turns to foam covering the mouth as the male gurgles and makes metallic sounds. [6 cites to 5 references omitted] {{cite journal}}: |format= requires |url= (help)
^ Two Male Camels Fighting Over One Female.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Mukasa-Mugerwa, E. (1981 pages=1, 3, 20–21, 65, 67–68). The Camel (Camelus Dromedarius): A Bibliographical Review. International Livestock Centre for Africa Monograph. Vol. 5. Ethiopia: International Livestock Centre for Africa. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Missing pipe in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g "Bactrian & Dromedary Camels". Factsheets. San Diego Zoo Global Library. March 2009. Retrieved 4 December 2012.
^ Rice, Jocelyn (5 January 2009). "20 Things You Didn't Know About... Fat | Obesity". DISCOVER Magazine. Retrieved 7 March 2009.
^ ^a ^b ^c Roberts, Michael Bliss Vaughan (1986). Biology: A Functional Approach. Nelson Thornes. pp. 234–235, 241. ISBN 9780174480198.
^ Vann Jones, Kerstin. "What secrets lie within the camel's hump?". Sweden: Lund University. Retrieved 7 January 2008.
^ Rastogi, S. C. (1971). Essentials Of Animal Physiology. New Age International. pp. 180–181. ISBN 9788122412796.
^ ^a ^b Bernstein, William J. (2009). A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World. p. 56. ISBN 9780802144164. {{cite book}}: Text "publisher-Grove Press" ignored (help)
^ Eitan, A; Aloni, B; Livne, A (1976). "Unique properties of the camel erythrocyte membraneII. Organization of membrane proteins". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) – Biomembranes. 426: 647–58. doi:10.1016/0005-2736(76)90129-2.
^ "Dromedary". Hannover Zoo. Archived from the original on 25 October 2005. Retrieved 8 January 2008.
^ ^a ^b ^c Halpern, E. Anette (1999). "Camel". In Mares; Michael A. (eds.). Deserts. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 96–97. ISBN 9780806131467.
^ Lewis, Paul (12 July 1981). "A Pilgrimage To A Mystic's Hermitage In Algeria". The New York Times. Retrieved 7 March 2009.
^ "Camels, llamas and alpacas". A manual for primary animal health care worker. FAO Animal Health Manual. FAO Agriculture and Consumer Protection. 1994. ISSN 1020-5187.
^ Schmidt-Nielsen, K. (1964). Desert Animals: Physiological Problems of Heat and Water. New York: Oxford University Press. Cited in "Coat of fur on the camel". Temperature and Water Relations in Dromedary Camels (Camelus dromedarius). Davidson College. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |work= (help)
^ ^a ^b Bronx Zoo. "Camel Adaptations" (Flash). Wildlife Conservation Society. Retrieved 29 November 2012.
^ Rundel, Philip Wilson; Gibson, Arthur C. (30 September 2005). "Adaptations of Mojave Desert Animals". Ecological Communities And Processes in a Mojave Desert Ecosystem: Rock Valley, Nevada. Cambridge University Press. p. 130. ISBN 9780521021418.
^ "Camels - Old World Camels". Science Encyclopedia. Net Industries. Retrieved 29 November 2012.
^ Silverstein, Alvin; Silverstein, Virginia B; Silverstein, Virginia; Silverstein Nunn, Laura (2008). Adaptation. Twenty-First Century Books. pp. 42–43. ISBN 9780822534341.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Davidson, Alan; Davidson, Jane (15 October 2006). Jaine, Tom (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Food (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 68, 129, 266, 762. ISBN 0192806815.
^ "Kidneys and Concentrated Urine". Temperature and Water Relations in Dromedary Camels (Camelus dromedarius). Davidson College. {{cite web}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |work= (help); Missing or empty |url= (help)
^ "Fun facts about the Camel". The Jungle Store. Retrieved 3 December 2012.
^ ^a ^b ^c Fedewa, Jennifer L. (2000). "Camelus bactrianus". Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Retrieved 4 December 2012.
^ Koenig, R. (2007). "VETERINARY MEDICINE: 'Camelized' Antibodies Make Waves". Science. 318 (5855): 1373. doi:10.1126/science.318.5855.1373. PMID 18048665.
^ Taylor, K.M.; Hungerford, D.A.; Snyder, R.L.; Ulmer, Jr., F.A. (1968). "Uniformity of karyotypes in the Camelidae". Cytogenetic and Genome Research. 7: 8–15. doi:10.1159/000129967.
^ Koulischer, L; Tijskens, J; Mortelmans, J (1971). "Mammalian cytogenetics. IV. The chromosomes of two male Camelidae: Camelus bactrianus and Lama vicugna". Acta zoologica et pathologica Antverpiensia. 52: 89–92. PMID 5163286.
^ Bianchi, N. O.; Larramendy, M. L.; Bianchi, M. S.; Cortés, L. (1986). "Karyological conservatism in South American camelids". Experientia. 42: 622–4. doi:10.1007/BF01955563.
^ Bunch, Thomas D.; Foote, Warren C.; Maciulis, Alma (1985). "Chromosome banding pattern homologies and NORs for the Bactrian camel, guanaco, and llama". Journal of Heredity. 76 (2): 115–8.
^ O'Brien, Stephen J.; Menninger, Joan C.; Nash, William G., eds. (2006). Atlas of Mammalian Chromosomes. New York: Wiley-Liss. p. 547. ISBN 978-0-471-35015-6.
^ Di Berardino, D.; Nicodemo, D.; Coppola, G.; King, A.W.; Ramunno, L.; Cosenza, G.F.; Iannuzzi, L.; Di Meo, G.P.; Balmus, G. (2006). "Cytogenetic characterization of alpaca (Lama pacos, fam. Camelidae) prometaphase chromosomes". Cytogenetic and Genome Research. 115 (2): 138–44. doi:10.1159/000095234. PMID 17065795.
^ Balmus, Gabriel; Trifonov, Vladimir A.; Biltueva, Larisa S.; O’Brien, Patricia C.M.; Alkalaeva, Elena S.; Fu, Beiyuan; Skidmore, Julian A.; Allen, Twink; Graphodatsky, Alexander S. (2007). "Cross-species chromosome painting among camel, cattle, pig and human: further insights into the putative Cetartiodactyla ancestral karyotype". Chromosome Research. 15 (4): 499–515. doi:10.1007/s10577-007-1154-x. PMID 17671843.
^ Stanley, H. F.; Kadwell, M.; Wheeler, J. C. (1994). "Molecular Evolution of the Family Camelidae: A Mitochondrial DNA Study". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 256: 1–6. doi:10.1098/rspb.1994.0041.
^ Skidmore, J. A.; Billah, M.; Binns, M.; Short, R. V.; Allen, W. R. (1999). "Hybridizing Old and New World camelids: Camelus dromedarius x Lama guanicoe". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 266: 649–56. doi:10.1098/rspb.1999.0685.
^ ^a ^b Potts, Danel. "Bactrian Camels and Bactrian-Dromedary Hybrids". Silkroad. 3 (1).
^ "Meet Rama the cama ..." BBC. 21 January 1998. Retrieved 29 November 2012.
^ ^a ^b ^c Fahmy, Miral (21 March 2002). "'Cama' camel/llama hybrids born in UAE research centre". Science in the News. The Royal Society of New Zealand. Retrieved 28 November 2012.
^ Campbell, Duncan (15 July 2002). "Bad karma for cross llama without a hump". The Guardian. Retrieved 2 March 2009.
^ "Joy for world's first camel and llama cross". Metro UK. 6 April 2008. Retrieved 29 November 2012.
^ ^a ^b Harington, C. R. (June 1997). "Ice Age Yukon and Alaskan Camels". Yukon Beringia Interpretive Centre. Government of Yukon, Department of Tourism and Culture, Museums Unit. Retrieved 3 December 2012.
^ ^a ^b Bernstein, William J. (6 May 2009). A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World. Grove Press. pp. 54–55. ISBN 9780802144164.
^ North Dakota Industrial Commission Department of Mineral Resources. "Poebrotherium" (Document). North Dakota State Government. {{cite document}}: Unknown parameter |accessdate= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |url= ignored (help)
^ "Fossil camel skull (Poebrotherium sp.)". Science Buzz. Science Museum of Minnesota. January 2004. Retrieved 3 December 2012.
^ Kindersley, Dorling (2 June 2008). "Camels". Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Life. Penguin. pp. 266–7. ISBN 9780756682415.
^ Singh; Tomar. Evolutionary Biology (8th revised ed.). New Delhi: Rastogi Publications. p. 334. ISBN 9788171336395.
^ ^a ^b MacPhee, Ross D. E.; Sues, Hans-Dieter (30 June 1999). Extinctions in Near Time: Causes, Contexts, and Consequences. Springer. pp. 18, 20, 26. ISBN 9780306460920.
^ Walker, Matt (22 July 2009). "Wild camels 'genetically unique'". Earth News. BBC. Retrieved 4 December 2012.
^ Scarre, Chris (15 September 1993). Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World. London: D. Kindersley. p. 176. ISBN 978-1-56458-305-5. Both the dromedary (the seven-humped camel of Arabia) and the Bactrian camel (the two-humped camel of Central Asia) had been domesticated since before 2000 BC.
^ Bulliet, Richard (20 May 1990) [1975]. The Camel and the Wheel. Morningside Book Series. Columbia University Press. p. 183. ISBN 978-0-231-07235-9. As has already been mentioned, this type of utilization [camels pulling wagons] goes back to the earliest known period of two-humped camel domestication in the third millennium B.C.—Note that Bulliet has many more references to early use of camels
^ Fagan, Brian M., ed. (2004). "Transportation". London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05130-5. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)^{[page needed]}
^ Gabriel, Richard A. (2007). Soldiers' Lives Through History: The Ancient World. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. xvi. ISBN 9780313333484.
^ Bhatia, Vimal (23 July 2012). "BSF to ditch camels to ride sand scooters". The Times of India. Retrieved 4 December 2012.
^ Gann, Lewis Henry; Duignan, Peter (1972). Africa and the World: An Introduction to the History of Sub-Saharan Africa from Antiquity to 1840. University Press of America. p. 156. ISBN 9780761815204. The camel was acclimatized in Egypt long before the time of Christ and was subsequently adopted by the Berbers of the desert, who used camel cavalry to fight the Romans. The Berbers spread the use of the camel across the Sahara.
^ Fleming, Walter L. (February 1909). "Jefferson Davis's Camel Experiment". The Popular Science Monthly. Vol. 74, no. 8. Bonnier Corporation. p. 150. ISSN 0161-7370. Other trials of the camel were made in 1859 by Major D. H. Vinton, who used twenty-four of them in carrying burdens for a surveying party...All in all, he concluded, the camel was much superior to the mule.
^ ^a ^b ^c Mantz, John (20 April 2006). "Camels in the Cariboo". In Basque, Garnet (ed.). Frontier Days in British Columbia. Heritage House Publishing Co. pp. 51–54. ISBN 9781894384018.
^ Southern, Pat (1 October 2007). The Roman Army: A Social and Institutional History. Oxford University Press. p. 123. ISBN 9780195328783.
^ Nicolle, David (26 March 1991). The Desert Frontier. Rome's Enemies. Vol. 5 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Osprey Publishing. p. 4. ISBN 9781855321663. Nevertheless the military prowess of desert peoples impressed the Romans, who recruited large numbers as auxiliary cavalry and archers. In addition to providing the Roman Army with its best archers, the Easterners (largely Arabs but generally known as 'Syrians') served as Rome's most effective dromedarii or camel-mounted troops.
^ Herodotus (440 BC). The History of Herodotus. Translated by Rawlinson, George. Retrieved 4 December 2012. He collected together all the camels that had come in the train of his army to carry the provisions and the baggage, and taking off their loads, he mounted riders upon them accoutred as horsemen. These he commanded to advance in front of his other troops against the Lydian horse; behind them were to follow the foot soldiers, and last of all the cavalry. When his arrangements were complete, he gave his troops orders to slay all the other Lydians who came in their way without mercy, but to spare Croesus and not kill him, even if he should be seized and offer resistance. The reason why Cyrus opposed his camels to the enemy's horse was because the horse has a natural dread of the camel, and cannot abide either the sight or the smell of that animal. By this stratagem he hoped to make Croesus's horse useless to him, the horse being what he chiefly depended on for victory. The two armies then joined battle, and immediately the Lydian war-horses, seeing and smelling the camels, turned round and galloped off; and so it came to pass that all Croesus's hopes withered away. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
^ ^a ^b "Cameliers and camels at war". New Zealand History online. History Group of the New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage. 30 August 2009. Retrieved 5 December 2012. Cite error: The named reference "historygroup-nz" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
^ "The Posts at Benicia". The California State Military Museum. Retrieved 4 December 2012.
^ "Vitrine N° 108 (partie droite): LES PELOTONS MEHARISTES" (in French). Musée de l'infanterie. Retrieved 5 December 2012.
^ Hall, Bruce S. (6 June 2011). A History of Race in Muslim West Africa, 1600-1960. Cambridge University Press. p. 143. ISBN 9781107002876.
^ Guillaume, Philippe (16 June 2012). "L'incroyable épopée des méharistes français". BDSphère (in French). Retrieved 5 December 2012. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
^ Woodward, David R. (2006). Hell in the Holy Land: World War I in the Middle East. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 36, 39, 43, 56, 133. ISBN 9780813123837.
^ Murray, Archibald James (1920). Sir Archibald Murray's despatches (June 1916–June 1917). J.M. Dent. p. 123. A great deal of the work of supplying the troops on both fronts has been done by the Camel Transport Corps
^ McGregor, Andrew James (30 May 2006). A Military History of Modern Egypt: From the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 215. ISBN 9780275986018.
^ Federal Research Division (30 June 2004). Somalia a Country Study. Area handbook series (3rd ed.). Kessinger Publishing. pp. 230–231. ISBN 9781419147999.
^ "Romanian troops using camels". WWII in Color.
^ Jupiter Infomedia Ltd (28 November 2012). "Bikaner Camel Corps, Presidency Armies in British India". IndiaNetzone. {{cite web}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Missing or empty |url= (help)
^ Shelley, Toby (December 2007). "Sons of the Clouds". Red Pepper. Location. Retrieved 6 December 2012.
^ Hermandad de Veteranos Tropas Nómadas del Sáhara. "Los Medios". Historia: Agrupación de Tropas Nómadas (in Spanish). Retrieved 6 December 2012. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
^ Bulliet, Richard W. (1975). The Camel and the Wheel. Columbia University Press. pp. 23, 25, 28, 35–36, 38–40. ISBN 9780231072359.
^ ^a ^b "Camel Milk". Milk & Dairy Products. FAO's Animal Production and Health Division. 25 September 2012. Retrieved 6 December 2012.
^ Shamsia, S. M. (July 2009). "Nutritional and therapeutic properties of camel and human milks" (PDF). International Journal of Genetics and Molecular Biology. 1 (2): 52–58.
^ Yagil. Milk Products and Their Uses. The belief among the Bedouin of the Sinai Peninsula, is that any internal disease can be cured by drinking camel milk. The milk is said to be of such a strength, and to have such health-giving properties, that all the bacteria are driven from the body. This said to be true only for camels that eat certain shrubs and bushes. The shrubs and bushes are, themselves, used in the preparation of medicines. However, camels which eat straw are said to lose this ability.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Fresh from your local drome'dairy'?". Food and Agriculture Organization. 6 July 2001.
^ Ramet. Camel milk and cheese making.
^ Ramet. Methods of processing camel milk into cheese.
^ Young, Philippa. "In Mongolian the Word 'Gobi' Means 'Desert'". Retrieved 6 December 2012. As evening approaches we are offered camel meat boats, dumplings stuffed with a finely chopped mixture of meat and vegetables, followed by camel milk tea and finally, warm fresh camel's milk to aid digestion and help us sleep.
^ Associated Press (16 November 2003). "Camel cheese could enrich Sahara Desert herder". The Augusta Chronicle. Morris Communications LLC. Retrieved 7 December 2012.
^ "Netherland's 'crazy' camel farmer". BBC. 5 November 2011. Retrieved 7 November 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c Yagil. Camels Products Other Than Milk.
^ Madame Guinaudeau (2003). Traditional Moroccan Cooking: Recipes from Fez. London: Serif. ISBN 1-897959-43-5.
^ Rubenstein, Dustin (23 July 2010). "How to Cook Camel". The New York Times. Retrieved 7 December 2012. He cut the pieces very small and cooked them for a long time. I decided to try something a bit different the following night and cut the pieces a bit bigger and cooked them for less time, as I like my meat rarer than he does. This was a bad idea. It seems that the more you cook camel, the more tender it becomes. So we had what amounted to two pounds or more of rubber for dinner that night.
^ Arthur, Rick (4 January 2012). "The Instant Expert: camels, the ships of the desert". The National. UAE: Abu Dhabi Media. As the meat can be dry, however, the Abu Dhabi Officer's Club, for one, serves camel burger with beef or lamb fat mixed in, improving texture and taste. {{cite news}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
^ Jasra, Abdel Wahid; Isani, G. B.; Camel Applied Research and Development Network (2000). Socio-economics of camel herders in Pakistan. The Camel Applied Research and Development Network. p. 164.
^ ^a ^b Sherwood, Andy (17 September 2012). "Camel burgers in Abu Dhabi". Time Out Abu Dhabi. Retrieved 7 December 2012.
^ ^a ^b ^c Webster, George (9 February 2010). "Dubai diners flock to eat new 'camel burger'". CNN World. CNN. Retrieved 7 December 2012.
^ Bin Saeed, Abdulaziz A.; Al-Hamdan, Nasser A.; Fontaine, Robert E. (2005). "Plague from eating raw camel liver". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 11 (9): 1456–7. PMC 3310619. PMID 16229781.
^ ^a ^b "Book 1, Number 0184". Purification (Kitab Al-Taharah). Partial Translation of Sunan Abu-Dawud, Book 1. Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement. Archived from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 25 December. Narrated Al-Bara' ibn Azib: The Messenger of Allah (peace_be_upon_him) was asked about performing ablution after eating the flesh of the camel. He replied: Perform ablution, after eating it. He was asked about performing ablution after eating meat. He replied: Do not perform ablution after eating it. He was asked about saying prayer in places where the camels lie down. He replied: Do not offer prayer in places where the camels lie down. These are the places of Satan. He was asked about saying prayer in the sheepfolds. He replied: You may offer prayer in such places; these are the places of blessing. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
^ "Punishment of Disbelievers at War with Allah and His Apostle: Volume 8, Book 82, Hadith 794". Sahih Bukhari. Translated by M. Muhsin Khan.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
^ "The Book Pertaining to the Oath, for Establishing the Responsibility of Murders, Fighting, Requital Book 16 Number 4130–4132". [[Sahih Muslim]]. Translated by Abdul Hamid Siddiqui. {{cite book}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help)CS1 maint: others (link)
^ Williams, John Alden (1994). The Word of Islam. University of Texas Press. p. 98. ISBN 9780292790766.
^ Heinemann, Moshe. "Cholov Yisroel: Does a Neshama Good". Kashrus Kurrents. Star-K. Retrieved 7 December 2012.
^ Leviticus 11
^ ^a ^b ^c Dolby, Karen (10 August 2010). You Must Remember This: Easy Tricks & Proven Tips to Never Forget Anything, Ever Again. Random House Digital, Inc. p. 170. ISBN 9780307716255.
^ Abokor, Axmed Cali (1987). The Camel in Somali Oral Tradition. Nordic Africa Institute. pp. 7, 10–11. ISBN 9789171062697.
^ "Drought threatening Somali nomads, UN humanitarian office says". UN News Centre. 14 November 2003. Retrieved 7 December 2012. A four-year drought is threatening the lives of Somali nomads, and those of the camel herds on which they depend for transportation and milk
^ Farah, K. O.; Nyariki, D. M.; Ngugi, R. K.; Noor, I. M.; Guliye, A. Y. (2004). "The Somali and the Camel: Ecology, Management and Economics". Anthropologist. 6 (1): 45–55. Somali pastoralists are a camel community...There is no other community in the world where the camel plays such a pivotal role in the local economy and culture as in the Somali community. According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 1979) estimates, there are approximately 15 million dromedary camels in the world Plain text version.
^ "Bactrian Camel" (PDF). Denver Zoo. Retrieved 7 December 2012.
^ "Bactrian Camel: Camelus bactrianus". National Geographic. Retrieved 28 November 2012.
^ Hare, J. "Camelus ferus". IUCN Redlist. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Retrieved 7 December 2012.
^ Saalfeld, W.K.; Edwards, GP (2008). "Ecology of feral camels in Australia". Managing the impacts of feral camels in Australia: a new way of doing business (DKCRC Report 47). Alice Springs: Desert Knowledge Cooperative Research Centre. ISBN 1-74158-094-3. ISSN 1832-6684.
^ Pople, A.R.; McLeod, S.R. "Demography of [[Australian feral camel]]s in Central Australia and its relevance to population control". The Rangeland Journal. 32: 11–19. doi:10.1071/RJ09053. Retrieved 6 June 2011. {{cite journal}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help)
^ Tsai, Vivian (14 September 2012). "Australia Culls 100,000 Feral Camels To Limit Environmental Damage, Many More Will Be Killed". U.S. Edition. International Business Times. Archived from the original on 1 November 2012. Retrieved 1 November 2012.

References

Ramet, J. P. (2011). The technology of making cheese from camel milk (Camelus dromedarius). FAO Animal Production and Health Paper. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. ISBN 92-5-103154-1. ISSN 0254-6019. OCLC 476039542. Retrieved 6 December 2012.
Vannithone; Davidson, A. (1999). "Camel". The Oxford companion to food. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. p. 127. ISBN 0-19-211579-0.
Camels and Camel Milk. Report Issued by FAO, United Nations. (1982)
Wilson, R.T. (1984). The camel. New York: Longman. ISBN 0-582-77512-4.
Yagil, R. (1982). Camels and Camel Milk. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper. Vol. 26. Rome: Food And Agriculture Organization Of The United Nations. ISBN 92-5-101169-9. ISSN 0254-6019.

External links

[1] "Camelus gigas". ZipcodeZoo. BayScience Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 7 December 2012.

[worboys10-2] Worboys, Graeme L.; Francis, Wendy L.; Lockwood, Michael (30 March 2010). Connectivity Conservation Management: A Global Guide. Earthscan. p. 142. ISBN 9781844076048.

[3] Falconer, Hugh (1868). Palæontological Memoirs and Notes of the Late Hugh Falconer: Fauna antiqua sivalensis. R. Hardwicke. p. 231.

[4] "camel". The New Oxford American Dictionary (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press, Inc. 2005.

[5] Herper, Douglas. "camel". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 28 November 2012.

[wordnik-6] "llama". Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia. wordnik. Retrieved 28 November 2012.

[bornstein10-7] Bornstein, Set (2010). "Important ectoparasites of Alpaca (Vicugna pacos)". Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica. 52 (Suppl 1): S17. doi:10.1186/1751-0147-52-S1-S17. ISSN 1751-0147. Retrieved 28 November 2012.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)

[nationalgeo-dromedary-8] "Arabian (Dromedary) Camel". National Geographic. National Geographic Society. Retrieved 25 November 2012.

[nationalgeo-bactrian-9] "Bactrian Camel: Camelus bactrianus". National Geographic. Retrieved 28 November 2012.

[camello-10] "The amazing characteristics of the camels". Camello Safari. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |aaccessdate= ignored (help)

[bigfacts-11] "How Fast Can Camels Run and How Long Can They Run For?". Big Site of Amazing Facts. Retrieved 29 November 2012.

[12] Abu-Zidana, Fikri M.; Eida, Hani O.; Hefnya, Ashraf F.; Bashira, Masoud O.; Branickia, Frank (18 December 2011). "Camel bite injuries in United Arab Emirates: A 6 year prospective study". Injury. doi:10.1016/j.injury.2011.10.039. PMID 22186231. The male mature camel has a specialized inflatable diverticulum of the soft palate called the "Dulla". and During rutting the Dulla enlarges on filling with air from the trachea until it hangs out of the mouth of the camel and comes to resemble a pink ball. This occurs in only the one-humped camel. Copious saliva turns to foam covering the mouth as the male gurgles and makes metallic sounds. [6 cites to 5 references omitted] {{cite journal}}: |format= requires |url= (help)

[13] Two Male Camels Fighting Over One Female.

[mukasa81-14] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Mukasa-Mugerwa, E. (1981 pages=1, 3, 20–21, 65, 67–68). The Camel (Camelus Dromedarius): A Bibliographical Review. International Livestock Centre for Africa Monograph. Vol. 5. Ethiopia: International Livestock Centre for Africa. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Missing pipe in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)

[sandiegozoo-15] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g "Bactrian & Dromedary Camels". Factsheets. San Diego Zoo Global Library. March 2009. Retrieved 4 December 2012.

[16] Rice, Jocelyn (5 January 2009). "20 Things You Didn't Know About... Fat | Obesity". DISCOVER Magazine. Retrieved 7 March 2009.

[roberts86-17] Roberts, Michael Bliss Vaughan (1986). Biology: A Functional Approach. Nelson Thornes. pp. 234–235, 241. ISBN 9780174480198.

[vannjones-18] Vann Jones, Kerstin. "What secrets lie within the camel's hump?". Sweden: Lund University. Retrieved 7 January 2008.

[rastogi71-19] Rastogi, S. C. (1971). Essentials Of Animal Physiology. New Age International. pp. 180–181. ISBN 9788122412796.

[Bernstein-20] Bernstein, William J. (2009). A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World. p. 56. ISBN 9780802144164. {{cite book}}: Text "publisher-Grove Press" ignored (help)

[21] Eitan, A; Aloni, B; Livne, A (1976). "Unique properties of the camel erythrocyte membraneII. Organization of membrane proteins". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) – Biomembranes. 426: 647–58. doi:10.1016/0005-2736(76)90129-2.

[22] "Dromedary". Hannover Zoo. Archived from the original on 25 October 2005. Retrieved 8 January 2008.

[mares99-23] Halpern, E. Anette (1999). "Camel". In Mares; Michael A. (eds.). Deserts. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 96–97. ISBN 9780806131467.

[24] Lewis, Paul (12 July 1981). "A Pilgrimage To A Mystic's Hermitage In Algeria". The New York Times. Retrieved 7 March 2009.

[fao94-25] "Camels, llamas and alpacas". A manual for primary animal health care worker. FAO Animal Health Manual. FAO Agriculture and Consumer Protection. 1994. ISSN 1020-5187.

[26] Schmidt-Nielsen, K. (1964). Desert Animals: Physiological Problems of Heat and Water. New York: Oxford University Press. Cited in "Coat of fur on the camel". Temperature and Water Relations in Dromedary Camels (Camelus dromedarius). Davidson College. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |work= (help)

[bronxzoo-27] Bronx Zoo. "Camel Adaptations" (Flash). Wildlife Conservation Society. Retrieved 29 November 2012.

[rundel05-28] Rundel, Philip Wilson; Gibson, Arthur C. (30 September 2005). "Adaptations of Mojave Desert Animals". Ecological Communities And Processes in a Mojave Desert Ecosystem: Rock Valley, Nevada. Cambridge University Press. p. 130. ISBN 9780521021418.

[netindustries-29] "Camels - Old World Camels". Science Encyclopedia. Net Industries. Retrieved 29 November 2012.

[silverstein08-30] Silverstein, Alvin; Silverstein, Virginia B; Silverstein, Virginia; Silverstein Nunn, Laura (2008). Adaptation. Twenty-First Century Books. pp. 42–43. ISBN 9780822534341.

[davidson06-31] Davidson, Alan; Davidson, Jane (15 October 2006). Jaine, Tom (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Food (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 68, 129, 266, 762. ISBN 0192806815.

[davidson-kidney-32] "Kidneys and Concentrated Urine". Temperature and Water Relations in Dromedary Camels (Camelus dromedarius). Davidson College. {{cite web}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |work= (help); Missing or empty |url= (help)

[junglestore-33] "Fun facts about the Camel". The Jungle Store. Retrieved 3 December 2012.

[fedewa00-34] Fedewa, Jennifer L. (2000). "Camelus bactrianus". Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Retrieved 4 December 2012.

[35] Koenig, R. (2007). "VETERINARY MEDICINE: 'Camelized' Antibodies Make Waves". Science. 318 (5855): 1373. doi:10.1126/science.318.5855.1373. PMID 18048665.

[36] Taylor, K.M.; Hungerford, D.A.; Snyder, R.L.; Ulmer, Jr., F.A. (1968). "Uniformity of karyotypes in the Camelidae". Cytogenetic and Genome Research. 7: 8–15. doi:10.1159/000129967.

[37] Koulischer, L; Tijskens, J; Mortelmans, J (1971). "Mammalian cytogenetics. IV. The chromosomes of two male Camelidae: Camelus bactrianus and Lama vicugna". Acta zoologica et pathologica Antverpiensia. 52: 89–92. PMID 5163286.

[38] Bianchi, N. O.; Larramendy, M. L.; Bianchi, M. S.; Cortés, L. (1986). "Karyological conservatism in South American camelids". Experientia. 42: 622–4. doi:10.1007/BF01955563.

[39] Bunch, Thomas D.; Foote, Warren C.; Maciulis, Alma (1985). "Chromosome banding pattern homologies and NORs for the Bactrian camel, guanaco, and llama". Journal of Heredity. 76 (2): 115–8.

[40] O'Brien, Stephen J.; Menninger, Joan C.; Nash, William G., eds. (2006). Atlas of Mammalian Chromosomes. New York: Wiley-Liss. p. 547. ISBN 978-0-471-35015-6.

[41] Di Berardino, D.; Nicodemo, D.; Coppola, G.; King, A.W.; Ramunno, L.; Cosenza, G.F.; Iannuzzi, L.; Di Meo, G.P.; Balmus, G. (2006). "Cytogenetic characterization of alpaca (Lama pacos, fam. Camelidae) prometaphase chromosomes". Cytogenetic and Genome Research. 115 (2): 138–44. doi:10.1159/000095234. PMID 17065795.

[42] Balmus, Gabriel; Trifonov, Vladimir A.; Biltueva, Larisa S.; O’Brien, Patricia C.M.; Alkalaeva, Elena S.; Fu, Beiyuan; Skidmore, Julian A.; Allen, Twink; Graphodatsky, Alexander S. (2007). "Cross-species chromosome painting among camel, cattle, pig and human: further insights into the putative Cetartiodactyla ancestral karyotype". Chromosome Research. 15 (4): 499–515. doi:10.1007/s10577-007-1154-x. PMID 17671843.

[43] Stanley, H. F.; Kadwell, M.; Wheeler, J. C. (1994). "Molecular Evolution of the Family Camelidae: A Mitochondrial DNA Study". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 256: 1–6. doi:10.1098/rspb.1994.0041.

[44] Skidmore, J. A.; Billah, M.; Binns, M.; Short, R. V.; Allen, W. R. (1999). "Hybridizing Old and New World camelids: Camelus dromedarius x Lama guanicoe". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 266: 649–56. doi:10.1098/rspb.1999.0685.

[potts-45] Potts, Danel. "Bactrian Camels and Bactrian-Dromedary Hybrids". Silkroad. 3 (1).

[bbc-came-46] "Meet Rama the cama ..." BBC. 21 January 1998. Retrieved 29 November 2012.

[fahmy02-47] Fahmy, Miral (21 March 2002). "'Cama' camel/llama hybrids born in UAE research centre". Science in the News. The Royal Society of New Zealand. Retrieved 28 November 2012.

[campbell05-48] Campbell, Duncan (15 July 2002). "Bad karma for cross llama without a hump". The Guardian. Retrieved 2 March 2009.

[metrouk-49] "Joy for world's first camel and llama cross". Metro UK. 6 April 2008. Retrieved 29 November 2012.

[harington97-50] Harington, C. R. (June 1997). "Ice Age Yukon and Alaskan Camels". Yukon Beringia Interpretive Centre. Government of Yukon, Department of Tourism and Culture, Museums Unit. Retrieved 3 December 2012.

[bernstein09-51] Bernstein, William J. (6 May 2009). A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World. Grove Press. pp. 54–55. ISBN 9780802144164.

[northdakota-52] North Dakota Industrial Commission Department of Mineral Resources. "Poebrotherium" (Document). North Dakota State Government. {{cite document}}: Unknown parameter |accessdate= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |url= ignored (help)

[scibuzz04-53] "Fossil camel skull (Poebrotherium sp.)". Science Buzz. Science Museum of Minnesota. January 2004. Retrieved 3 December 2012.

[kindersley08-54] Kindersley, Dorling (2 June 2008). "Camels". Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Life. Penguin. pp. 266–7. ISBN 9780756682415.

[singh-tomar-55] Singh; Tomar. Evolutionary Biology (8th revised ed.). New Delhi: Rastogi Publications. p. 334. ISBN 9788171336395.

[macphee99-56] MacPhee, Ross D. E.; Sues, Hans-Dieter (30 June 1999). Extinctions in Near Time: Causes, Contexts, and Consequences. Springer. pp. 18, 20, 26. ISBN 9780306460920.

[walker09-57] Walker, Matt (22 July 2009). "Wild camels 'genetically unique'". Earth News. BBC. Retrieved 4 December 2012.

[58] Scarre, Chris (15 September 1993). Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World. London: D. Kindersley. p. 176. ISBN 978-1-56458-305-5. Both the dromedary (the seven-humped camel of Arabia) and the Bactrian camel (the two-humped camel of Central Asia) had been domesticated since before 2000 BC.

[59] Bulliet, Richard (20 May 1990) [1975]. The Camel and the Wheel. Morningside Book Series. Columbia University Press. p. 183. ISBN 978-0-231-07235-9. As has already been mentioned, this type of utilization [camels pulling wagons] goes back to the earliest known period of two-humped camel domestication in the third millennium B.C.—Note that Bulliet has many more references to early use of camels

[60] Fagan, Brian M., ed. (2004). "Transportation". London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05130-5. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)^{[page needed]}

[gabriel07-61] Gabriel, Richard A. (2007). Soldiers' Lives Through History: The Ancient World. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. xvi. ISBN 9780313333484.

[bhatia12-62] Bhatia, Vimal (23 July 2012). "BSF to ditch camels to ride sand scooters". The Times of India. Retrieved 4 December 2012.

[gann72-63] Gann, Lewis Henry; Duignan, Peter (1972). Africa and the World: An Introduction to the History of Sub-Saharan Africa from Antiquity to 1840. University Press of America. p. 156. ISBN 9780761815204. The camel was acclimatized in Egypt long before the time of Christ and was subsequently adopted by the Berbers of the desert, who used camel cavalry to fight the Romans. The Berbers spread the use of the camel across the Sahara.

[fleming09-64] Fleming, Walter L. (February 1909). "Jefferson Davis's Camel Experiment". The Popular Science Monthly. Vol. 74, no. 8. Bonnier Corporation. p. 150. ISSN 0161-7370. Other trials of the camel were made in 1859 by Major D. H. Vinton, who used twenty-four of them in carrying burdens for a surveying party...All in all, he concluded, the camel was much superior to the mule.

[mantz06-65] Mantz, John (20 April 2006). "Camels in the Cariboo". In Basque, Garnet (ed.). Frontier Days in British Columbia. Heritage House Publishing Co. pp. 51–54. ISBN 9781894384018.

[southern07-66] Southern, Pat (1 October 2007). The Roman Army: A Social and Institutional History. Oxford University Press. p. 123. ISBN 9780195328783.

[nicolle91-67] Nicolle, David (26 March 1991). The Desert Frontier. Rome's Enemies. Vol. 5 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Osprey Publishing. p. 4. ISBN 9781855321663. Nevertheless the military prowess of desert peoples impressed the Romans, who recruited large numbers as auxiliary cavalry and archers. In addition to providing the Roman Army with its best archers, the Easterners (largely Arabs but generally known as 'Syrians') served as Rome's most effective dromedarii or camel-mounted troops.

[herodotus-68] Herodotus (440 BC). The History of Herodotus. Translated by Rawlinson, George. Retrieved 4 December 2012. He collected together all the camels that had come in the train of his army to carry the provisions and the baggage, and taking off their loads, he mounted riders upon them accoutred as horsemen. These he commanded to advance in front of his other troops against the Lydian horse; behind them were to follow the foot soldiers, and last of all the cavalry. When his arrangements were complete, he gave his troops orders to slay all the other Lydians who came in their way without mercy, but to spare Croesus and not kill him, even if he should be seized and offer resistance. The reason why Cyrus opposed his camels to the enemy's horse was because the horse has a natural dread of the camel, and cannot abide either the sight or the smell of that animal. By this stratagem he hoped to make Croesus's horse useless to him, the horse being what he chiefly depended on for victory. The two armies then joined battle, and immediately the Lydian war-horses, seeing and smelling the camels, turned round and galloped off; and so it came to pass that all Croesus's hopes withered away. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

[historygroup-nz-69] "Cameliers and camels at war". New Zealand History online. History Group of the New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage. 30 August 2009. Retrieved 5 December 2012. Cite error: The named reference "historygroup-nz" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).

[military-museum-70] "The Posts at Benicia". The California State Military Museum. Retrieved 4 December 2012.

[musee-de-l'infanterie-71] "Vitrine N° 108 (partie droite): LES PELOTONS MEHARISTES" (in French). Musée de l'infanterie. Retrieved 5 December 2012.

[brucehall-72] Hall, Bruce S. (6 June 2011). A History of Race in Muslim West Africa, 1600-1960. Cambridge University Press. p. 143. ISBN 9781107002876.

[guillaume12-73] Guillaume, Philippe (16 June 2012). "L'incroyable épopée des méharistes français". BDSphère (in French). Retrieved 5 December 2012. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)

[woodward06-74] Woodward, David R. (2006). Hell in the Holy Land: World War I in the Middle East. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 36, 39, 43, 56, 133. ISBN 9780813123837.

[murray20-75] Murray, Archibald James (1920). Sir Archibald Murray's despatches (June 1916–June 1917). J.M. Dent. p. 123. A great deal of the work of supplying the troops on both fronts has been done by the Camel Transport Corps

[mcgregor06-76] McGregor, Andrew James (30 May 2006). A Military History of Modern Egypt: From the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 215. ISBN 9780275986018.

[fedresearchdiv04-77] Federal Research Division (30 June 2004). Somalia a Country Study. Area handbook series (3rd ed.). Kessinger Publishing. pp. 230–231. ISBN 9781419147999.

[wwii-color-78] "Romanian troops using camels". WWII in Color.

[indianetzone-79] Jupiter Infomedia Ltd (28 November 2012). "Bikaner Camel Corps, Presidency Armies in British India". IndiaNetzone. {{cite web}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Missing or empty |url= (help)

[shelley07-80] Shelley, Toby (December 2007). "Sons of the Clouds". Red Pepper. Location. Retrieved 6 December 2012.

[hermandad-81] Hermandad de Veteranos Tropas Nómadas del Sáhara. "Los Medios". Historia: Agrupación de Tropas Nómadas (in Spanish). Retrieved 6 December 2012. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)

[bulliet75-82] Bulliet, Richard W. (1975). The Camel and the Wheel. Columbia University Press. pp. 23, 25, 28, 35–36, 38–40. ISBN 9780231072359.

[fao12-83] "Camel Milk". Milk & Dairy Products. FAO's Animal Production and Health Division. 25 September 2012. Retrieved 6 December 2012.

[shamsia09-84] Shamsia, S. M. (July 2009). "Nutritional and therapeutic properties of camel and human milks" (PDF). International Journal of Genetics and Molecular Biology. 1 (2): 52–58.

[yagil-milkuses-85] Yagil. Milk Products and Their Uses. The belief among the Bedouin of the Sinai Peninsula, is that any internal disease can be cured by drinking camel milk. The milk is said to be of such a strength, and to have such health-giving properties, that all the bacteria are driven from the body. This said to be true only for camels that eat certain shrubs and bushes. The shrubs and bushes are, themselves, used in the preparation of medicines. However, camels which eat straw are said to lose this ability.

[fao06-86] "Fresh from your local drome'dairy'?". Food and Agriculture Organization. 6 July 2001.

[ramet-making-87] Ramet. Camel milk and cheese making.

[ramet-processing-88] Ramet. Methods of processing camel milk into cheese.

[young-89] Young, Philippa. "In Mongolian the Word 'Gobi' Means 'Desert'". Retrieved 6 December 2012. As evening approaches we are offered camel meat boats, dumplings stuffed with a finely chopped mixture of meat and vegetables, followed by camel milk tea and finally, warm fresh camel's milk to aid digestion and help us sleep.

[assocpress03-90] Associated Press (16 November 2003). "Camel cheese could enrich Sahara Desert herder". The Augusta Chronicle. Morris Communications LLC. Retrieved 7 December 2012.

[91] "Netherland's 'crazy' camel farmer". BBC. 5 November 2011. Retrieved 7 November 2011.

[yagil-camelother-92] Yagil. Camels Products Other Than Milk.

[madame03-93] Madame Guinaudeau (2003). Traditional Moroccan Cooking: Recipes from Fez. London: Serif. ISBN 1-897959-43-5.

[rubenstein10-94] Rubenstein, Dustin (23 July 2010). "How to Cook Camel". The New York Times. Retrieved 7 December 2012. He cut the pieces very small and cooked them for a long time. I decided to try something a bit different the following night and cut the pieces a bit bigger and cooked them for less time, as I like my meat rarer than he does. This was a bad idea. It seems that the more you cook camel, the more tender it becomes. So we had what amounted to two pounds or more of rubber for dinner that night.

[arthur12-95] Arthur, Rick (4 January 2012). "The Instant Expert: camels, the ships of the desert". The National. UAE: Abu Dhabi Media. As the meat can be dry, however, the Abu Dhabi Officer's Club, for one, serves camel burger with beef or lamb fat mixed in, improving texture and taste. {{cite news}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)

[jasra00-96] Jasra, Abdel Wahid; Isani, G. B.; Camel Applied Research and Development Network (2000). Socio-economics of camel herders in Pakistan. The Camel Applied Research and Development Network. p. 164.

[sherwood12-97] Sherwood, Andy (17 September 2012). "Camel burgers in Abu Dhabi". Time Out Abu Dhabi. Retrieved 7 December 2012.

[cnn10-98] Webster, George (9 February 2010). "Dubai diners flock to eat new 'camel burger'". CNN World. CNN. Retrieved 7 December 2012.

[99] Bin Saeed, Abdulaziz A.; Al-Hamdan, Nasser A.; Fontaine, Robert E. (2005). "Plague from eating raw camel liver". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 11 (9): 1456–7. PMC 3310619. PMID 16229781.

[purification-100] "Book 1, Number 0184". Purification (Kitab Al-Taharah). Partial Translation of Sunan Abu-Dawud, Book 1. Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement. Archived from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 25 December. Narrated Al-Bara' ibn Azib: The Messenger of Allah (peace_be_upon_him) was asked about performing ablution after eating the flesh of the camel. He replied: Perform ablution, after eating it. He was asked about performing ablution after eating meat. He replied: Do not perform ablution after eating it. He was asked about saying prayer in places where the camels lie down. He replied: Do not offer prayer in places where the camels lie down. These are the places of Satan. He was asked about saying prayer in the sheepfolds. He replied: You may offer prayer in such places; these are the places of blessing. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

[101] "Punishment of Disbelievers at War with Allah and His Apostle: Volume 8, Book 82, Hadith 794". Sahih Bukhari. Translated by M. Muhsin Khan.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)

[102] "The Book Pertaining to the Oath, for Establishing the Responsibility of Murders, Fighting, Requital Book 16 Number 4130–4132". [[Sahih Muslim]]. Translated by Abdul Hamid Siddiqui. {{cite book}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help)CS1 maint: others (link)

[alden-103] Williams, John Alden (1994). The Word of Islam. University of Texas Press. p. 98. ISBN 9780292790766.

[heinemen-104] Heinemann, Moshe. "Cholov Yisroel: Does a Neshama Good". Kashrus Kurrents. Star-K. Retrieved 7 December 2012.

[105] Leviticus 11

[dolby10-106] Dolby, Karen (10 August 2010). You Must Remember This: Easy Tricks & Proven Tips to Never Forget Anything, Ever Again. Random House Digital, Inc. p. 170. ISBN 9780307716255.

[abokor87-107] Abokor, Axmed Cali (1987). The Camel in Somali Oral Tradition. Nordic Africa Institute. pp. 7, 10–11. ISBN 9789171062697.

[un03-108] "Drought threatening Somali nomads, UN humanitarian office says". UN News Centre. 14 November 2003. Retrieved 7 December 2012. A four-year drought is threatening the lives of Somali nomads, and those of the camel herds on which they depend for transportation and milk

[farah04-109] Farah, K. O.; Nyariki, D. M.; Ngugi, R. K.; Noor, I. M.; Guliye, A. Y. (2004). "The Somali and the Camel: Ecology, Management and Economics". Anthropologist. 6 (1): 45–55. Somali pastoralists are a camel community...There is no other community in the world where the camel plays such a pivotal role in the local economy and culture as in the Somali community. According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 1979) estimates, there are approximately 15 million dromedary camels in the world Plain text version.

[denverzoo-110] "Bactrian Camel" (PDF). Denver Zoo. Retrieved 7 December 2012.

[natgeo-bactrian-111] "Bactrian Camel: Camelus bactrianus". National Geographic. Retrieved 28 November 2012.

[iucn-bactrian-112] Hare, J. "Camelus ferus". IUCN Redlist. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Retrieved 7 December 2012.

[113] Saalfeld, W.K.; Edwards, GP (2008). "Ecology of feral camels in Australia". Managing the impacts of feral camels in Australia: a new way of doing business (DKCRC Report 47). Alice Springs: Desert Knowledge Cooperative Research Centre. ISBN 1-74158-094-3. ISSN 1832-6684.

[114] Pople, A.R.; McLeod, S.R. "Demography of [[Australian feral camel]]s in Central Australia and its relevance to population control". The Rangeland Journal. 32: 11–19. doi:10.1071/RJ09053. Retrieved 6 June 2011. {{cite journal}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help)

[115] Tsai, Vivian (14 September 2012). "Australia Culls 100,000 Feral Camels To Limit Environmental Damage, Many More Will Be Killed". U.S. Edition. International Business Times. Archived from the original on 1 November 2012. Retrieved 1 November 2012.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

[41]

[42]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[46]

[47]

[48]

[49]

[50]

[51]

[52]

[53]

[54]

[55]

[56]

[57]

[58]

[59]

[60]

[61]

[62]

[63]

[64]

[65]

[66]

[67]

[68]

[69]

[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

[76]

[77]

[78]

[79]

[80]

[81]

[82]

[83]

[84]

[85]

[86]

[87]

[88]

[89]

[90]

[91]

[92]

[93]

[94]

[95]

[96]

[97]

[98]

[99]

[100]

@@ Line 25: / Line 25: @@
 ''[[Camelus bactrianus]]''<br />
 ''[[Camelus dromedarius]]''<br />
+†''[[Camelus gigas]]'' (fossil)<br /><ref>{{cite web|publisher= BayScience Foundation, Inc|title=Camelus gigas|url=http://zipcodezoo.com/Animals/C/Camelus_gigas/|work=ZipcodeZoo|accessdate=7 December 2012}}</ref>
-†''[[Camelus gigas]]'' (fossil)<br />
 †''[[Camelus hesternus]]'' (fossil)<ref name=worboys10 /><br />
 †''[[Camelus sivalensis]]'' (fossil)<ref>{{cite book| publisher = R. Hardwicke| last = Falconer| first = Hugh| title = Palæontological Memoirs and Notes of the Late Hugh Falconer: Fauna antiqua sivalensis| year =1868 | page=231|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hb4wAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA231}}</ref><br />
-†''[['''''Camelus moreli''''']]'' (fossil)
+†''[[Camelus moreli]]'' (fossil)
 }}
-A '''camel''' is an [[even-toed ungulate]] within the genus '''''Camelus''''', bearing distinctive fatty deposits known as "humps" on its back. The two surviving species of camel are the [[dromedary]], or one-humped camels, which are native to the [[Middle East]] and the [[Horn of Africa]]; and [[Bactrian camel|Bactrian]], or two-humped camels, which inhabit [[Central Asia]]. Both species have been domesticated; they provide [[camel milk|milk]], meat, [[camel hair|hair]] for textiles or goods such as felted pouches, and are [[working animal]]s.
+A '''camel''' is an [[even-toed ungulate]] within the genus '''''Camelus''''', bearing distinctive fatty deposits known as "humps" on its back. The two surviving species of camel are the [[dromedary]], or one-humped camel, which is native to the [[Middle East]] and the [[Horn of Africa]]; and the [[Bactrian camel|Bactrian]], or two-humped camel, which inhabits [[Central Asia]]. Both species have been domesticated; they provide [[camel milk|milk]], meat, [[camel hair|hair]] for textiles or goods such as felted pouches, and are [[working animal]]s.
 ==Etymology==
-The term "camel" is derived via Latin and Greek (''camelus'' and ''kamēlos'' respectively) from [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] or [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]] ''gāmāl'', possibly from a verb root meaning to bear or carry (related to [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''jamala'').<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=The New Oxford American Dictionary|edition=2nd|title=camel|publisher=Oxford University Press, Inc|year=2005}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | last = Herper | first = Douglas | title = camel | work = Online Etymology Dictionary | accessdate = 28 November 2012| url = http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=camel}}</ref>
+The term "camel" is derived via Latin and Greek (''camelus'' and ''kamēlos'' respectively) from [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] or [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]] ''gāmāl'', possibly from a verb root meaning to bear or carry (related to [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''jamala'').<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=The New Oxford American Dictionary|edition=2nd|title=camel|publisher=Oxford University Press, Inc|year=2005}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | last = Herper | first = Douglas | title = camel | work = Online Etymology Dictionary | accessdate = 28 November 2012| url = http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=camel}}</ref>
 "Camel" is also used more broadly to describe any of the six camel-like mammals in the family [[Camelid]]ae: the two true camels, and the four [[South America]]n camelids: the [[llama]] and [[alpaca]] are called "New World camels", while the [[guanaco]] and [[vicuña]] are called "South American camels".<ref name=wordnik>{{cite encyclopedia | publisher = wordnik | title = llama | encyclopedia = Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia | accessdate = 28 November 2012 | url = http://www.wordnik.com/words/llama }}</ref><ref name=bornstein10>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1186/1751-0147-52-S1-S17 | issn = 1751-0147 | volume = 52 | issue = Suppl 1 | page = S17 | last = Bornstein | first = Set | title = Important ectoparasites of Alpaca (Vicugna pacos) | journal = Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica | accessdate = 28 November 2012 | year = 2010 | url = http://www.actavetscand.com/content/52/S1/S17 }}</ref>
@@ Line 44: / Line 44: @@
 === Ecobehavioral adaptations ===
-Camels do not directly store water in their humps as was once commonly believed. The humps are actually reservoirs of fatty tissue: concentrating [[Adipose tissue|body fat]] in their humps minimizes the insulating effect fat would have on the rest of their bodies, helping camels survive in hot climates.<ref>{{cite web|last=Rice |first=Jocelyn |url=http://discovermagazine.com/2009/jan/05-20-things-you-didnt-know-about-fat |title=20 Things You Didn't Know About... Fat &#124; Obesity |publisher=DISCOVER Magazine |date=5 January 2009 |accessdate=7 March 2009}}</ref><ref name=roberts86>{{cite book | publisher = Nelson Thornes | isbn = 9780174480198 | last = Roberts | first = Michael Bliss Vaughan | title = Biology: A Functional Approach | year = 1986|pages=234–235,241}}</ref> When this tissue is metabolized, it yields more than 1&nbsp;g of water for every gram of fat processed. This [[lipolysis|fat metabolization]], while releasing energy, causes water to evaporate from the lungs during [[breathing|respiration]] (as oxygen is required for the metabolic process): overall, there is a net decrease in water.<ref name=vannjones>{{cite web|url=http://www.djur.cob.lu.se/Djurartiklar/Kamel.html|title=What secrets lie within the camel's hump?|first=Kerstin|last=Vann Jones|publisher=Lund University|location=Sweden|accessdate=7 January 2008}}</ref><ref name=rastogi71>{{cite book | publisher = New Age International | isbn = 9788122412796 | last = Rastogi | first = S. C. | title = Essentials Of Animal Physiology | year = 1971|pages=180–181}}</ref>
+Camels do not directly store water in their humps as was once commonly believed. The humps are actually reservoirs of fatty tissue: concentrating [[Adipose tissue|body fat]] in their humps minimizes the insulating effect fat would have if distributed over the rest of their bodies, helping camels survive in hot climates.<ref>{{cite web|last=Rice |first=Jocelyn |url=http://discovermagazine.com/2009/jan/05-20-things-you-didnt-know-about-fat |title=20 Things You Didn't Know About... Fat &#124; Obesity |publisher=DISCOVER Magazine |date=5 January 2009 |accessdate=7 March 2009}}</ref><ref name=roberts86>{{cite book | publisher = Nelson Thornes | isbn = 9780174480198 | last = Roberts | first = Michael Bliss Vaughan | title = Biology: A Functional Approach | year = 1986|pages=234–235,241}}</ref> When this tissue is metabolized, it yields more than one gram of water for every gram of fat processed. This [[lipolysis|fat metabolization]], while releasing energy, causes water to evaporate from the lungs during [[breathing|respiration]] (as oxygen is required for the metabolic process): overall, there is a net decrease in water.<ref name=vannjones>{{cite web|url=http://www.djur.cob.lu.se/Djurartiklar/Kamel.html|title=What secrets lie within the camel's hump?|first=Kerstin|last=Vann Jones|publisher=Lund University|location=Sweden|accessdate=7 January 2008}}</ref><ref name=rastogi71>{{cite book | publisher = New Age International | isbn = 9788122412796 | last = Rastogi | first = S. C. | title = Essentials Of Animal Physiology | year = 1971|pages=180–181}}</ref>
 [[File:Camel portrait.jpg|upright|thumb|alt=A portrait of a camel with a visibly thick mane|A camel's thick coat is one of their many adaptations that aid them in desert-like conditions.<!---Don't move this image up or it causes a break in the text on wide screens--->]]
 [[File:Eylcamel.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A leashed pack camel|The [[Horn of Africa]] has the world's largest population of camels.<ref name="Bernstein"/>]]
-Camels have a series of physiological adaptations that allow them to withstand long periods of time without any external source of water.<ref name=roberts86 /> Unlike other mammals, their [[red blood cell]]s are oval rather than circular in shape. This facilitates the flow of red blood cells during dehydration<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eitan |first1=A |last2=Aloni |first2=B |last3=Livne |first3=A |title=Unique properties of the camel erythrocyte membraneII. Organization of membrane proteins |journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) – Biomembranes |volume=426 |pages=647–58 |year=1976 |doi=10.1016/0005-2736(76)90129-2}}</ref> and makes them better at withstanding high [[osmosis|osmotic]] variation without rupturing when drinking large amounts of water: a {{convert|600|l|USgal|abbr=on}} camel can drink {{convert|200|l|USgal|abbr=on}} of water in three minutes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zoo-hannover.de/zoo-hannover/en/zoo_v3/tiere_attraktionen/tiere_az/tiere_detail_726.html|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20051025001139/http://www.zoo-hannover.de/zoo-hannover/en/zoo_v3/tiere_attraktionen/tiere_az/tiere_detail_726.html|archivedate=25 October 2005|title= Dromedary|publisher=Hannover Zoo|accessdate=8 January 2008}}</ref><ref name=mares99>{{cite book | publisher = University of Oklahoma Press | isbn = 9780806131467 | editor1-last = Mares | editor2-last = Michael A.| title = Deserts | year = 1999|chapter=Camel|pages=96–97|first=E. Anette|last=Halpern|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=g3CbqZtaF4oC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA96}}</ref>
+Camels have a series of physiological adaptations that allow them to withstand long periods of time without any external source of water.<ref name=roberts86 /> Unlike other mammals, their [[red blood cell]]s are oval rather than circular in shape. This facilitates the flow of red blood cells during dehydration<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eitan |first1=A |last2=Aloni |first2=B |last3=Livne |first3=A |title=Unique properties of the camel erythrocyte membraneII. Organization of membrane proteins |journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) – Biomembranes |volume=426 |pages=647–58 |year=1976 |doi=10.1016/0005-2736(76)90129-2}}</ref> and makes them better at withstanding high [[osmosis|osmotic]] variation without rupturing when drinking large amounts of water: a {{convert|600|kg|lb|abbr=on}} camel can drink {{convert|200|L|USgal|abbr=on}} of water in three minutes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zoo-hannover.de/zoo-hannover/en/zoo_v3/tiere_attraktionen/tiere_az/tiere_detail_726.html|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20051025001139/http://www.zoo-hannover.de/zoo-hannover/en/zoo_v3/tiere_attraktionen/tiere_az/tiere_detail_726.html|archivedate=25 October 2005|title= Dromedary|publisher=Hannover Zoo|accessdate=8 January 2008}}</ref><ref name=mares99>{{cite book | publisher = University of Oklahoma Press | isbn = 9780806131467 | editor1-last = Mares | editor2-last = Michael A.| title = Deserts | year = 1999|chapter=Camel|pages=96–97|first=E. Anette|last=Halpern|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=g3CbqZtaF4oC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA96}}</ref>
-Camels are able to withstand changes in [[body temperature]] and water consumption that would kill most other animals. Their temperature ranges from {{convert|34|°C|°F|0|abbr=on}} at dawn and steadily increases to {{convert|40|°C|°F|0|abbr=on}} by sunset, before cooling off at night again.<ref name=roberts86 /> Camels rarely sweat, even when ambient temperatures reach {{convert|49|°C|°F|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name=nationalgeo-dromedary>{{cite web|title=Arabian (Dromedary) Camel|accessdate=25 November 2012|publisher=National Geographic Society|work=National Geographic|url=http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/dromedary-camel/}}</ref> Any sweat that does occur evaporates at the skin level rather than at the surface of their coat, and the [[heat of vaporization]] therefore comes from body heat rather than ambient heat. Camels can withstand losing 25% of their body weight to sweating, whereas most other mammals can withstand only about 12–14% dehydration before [[Congestive heart failure|cardiac failure]] results from circulatory disturbance.<ref name=mares99/>
+Camels are able to withstand changes in [[body temperature]] and water consumption that would kill most other animals. Their temperature ranges from {{convert|34|°C|°F|0|abbr=on}} at dawn and steadily increases to {{convert|40|°C|°F|0|abbr=on}} by sunset, before they cool off at night again.<ref name=roberts86 /> Camels rarely sweat, even when ambient temperatures reach {{convert|49|°C|°F|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name=nationalgeo-dromedary>{{cite web|title=Arabian (Dromedary) Camel|accessdate=25 November 2012|publisher=National Geographic Society|work=National Geographic|url=http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/dromedary-camel/}}</ref> Any sweat that does occur evaporates at the skin level rather than at the surface of their coat; the [[heat of vaporization]] therefore comes from body heat rather than ambient heat. Camels can withstand losing 25% of their body weight to sweating, whereas most other mammals can withstand only about 12–14% dehydration before [[Congestive heart failure|cardiac failure]] results from circulatory disturbance.<ref name=mares99/>
-When the camel exhales, a lot of [[water vapor]] becomes trapped in their nostrils and is reabsorbed into the body as a means to conserve water.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/1981/07/12/travel/a-pilgrimage-to-a-mystic-s-hermitage-in-algeria.html |title=A Pilgrimage To A Mystic's Hermitage In Algeria|newspaper=The New York Times |date=12 July 1981 |accessdate=7 March 2009| first=Paul | last=Lewis}}</ref>
+When the camel exhales, [[water vapor]] becomes trapped in their nostrils and is reabsorbed into the body as a means to conserve water.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/1981/07/12/travel/a-pilgrimage-to-a-mystic-s-hermitage-in-algeria.html |title=A Pilgrimage To A Mystic's Hermitage In Algeria|newspaper=The New York Times |date=12 July 1981 |accessdate=7 March 2009| first=Paul | last=Lewis}}</ref> Camels eating green herbage can ingest sufficient moisture in milder conditions to maintain their bodies' hydrated state without the need for drinking.<ref name=fao94>{{cite book|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0690e/t0690e09.htm|title=A manual for primary animal health care worker|chapter=Camels, llamas and alpacas|year=1994|issn=1020-5187|series=FAO Animal Health Manual|publisher=FAO Agriculture and Consumer Protection}}</ref>
 [[File:Camel cart.JPG|left|thumb|alt=A camel harnessed to a cart loaded with branches and twigs|Camels are used as draft animals in [[Pakistan]].]]
-Camels eating green herbage can ingest sufficient moisture in milder conditions to maintain their bodies' hydrated state without the need for drinking.<ref name=fao94>{{cite book|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0690e/t0690e09.htm|title=A manual for primary animal health care worker|chapter=Camels, llamas and alpacas|year=1994|issn=1020-5187|series=FAO Animal Health Manual|publisher=FAO Agriculture and Consumer Protection}}</ref>
-The camels' thick coats insulate them from the intense heat radiated from desert sand, and a shorn camel has to sweat 50% more to avoid overheating.<ref>{{cite book|last=Schmidt-Nielsen|first=K.|year=1964|title=Desert Animals: Physiological Problems of Heat and Water|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press}} Cited in {{cite web|url=http://www.bio.davidson.edu/Courses/anphys/1999/Blackwell/Fur.htm|title=Coat of fur on the camel|publisher=Davidson College|work=Temperature and Water Relations in Dromedary Camels (''Camelus dromedarius'')}}</ref> During the summer the coat becomes lighter in color, reflecting light and also helping avoid sunburn.<ref name=mares99 /> Its long legs help by keeping them farther from the hot ground, which can heat up to {{convert|70|°C|°F|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name=bronxzoo>{{cite web | author = Bronx Zoo | title = Camel Adaptations | accessdate = 29 November 2012 | url = http://www.bronxzoo.com/files/engage.html|publisher=Wildlife Conservation Society|format=Flash }}</ref><ref name=rundel05>{{cite book | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 9780521021418 | last1 = Rundel | first1 = Philip Wilson | first2 = Arthur C.|last2=Gibson | title = Ecological Communities And Processes in a Mojave Desert Ecosystem: Rock Valley, Nevada | date = 30 September 2005|chapter=Adaptations of Mojave Desert Animals |page=130 }}</ref>
+The camels' thick coats insulate them from the intense heat radiated from desert sand, and a shorn camel has to sweat 50% more to avoid overheating.<ref>{{cite book|last=Schmidt-Nielsen|first=K.|year=1964|title=Desert Animals: Physiological Problems of Heat and Water|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press}} Cited in {{cite web|url=http://www.bio.davidson.edu/Courses/anphys/1999/Blackwell/Fur.htm|title=Coat of fur on the camel|publisher=Davidson College|work=Temperature and Water Relations in Dromedary Camels (''Camelus dromedarius'')}}</ref> During the summer the coat becomes lighter in color, reflecting light as well as helping avoid sunburn.<ref name=mares99 /> Its long legs help by keeping them farther from the hot ground, which can heat up to {{convert|70|°C|°F|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name=bronxzoo>{{cite web | author = Bronx Zoo | title = Camel Adaptations | accessdate = 29 November 2012 | url = http://www.bronxzoo.com/files/engage.html|publisher=Wildlife Conservation Society|format=Flash }}</ref><ref name=rundel05>{{cite book | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 9780521021418 | last1 = Rundel | first1 = Philip Wilson | first2 = Arthur C.|last2=Gibson | title = Ecological Communities And Processes in a Mojave Desert Ecosystem: Rock Valley, Nevada | date = 30 September 2005|chapter=Adaptations of Mojave Desert Animals |page=130 }}</ref>
-Camels' mouths have a thick leathery lining, allowing them to chew thorny desert plants. Long eyelashes and ear hairs, together with nostrils they can close, form a barrier against sand. If sand gets lodged in their eyes, they can dislodge it using their transparent third eyelid. The camels' gait and widened feet help them move without sinking into the sand.<ref name=netindustries>{{cite web | publisher = Net Industries | title = Camels - Old World Camels | work = Science Encyclopedia | accessdate = 29 November 2012 | url = http://science.jrank.org/pages/1151/Camels-Old-world-camels.html }}</ref><ref name=silverstein08>{{cite book | publisher = Twenty-First Century Books | isbn = 9780822534341 | last1 = Silverstein | first1 = Alvin | first2 = Virginia B|last2= Silverstein|first3=Virginia|last3=Silverstein<!--No, really.-->|first4=Laura|last4=Silverstein Nunn | title = Adaptation | year = 2008|pages=42–43 }}</ref><ref name=bronxzoo />
+Camels' mouths have a thick leathery lining, allowing them to chew thorny desert plants. Long eyelashes and ear hairs, together with nostrils that can close, form a barrier against sand. If sand gets lodged in their eyes, they can dislodge it using their [[Nicitating membrane|transparent third eyelid]]. The camels' gait and widened feet help them move without sinking into the sand.<ref name=netindustries>{{cite web | publisher = Net Industries | title = Camels - Old World Camels | work = Science Encyclopedia | accessdate = 29 November 2012 | url = http://science.jrank.org/pages/1151/Camels-Old-world-camels.html }}</ref><ref name=silverstein08>{{cite book | publisher = Twenty-First Century Books | isbn = 9780822534341 | last1 = Silverstein | first1 = Alvin | first2 = Virginia B|last2= Silverstein|first3=Virginia|last3=Silverstein<!--No, really.-->|first4=Laura|last4=Silverstein Nunn | title = Adaptation | year = 2008|pages=42–43 }}</ref><ref name=bronxzoo />
-The [[kidney]]s and [[intestines]] of a camel are very efficient at reabsorbing water. [[Camel urine]] comes out as a thick syrup, and camel feces are so dry, they can fuel fires.<ref name=davidson-kidney>{{cite web | publisher = Davidson College | title = Kidneys and Concentrated Urine | work = Temperature and Water Relations in Dromedary Camels (''Camelus dromedarius'')|accessdate=3 December 2012}}</ref><ref name=junglestore>{{cite web | title = Fun facts about the Camel | work = The Jungle Store | accessdate = 3 December 2012 | url = http://www.thejunglestore.com/Camels }}</ref>
+The [[kidney]]s and [[intestines]] of a camel are very efficient at reabsorbing water. [[Camel urine]] comes out as a thick syrup, and camel feces are so dry, the [[Bedouins]] use it to fuel fires.<ref name=davidson06 /><ref name=davidson-kidney>{{cite web | publisher = Davidson College | title = Kidneys and Concentrated Urine | work = Temperature and Water Relations in Dromedary Camels (''Camelus dromedarius'')|accessdate=3 December 2012}}</ref><ref name=junglestore>{{cite web | title = Fun facts about the Camel | work = The Jungle Store | accessdate = 3 December 2012 | url = http://www.thejunglestore.com/Camels }}</ref><ref name=fedewa00 />
 Camels' [[immune system]] differs from those of other mammals. Normally, the Y-shaped [[antibody]] molecules consist of two heavy (or long) chains along the length of the Y, and two light (or short) chains at each tip of the Y. Camels, in addition to these, also have antibodies made of only two heavy chains, a trait that makes them smaller and more durable. These "heavy-chain-only" antibodies, discovered in 1993, are thought to have developed 50&nbsp;million years ago, after camelids split from ruminants and pigs.<!--according to biochemist Serge Muyldermans--><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Koenig |first1=R. |title=VETERINARY MEDICINE: 'Camelized' Antibodies Make Waves |journal=Science |volume=318 |issue=5855 |page=1373 |year=2007 |pmid=18048665 |doi=10.1126/science.318.5855.1373}}</ref>
@@ Line 66: / Line 64: @@
 ===Genetics===
 [[File:Camels at Giza.JPG|right|thumb|alt=Three camels in a line: a person rides on the leading camel.| Domesticated camels at the Pyramids of [[Giza, Egypt]]]]
-The [[karyotypes]] of different camelid species have been studied earlier by many groups,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Taylor |first1=K.M. |last2=Hungerford |first2=D.A. |last3=Snyder |first3=R.L. |last4=Ulmer, Jr. |first4=F.A. |title=Uniformity of karyotypes in the Camelidae |journal=Cytogenetic and Genome Research |volume=7 |pages=8–15 |year=1968 |doi=10.1159/000129967}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Koulischer |first1=L |last2=Tijskens |first2=J |last3=Mortelmans |first3=J |title=Mammalian cytogenetics. IV. The chromosomes of two male Camelidae: Camelus bactrianus and Lama vicugna. |journal=Acta zoologica et pathologica Antverpiensia |volume=52 |pages=89–92 |year=1971 |pmid=5163286}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bianchi |first1=N. O. |last2=Larramendy |first2=M. L. |last3=Bianchi |first3=M. S. |last4=Cortés |first4=L. |title=Karyological conservatism in South American camelids |journal=Experientia |volume=42 |pages=622–4 |year=1986 |doi=10.1007/BF01955563}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first1=Thomas D. |last1=Bunch |first2=Warren C. |last2=Foote |first3=Alma |last3=Maciulis |year=1985 |title=Chromosome banding pattern homologies and NORs for the Bactrian camel, guanaco, and llama |journal=Journal of Heredity |volume=76 |issue=2 |pages=115–8 |url=http://jhered.oxfordjournals.org/content/76/2/115.abstract}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-first=Stephen J. |editor1-last=O'Brien |editor2-first=Joan C. |editor2-last=Menninger |editor3-first=William G. |editor3-last=Nash |year=2006 |title=Atlas of Mammalian Chromosomes |location=New York |publisher=Wiley-Liss |isbn=978-0-471-35015-6 |page=547}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Di Berardino |first1=D. |last2=Nicodemo |first2=D. |last3=Coppola |first3=G. |last4=King |first4=A.W. |last5=Ramunno |first5=L. |last6=Cosenza |first6=G.F. |last7=Iannuzzi |first7=L. |last8=Di Meo |first8=G.P. |last9=Balmus |first9=G. |title=Cytogenetic characterization of alpaca (''Lama pacos'', fam. Camelidae) prometaphase chromosomes |journal=Cytogenetic and Genome Research |volume=115 |issue=2 |pages=138–44 |year=2006 |pmid=17065795 |doi=10.1159/000095234}}</ref> but no agreement on chromosome nomenclature of camelids has been reached. A 2007 study [[flow sorting|flow sorted]] camel chromosomes, building on the fact that camels have 37 pairs of chromosomes (2n=74), and found that the karyotime consisted of one [[Centromere#Metacentric|metacentric]], three submetacentric and 32 acrocentric autosomes. The [[Y chromosome|Y]] is a small metacentric chromosome, while the [[X chromosome|X]] is a large metacentric chromosome.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balmus |first1=Gabriel |last2=Trifonov |first2=Vladimir A. |last3=Biltueva |first3=Larisa S. |last4=O’Brien |first4=Patricia C.M. |last5=Alkalaeva |first5=Elena S. |last6=Fu |first6=Beiyuan |last7=Skidmore |first7=Julian A. |last8=Allen |first8=Twink |last9=Graphodatsky |first9=Alexander S. |title=Cross-species chromosome painting among camel, cattle, pig and human: further insights into the putative Cetartiodactyla ancestral karyotype |journal=Chromosome Research |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=499–515 |year=2007 |pmid=17671843 |doi=10.1007/s10577-007-1154-x}}</ref>
+The [[karyotypes]] of different camelid species have been studied earlier by many groups,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Taylor |first1=K.M. |last2=Hungerford |first2=D.A. |last3=Snyder |first3=R.L. |last4=Ulmer, Jr. |first4=F.A. |title=Uniformity of karyotypes in the Camelidae |journal=Cytogenetic and Genome Research |volume=7 |pages=8–15 |year=1968 |doi=10.1159/000129967}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Koulischer |first1=L |last2=Tijskens |first2=J |last3=Mortelmans |first3=J |title=Mammalian cytogenetics. IV. The chromosomes of two male Camelidae: Camelus bactrianus and Lama vicugna. |journal=Acta zoologica et pathologica Antverpiensia |volume=52 |pages=89–92 |year=1971 |pmid=5163286}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bianchi |first1=N. O. |last2=Larramendy |first2=M. L. |last3=Bianchi |first3=M. S. |last4=Cortés |first4=L. |title=Karyological conservatism in South American camelids |journal=Experientia |volume=42 |pages=622–4 |year=1986 |doi=10.1007/BF01955563}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first1=Thomas D. |last1=Bunch |first2=Warren C. |last2=Foote |first3=Alma |last3=Maciulis |year=1985 |title=Chromosome banding pattern homologies and NORs for the Bactrian camel, guanaco, and llama |journal=Journal of Heredity |volume=76 |issue=2 |pages=115–8 |url=http://jhered.oxfordjournals.org/content/76/2/115.abstract}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-first=Stephen J. |editor1-last=O'Brien |editor2-first=Joan C. |editor2-last=Menninger |editor3-first=William G. |editor3-last=Nash |year=2006 |title=Atlas of Mammalian Chromosomes |location=New York |publisher=Wiley-Liss |isbn=978-0-471-35015-6 |page=547}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Di Berardino |first1=D. |last2=Nicodemo |first2=D. |last3=Coppola |first3=G. |last4=King |first4=A.W. |last5=Ramunno |first5=L. |last6=Cosenza |first6=G.F. |last7=Iannuzzi |first7=L. |last8=Di Meo |first8=G.P. |last9=Balmus |first9=G. |title=Cytogenetic characterization of alpaca (''Lama pacos'', fam. Camelidae) prometaphase chromosomes |journal=Cytogenetic and Genome Research |volume=115 |issue=2 |pages=138–44 |year=2006 |pmid=17065795 |doi=10.1159/000095234}}</ref> but no agreement on chromosome nomenclature of camelids has been reached. A 2007 study [[flow sorting|flow sorted]] camel chromosomes, building on the fact that camels have 37 pairs of chromosomes (2n=74), and found that the karyotime consisted of one [[Centromere#Metacentric|metacentric]], three submetacentric, and 32 acrocentric autosomes. The [[Y chromosome|Y]] is a small metacentric chromosome, while the [[X chromosome|X]] is a large metacentric chromosome.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balmus |first1=Gabriel |last2=Trifonov |first2=Vladimir A. |last3=Biltueva |first3=Larisa S. |last4=O’Brien |first4=Patricia C.M. |last5=Alkalaeva |first5=Elena S. |last6=Fu |first6=Beiyuan |last7=Skidmore |first7=Julian A. |last8=Allen |first8=Twink |last9=Graphodatsky |first9=Alexander S. |title=Cross-species chromosome painting among camel, cattle, pig and human: further insights into the putative Cetartiodactyla ancestral karyotype |journal=Chromosome Research |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=499–515 |year=2007 |pmid=17671843 |doi=10.1007/s10577-007-1154-x}}</ref>
-According to molecular data, the New World and Old World camelids diverged 11 million years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stanley |first1=H. F. |last2=Kadwell |first2=M. |last3=Wheeler |first3=J. C. |title=Molecular Evolution of the Family Camelidae: A Mitochondrial DNA Study |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=256 |pages=1–6 |year=1994 |doi=10.1098/rspb.1994.0041}}</ref> In spite of this, these species can still hybridize and produce live offspring.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Skidmore |first1=J. A. |last2=Billah |first2=M. |last3=Binns |first3=M. |last4=Short |first4=R. V. |last5=Allen |first5=W. R. |title=Hybridizing Old and New World camelids: Camelus dromedarius x Lama guanicoe |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=266 |pages=649–56 |year=1999 |doi=10.1098/rspb.1999.0685}}</ref> The [[hybrid camel]] has one hump, though it has an indentation {{convert|4|–|12|cm|in|abbr=on}} deep that divided the front from the back. The ''tulu'' is {{convert|2.15|m|ftin|abbr=on}} at the shoulder and {{convert|2.32|m|ftin|abbr=on}} tall at the hump and. It weighs an average of {{convert|650|kg|lb|abr=on}} and can carry around {{convert|400|to|450|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, which is more than either the dromedary or Bactrian can.<ref name=potts>{{cite journal|url=http://www.silkroadfoundation.org/newsletter/vol3num1/7_bactrian.php|title=Bactrian Camels and Bactrian-Dromedary Hybrids|last=Potts|first=Danel|journal=Silkroad|volume=3|issue=1}}</ref>
+According to molecular data, the New World and Old World camelids diverged 11 million years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stanley |first1=H. F. |last2=Kadwell |first2=M. |last3=Wheeler |first3=J. C. |title=Molecular Evolution of the Family Camelidae: A Mitochondrial DNA Study |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=256 |pages=1–6 |year=1994 |doi=10.1098/rspb.1994.0041}}</ref> In spite of this, these species can still hybridize and produce live offspring.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Skidmore |first1=J. A. |last2=Billah |first2=M. |last3=Binns |first3=M. |last4=Short |first4=R. V. |last5=Allen |first5=W. R. |title=Hybridizing Old and New World camelids: Camelus dromedarius x Lama guanicoe |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=266 |pages=649–56 |year=1999 |doi=10.1098/rspb.1999.0685}}</ref> The [[hybrid camel]] has one hump, though it has an indentation {{convert|4|–|12|cm|in|abbr=on}} deep that divides the front from the back. The hybrid is {{convert|2.15|m|ftin|abbr=on}} at the shoulder and {{convert|2.32|m|ftin|abbr=on}} tall at the hump. It weighs an average of {{convert|650|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and can carry around {{convert|400|to|450|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, which is more than either the dromedary or Bactrian can.<ref name=potts>{{cite journal|url=http://www.silkroadfoundation.org/newsletter/vol3num1/7_bactrian.php|title=Bactrian Camels and Bactrian-Dromedary Hybrids|last=Potts|first=Danel|journal=Silkroad|volume=3|issue=1}}</ref>
-The [[Cama (animal)|cama]] is a camel/llama hybrid bred by scientists who wanted to see how closely related the parent species were.<ref name=bbc-came>{{cite news | title = Meet Rama the cama ... | publisher = BBC | accessdate = 29 November 2012 | date = 21 January 1998| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/49301.stm }}</ref> The scientists collected semen from a camel via an artificial vagina and inseminated a llama after stimulating ovulation with [[gonadotrophin]] injections.<ref name=fahmy02>{{cite web|title='Cama' camel/llama hybrids born in UAE research centre|url=http://www.royalsociety.org.nz/2002/03/21/emirates-cama/|first=Miral|last=Fahmy|date=21 March 2002|accessdate=28 November 2012|work=Science in the News|publisher=The Royal Society of New Zealand}}</ref> The cama has ears halfway between the length of camel and llama ears, no hump, longer legs than the llama, and partially [[cloven-hoof|cloven hooves]].<ref name=campbell05> {{cite news | url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2002/jul/15/highereducation.science | title=Bad karma for cross llama without a hump | publisher=The Guardian | first=Duncan|last=Campbell | date=15 July 2002 | accessdate=2 March 2009 }}</ref><ref name=metrouk>{{cite web | title = Joy for world’s first camel and llama cross | work = Metro UK | accessdate = 29 November 2012 | url = http://www.metro.co.uk/news/136134-joy-for-world-s-first-camel-and-llama-cross |date=6 April 2008}}</ref> According to cama breeder Lulu Skidmore, cama have "the fleece of the llamas" and "the strength and patience of the camel".<ref name=fahmy02 /> Like the [[mule]], camas are sterile, despite both parents having the same number of chromosomes.<ref name=fahmy02>{{cite web|title='Cama' camel/llama hybrids born in UAE research centre|url=http://www.royalsociety.org.nz/2002/03/21/emirates-cama/|first=Miral|last=Fahmy|date=21 March 2002|accessdate=28 November 2012|work=Science in the News|publisher=The Royal Society of New Zealand}}</ref>
+The [[Cama (animal)|cama]] is a camel–llama hybrid bred by scientists who wanted to see how closely related the parent species were.<ref name=bbc-came>{{cite news | title = Meet Rama the cama ... | publisher = BBC | accessdate = 29 November 2012 | date = 21 January 1998| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/49301.stm }}</ref> The scientists collected semen from a camel via an artificial vagina and inseminated a llama after stimulating ovulation with [[gonadotrophin]] injections.<ref name=fahmy02>{{cite web|title='Cama' camel/llama hybrids born in UAE research centre|url=http://www.royalsociety.org.nz/2002/03/21/emirates-cama/|first=Miral|last=Fahmy|date=21 March 2002|accessdate=28 November 2012|work=Science in the News|publisher=The Royal Society of New Zealand}}</ref> The cama has ears halfway between the length of camel and llama ears, no hump, longer legs than the llama, and partially [[cloven-hoof|cloven hooves]].<ref name=campbell05> {{cite news | url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2002/jul/15/highereducation.science | title=Bad karma for cross llama without a hump | publisher=The Guardian | first=Duncan|last=Campbell | date=15 July 2002 | accessdate=2 March 2009 }}</ref><ref name=metrouk>{{cite web | title = Joy for world’s first camel and llama cross | work = Metro UK | accessdate = 29 November 2012 | url = http://www.metro.co.uk/news/136134-joy-for-world-s-first-camel-and-llama-cross |date=6 April 2008}}</ref> According to cama breeder Lulu Skidmore, cama have "the fleece of the llamas" and "the strength and patience of the camel".<ref name=fahmy02 /> Like the [[mule]], camas are sterile, despite both parents having the same number of chromosomes.<ref name=fahmy02>{{cite web|title='Cama' camel/llama hybrids born in UAE research centre|url=http://www.royalsociety.org.nz/2002/03/21/emirates-cama/|first=Miral|last=Fahmy|date=21 March 2002|accessdate=28 November 2012|work=Science in the News|publisher=The Royal Society of New Zealand}}</ref>
 ===Evolution===
 [[File:Stenomylus.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A drawing of two early camels|Antelope-like ancient camel, ''[[Stenomylus]]'']]
 {{see also|Camelops}}
-The earliest known camel, called ''[[Protylopus]]'', lived in North America 40 to 50 million years ago (during the [[Eocene]]).<ref name=mukasa81 /> It was a about the size of a rabbit and lived in the open woodlands of what is now [[South Dakota]].<ref name=harington97>{{cite web | last = Harington | first = C. R. | title = Ice Age Yukon and Alaskan Camels | work = Yukon Beringia Interpretive Centre | accessdate = 3 December 2012 | date = June 1997 | url = http://www.beringia.com/research/camels.html | publisher=Government of Yukon, Department of Tourism and Culture, Museums Unit}}</ref><ref name=bernstein09>{{cite book | publisher = Grove Press | isbn = 9780802144164 | last = Bernstein | first = William J. | title = A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World | date = 6 May 2009 |pages=54–55 }}</ref> By 35 million years ago, the ''[[Poebrotherium]]'' was the size of a goat and had many more traits similar to camels and [[llama]]s.<ref name=northdakota>{{cite document | publisher = North Dakota State Government | author = North Dakota Industrial Commission Department of Mineral Resources | title = Poebrotherium | url = https://www.dmr.nd.gov/ndfossil/poster/PDF/Poebrotherium.pdf | accessdate= 3 December 2012}}</ref><ref name=scibuzz04>{{cite web | publisher = Science Museum of Minnesota | title = Fossil camel skull (Poebrotherium sp.) | work = Science Buzz | accessdate = 3 December 2012 |date=January 2004 | url = http://www.sciencebuzz.org/museum/object/2004_01_fossil_camel_skull_poebrotherium }}</ref> The hoofed ''[[Stenomylus]]'', which walked on the tips of its toes, also existed around this time, and the long-necked ''[[Aepycamelus]]'' developed in the Miocene.<ref name=kindersley08>{{cite encyclopedia | publisher = Penguin | isbn = 9780756682415 | last = Kindersley | first = Dorling | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Life |title=Camels |pages=266–7 | date = 2 June 2008 }}</ref>
+The earliest known camel, called ''[[Protylopus]]'', lived in North America 40 to 50 million years ago (during the [[Eocene]]).<ref name=mukasa81 /> It was a about the size of a rabbit and lived in the open woodlands of what is now [[South Dakota]].<ref name=harington97>{{cite web | last = Harington | first = C. R. | title = Ice Age Yukon and Alaskan Camels | work = Yukon Beringia Interpretive Centre | accessdate = 3 December 2012 | date = June 1997 | url = http://www.beringia.com/research/camels.html | publisher=Government of Yukon, Department of Tourism and Culture, Museums Unit}}</ref><ref name=bernstein09>{{cite book | publisher = Grove Press | isbn = 9780802144164 | last = Bernstein | first = William J. | title = A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World | date = 6 May 2009 |pages=54–55 }}</ref> By 35 million years ago, the ''[[Poebrotherium]]'' was the size of a goat and had many more traits similar to camels and llamas.<ref name=northdakota>{{cite document | publisher = North Dakota State Government | author = North Dakota Industrial Commission Department of Mineral Resources | title = Poebrotherium | url = https://www.dmr.nd.gov/ndfossil/poster/PDF/Poebrotherium.pdf | accessdate= 3 December 2012}}</ref><ref name=scibuzz04>{{cite web | publisher = Science Museum of Minnesota | title = Fossil camel skull (Poebrotherium sp.) | work = Science Buzz | accessdate = 3 December 2012 |date=January 2004 | url = http://www.sciencebuzz.org/museum/object/2004_01_fossil_camel_skull_poebrotherium }}</ref> The hoofed ''[[Stenomylus]]'', which walked on the tips of its toes, also existed around this time, and the long-necked ''[[Aepycamelus]]'' developed in the Miocene.<ref name=kindersley08>{{cite encyclopedia | publisher = Penguin | isbn = 9780756682415 | last = Kindersley | first = Dorling | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Life |title=Camels |pages=266–7 | date = 2 June 2008 }}</ref>
-The direct ancestor of all modern camels, ''[[Procamelus]]'', existed in the upper Miocone and lower Pliocene.<ref name=singh-tomar>{{cite book | edition = 8th revised | publisher = Rastogi Publications | isbn = 9788171336395 | author1 = Singh | author2 = Tomar | title = Evolutionary Biology | location = New Delhi |page=334}}</ref> Around 3–5 million years ago, the North American Camelidae spread to South America via the [[Isthmus of Panama]], where they give rise to [[llamas]] and related animals, and to Asia via the [[Bering Strait]].<ref name=mukasa81 /><ref name=harington97/><ref name=bernstein09/>
+The direct ancestor of all modern camels, ''[[Procamelus]]'', existed in the upper Miocone and lower Pliocene.<ref name=singh-tomar>{{cite book | edition = 8th revised | publisher = Rastogi Publications | isbn = 9788171336395 | author1 = Singh | author2 = Tomar | title = Evolutionary Biology | location = New Delhi |page=334}}</ref> Around 3–5 million years ago, the North American Camelidae spread to South America via the [[Isthmus of Panama]], where they gave rise to [[llamas]] and related animals, and to Asia via the [[Bering Strait]].<ref name=mukasa81 /><ref name=harington97/><ref name=bernstein09/>
 The last camel native to North America was ''[[Camelops hesternus]]'', which vanished along with horses, [[short-faced bear]]s, [[mammoth]]s and [[mastodon]]s, [[ground sloth]]s, [[sabertooth cat]]s, and many other megafauna, coinciding with the migration of humans from Asia.<ref name=macphee99>{{cite book | publisher = Springer | isbn = 9780306460920 | last1 = MacPhee | first1 = Ross D. E. | first2 = Hans-Dieter |last2=Sues | title = Extinctions in Near Time: Causes, Contexts, and Consequences | date = 30 June 1999 |pages=18, 20, 26}}</ref><ref name=worboys10>{{cite book | publisher = Earthscan | isbn = 9781844076048 | last = Worboys | first = Graeme L. | first2 = Wendy L.|last2= Francis|first3= Michael |last3=Lockwood | title = Connectivity Conservation Management: A Global Guide | date = 30 March 2010 |page=142}}</ref>
@@ Line 83: / Line 81: @@
 ==Domestication==
 [[File:A camel with its rider playing kettle drums..jpg|thumb|alt=A painting of a man sitting on a camel and playing the drums|A camel with its rider playing [[kettledrum]]s in the [[Mughal Empire]].]]
-Most camels surviving today are domesticated.<ref name=fedewa00>{{cite web | last = Fedewa | first = Jennifer L. | title = Camelus bactrianus | work = Animal Diversity Web | accessdate = 4 December 2012 | year = 2000 | url = http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Camelus_bactrianus/ |publisher=University of Michigan Museum of Zoology}}</ref><ref name=walker09>{{cite news | last = Walker | first = Matt | title = Wild camels 'genetically unique' | newspaper =Earth News |publisher=BBC| accessdate = 4 December 2012 | date = 22 July 2009 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_8151000/8151804.stm }}</ref> Along with many other megafauna in North America, the original wild camels were wiped out during the spread of [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] from Asia into North America, 12,000 to 10,000 years ago.<ref name=worboys10 /><ref name=macphee99 /> The only wild camels left are the Bactrian camels of the Gobi Desert.<ref name=nationalgeo-bactrian />
+Most camels surviving today are domesticated.<ref name=fedewa00>{{cite web | last = Fedewa | first = Jennifer L. | title = Camelus bactrianus | work = Animal Diversity Web | accessdate = 4 December 2012 | year = 2000 | url = http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Camelus_bactrianus/ |publisher=University of Michigan Museum of Zoology}}</ref><ref name=walker09>{{cite news | last = Walker | first = Matt | title = Wild camels 'genetically unique' | newspaper =Earth News |publisher=BBC| accessdate = 4 December 2012 | date = 22 July 2009 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_8151000/8151804.stm }}</ref> Along with many other megafauna in North America, the original wild camels were wiped out during the spread of [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] from Asia into North America, 12,000 to 10,000 years ago.<ref name=worboys10 /><ref name=macphee99 /> The only wild camels left are the Bactrian camels of the [[Gobi Desert]].<ref name=nationalgeo-bactrian />
 Like the horse, before their extinction in their native land, they spread across the land bridge, moving the opposite direction from the Asian immigration to America, to survive in the Old World and eventually be domesticated and spread globally by humans.
@@ Line 92: / Line 90: @@
 [[File:Camel corps at Magdhaba.jpg|thumb|alt=A painting of soldiers on camels|British Imperial Camel Corps Brigade in Egypt]]
 {{Main|Camel cavalry}}
-By at least 1200 BC, the first camel saddles had appeared, and Bactrian camels could be ridden. The first Arabian saddle was put way to the back of the camel, and control of the Bactrian camel was exercised by means of a stick. However, between 500–100 BC, Bactrian camels finally attained a military use. These new saddles were put over the humps of the animal, and they were also inflexible and bent, dividing the weight sufficiently over the animal. In the seventh century BC, the military Arabian saddle appeared, which improved the saddle design again slightly.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Fagan|editor-first=Brian M.|year=2004|chapter=The Seventy Great Inventions of the Ancient World|chapter=Transportation|location=London|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=0-500-05130-5}}{{Page needed|date=February 2011}}</ref>
+By at least 1200 BC, the first camel saddles had appeared, and Bactrian camels could be ridden. The first Arabian saddle was put way to the back of the camel, and control of the Bactrian camel was exercised by means of a stick. However, between 500–100 BC, Bactrian camels attained military use. New saddles, which were inflexible and bent, were put over the humps and divided the rider's weight over the animal. In the seventh century BC, the military Arabian saddle appeared, which improved the saddle design again slightly.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Fagan|editor-first=Brian M.|year=2004|chapter=The Seventy Great Inventions of the Ancient World|chapter=Transportation|location=London|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=0-500-05130-5}}{{Page needed|date=February 2011}}</ref>
-[[Camel cavalry|Camel cavalries]] have been used in wars throughout Africa, the Middle East, and into modern-day [[Border Security Force]] of [[India]] (though as of July 2012, the BSF has planned the replacement of camels with [[all-terrain vehicle|ATVs]]); the first use of was in the [[Battle of Qarqar]] in 853 BC.<ref name=gabriel07>{{cite book | publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group | isbn = 9780313333484 | last = Gabriel | first = Richard A. | title = Soldiers' Lives Through History: The Ancient World | year = 2007 |page=xvi }}</ref><ref name=bhatia12>{{cite news | last = Bhatia | first = Vimal | title = BSF to ditch camels to ride sand scooters | work = The Times of India | accessdate = 4 December 2012 | date = 23 July 2012 | url = http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/BSF-to-ditch-camels-to-ride-sand-scooters/articleshow/15099086.cms }}</ref><ref name=gann72>{{cite book | publisher = University Press of America | isbn = 9780761815204 | last1 = Gann | first1 = Lewis Henry | first2 = Peter |last2=Duignan | title = Africa and the World: An Introduction to the History of Sub-Saharan Africa from Antiquity to 1840 | year = 1972 |page=156|quote=The camel was acclimatized in Egypt long before the time of Christ and was subsequently adopted by the Berbers of the desert, who used camel cavalry to fight the Romans. The Berbers spread the use of the camel across the Sahara.}}</ref> Armies have also used camels as freight animals instead of horses and mules.<ref name=fleming09>{{cite news | issn = 0161-7370 | volume = 74 | issue = 8 | publisher = Bonnier Corporation | first = Walter L. |last= Fleming | title = Jefferson Davis's Camel Experiment | work = The Popular Science Monthly | date = February 1909 |page=150 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=DyADAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA150 | quote = Other trials of the camel were made in 1859 by Major D. H. Vinton, who used twenty-four of them in carrying burdens for a surveying party...All in all, he concluded, the camel was much superior to the mule.}}</ref><ref name=mantz06>{{cite book | publisher = Heritage House Publishing Co | isbn = 9781894384018 | pages = 51–54 | editor-first = Garnet | editor-last= Basque | last = Mantz | first = John | title = Frontier Days in British Columbia | chapter = Camels in the Cariboo | date = 20 April 2006 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=fecJGyNKtwoC&pg=PA51}}</ref>
+[[Camel cavalry|Camel cavalries]] have been used in wars throughout Africa, the Middle East, and into modern-day [[Border Security Force]] of [[India]] (though as of July 2012, the BSF has planned the replacement of camels with [[all-terrain vehicle|ATVs]]). The first use of camel cavalries was in the [[Battle of Qarqar]] in 853 BC.<ref name=gabriel07>{{cite book | publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group | isbn = 9780313333484 | last = Gabriel | first = Richard A. | title = Soldiers' Lives Through History: The Ancient World | year = 2007 |page=xvi }}</ref><ref name=bhatia12>{{cite news | last = Bhatia | first = Vimal | title = BSF to ditch camels to ride sand scooters | work = The Times of India | accessdate = 4 December 2012 | date = 23 July 2012 | url = http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/BSF-to-ditch-camels-to-ride-sand-scooters/articleshow/15099086.cms }}</ref><ref name=gann72>{{cite book | publisher = University Press of America | isbn = 9780761815204 | last1 = Gann | first1 = Lewis Henry | first2 = Peter |last2=Duignan | title = Africa and the World: An Introduction to the History of Sub-Saharan Africa from Antiquity to 1840 | year = 1972 |page=156|quote=The camel was acclimatized in Egypt long before the time of Christ and was subsequently adopted by the Berbers of the desert, who used camel cavalry to fight the Romans. The Berbers spread the use of the camel across the Sahara.}}</ref> Armies have also used camels as freight animals instead of horses and mules.<ref name=fleming09>{{cite news | issn = 0161-7370 | volume = 74 | issue = 8 | publisher = Bonnier Corporation | first = Walter L. |last= Fleming | title = Jefferson Davis's Camel Experiment | work = The Popular Science Monthly | date = February 1909 |page=150 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=DyADAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA150 | quote = Other trials of the camel were made in 1859 by Major D. H. Vinton, who used twenty-four of them in carrying burdens for a surveying party...All in all, he concluded, the camel was much superior to the mule.}}</ref><ref name=mantz06>{{cite book | publisher = Heritage House Publishing Co | isbn = 9781894384018 | pages = 51–54 | editor-first = Garnet | editor-last= Basque | last = Mantz | first = John | title = Frontier Days in British Columbia | chapter = Camels in the Cariboo | date = 20 April 2006 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=fecJGyNKtwoC&pg=PA51}}</ref>
 In the [[East Roman Empire]], the Romans used [[Auxiliaries (Roman military)|auxiliary]] forces known as ''[[dromedarii]]'', whom they recruited in desert provinces.<ref name=southern07>{{cite book | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 9780195328783 | last = Southern | first = Pat | title = The Roman Army: A Social and Institutional History | date = 1 October 2007 |page=123 }}</ref><ref name=nicolle91>{{cite book | edition = illustrated, reprint | publisher = Osprey Publishing | isbn = 9781855321663 | volume = 5 | last = Nicolle | first = David | title = The Desert Frontier | series = Rome's Enemies | date = 26 March 1991 |page=4 |quote=Nevertheless the military prowess of desert peoples impressed the Romans, who recruited large numbers as auxiliary cavalry and archers. In addition to providing the Roman Army with its best archers, the Easterners (largely Arabs but generally known as 'Syrians') served as Rome's most effective ''dromedarii'' or camel-mounted troops.}}</ref> The camels were used mostly in combat because of their ability to scare off horses at close ranges (horses are afraid of the camels' scent),<ref name=sandiegozoo /> a quality famously employed by the [[Achaemenid]] Persians when fighting [[Lydia]] in the [[Battle of Thymbra]].<ref name=potts/><ref name=herodotus>{{cite book | author = Herodotus | translator = Rawlinson, George | title = The History of Herodotus | accessdate = 4 December 2012 | date = 440 BC | url = http://classics.mit.edu/Herodotus/history.html|quote=He collected together all the camels that had come in the train of his army to carry the provisions and the baggage, and taking off their loads, he mounted riders upon them accoutred as horsemen. These he commanded to advance in front of his other troops against the Lydian horse; behind them were to follow the foot soldiers, and last of all the cavalry. When his arrangements were complete, he gave his troops orders to slay all the other Lydians who came in their way without mercy, but to spare Croesus and not kill him, even if he should be seized and offer resistance. The reason why Cyrus opposed his camels to the enemy's horse was because the horse has a natural dread of the camel, and cannot abide either the sight or the smell of that animal. By this stratagem he hoped to make Croesus's horse useless to him, the horse being what he chiefly depended on for victory. The two armies then joined battle, and immediately the Lydian war-horses, seeing and smelling the camels, turned round and galloped off; and so it came to pass that all Croesus's hopes withered away.}}</ref><ref name=historygroup-nz>{{cite web | publisher = History Group of the New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage | title = Cameliers and camels at war | work = New Zealand History online | accessdate = 5 December 2012 | date = 30 August 2009 | url = http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war/camel-corps }}</ref>
@@ Line 100: / Line 98: @@
 ===19th and 20th centuries===
 *The [[United States Army]] established the [[U.S. Camel Corps]], which was stationed in [[California]] in the late 19th century.<ref name=sandiegozoo /> One may still see stables at the [[Benicia Arsenal]] in [[Benicia, California]], where they nowadays serve as the Benicia Historical Museum.<ref name=military-museum>{{cite web | publisher = The California State Military Museum | title = The Posts at Benicia | accessdate = 4 December 2012 | url = http://www.militarymuseum.org/Benicia.html }}</ref> Though the experimental use of camels was seen as a success ([[John B. Floyd]], [[Secretary of War]] in 1858, recommended that funds be allocated towards obtaining a thousand more camels), the outbreak of the [[American Civil War]] saw the end of the Camel Corps: Texas became part of the Confederacy, and most of the camels were left to wander away into the desert.<ref name=mantz06 />
-*France created a ''[[méhariste]]'' camel corps as part of the Armée d'Afrique in the Sahara from 1902,<ref name=musee-de-l'infanterie>{{cite web | publisher = Musée de l'infanterie | title = Vitrine N° 108 (partie droite): LES PELOTONS MEHARISTES | accessdate = 5 December 2012 | url = http://www.musee-infanterie.com/vitrine/114-vitrine-n-108-partie-droite--les-pelotons-meharistes |lang=French }}</ref> in order to exercise greater control over the camel-riding [[Tuareg]] and Arab insurgents, as previous efforts to defeat them on foot had failed.<ref name=brucehall>{{cite book | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 9781107002876 | last = Hall | first = Bruce S. | title = A History of Race in Muslim West Africa, 1600-1960 | date = 6 June 2011 |page = 143}}</ref> The camel-mounted units remained in service until the end of French rule over Algeria in 1962.<ref name=guillaume12>{{cite news | last = Guillaume | first = Philippe | title = L’incroyable épopée des méharistes français |trans_title=The incredible epic of the French méharistes| newspaper = BDSphère | accessdate = 5 December 2012 | date = 16 June 2012 | url = http://www.bdsphere.fr/2012/06/16/lincroyable-epopee-des-meharistes-francais/ | lang = French}}</ref>
+*France created a ''[[méhariste]]'' camel corps in 1912 as part of the Armée d'Afrique in the Sahara<ref name=musee-de-l'infanterie>{{cite web | publisher = Musée de l'infanterie | title = Vitrine N° 108 (partie droite): LES PELOTONS MEHARISTES | accessdate = 5 December 2012 | url = http://www.musee-infanterie.com/vitrine/114-vitrine-n-108-partie-droite--les-pelotons-meharistes |lang=French }}</ref> in order to exercise greater control over the camel-riding [[Tuareg]] and Arab insurgents, as previous efforts to defeat them on foot had failed.<ref name=brucehall>{{cite book | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 9781107002876 | last = Hall | first = Bruce S. | title = A History of Race in Muslim West Africa, 1600-1960 | date = 6 June 2011 |page = 143}}</ref> The camel-mounted units remained in service until the end of French rule over Algeria in 1962.<ref name=guillaume12>{{cite news | last = Guillaume | first = Philippe | title = L’incroyable épopée des méharistes français |trans_title=The incredible epic of the French méharistes| newspaper = BDSphère | accessdate = 5 December 2012 | date = 16 June 2012 | url = http://www.bdsphere.fr/2012/06/16/lincroyable-epopee-des-meharistes-francais/ | lang = French}}</ref>
 *In 1916, the British created the [[Imperial Camel Corps]]. It was originally used to fight the [[Senussi]], but was later used in the [[Sinai and Palestine Campaign]] in [[World War I]]. The Imperial Camel Corps comprised infantrymen mounted on camels for movement across desert, though they dismounted at battle sites and fought on foot. After July 1918, the Corps began to become run down, receiving no new reinforcements, and was formally disbanded in 1919.<ref name=historygroup-nz>{{cite web | publisher = History Group of the New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage | title = Cameliers and camels at war | work = New Zealand History online | accessdate = 5 December 2012 | date = 30 August 2009 | url = http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war/camel-corps |pages=1, 2, 4, 5}}</ref>
 *In World War I, the British Army also created the [[Egyptian Camel Transport Corps]], which consisted of a group of Egyptian camel drivers and their camels. The Corps supported British war operations in [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]], Palestine, and Syria by transporting supplies to the troops.<ref name=woodward06 >{{cite book | publisher = University Press of Kentucky | isbn = 9780813123837 | last = Woodward | first = David R. | title = Hell in the Holy Land: World War I in the Middle East | year = 2006 | pages=36, 39, 43, 56, 133}}</ref><ref name=murray20>{{cite book | publisher = J.M. Dent | last = Murray | first = Archibald James | title = Sir Archibald Murray's despatches (June 1916–June 1917) | year = 1920 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TgHIAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA123 |page=123 | quote=A great deal of the work of supplying the troops on both fronts has been done by the Camel Transport Corps }}</ref><ref name=mcgregor06>{{cite book | publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group | isbn = 9780275986018 | last = McGregor | first = Andrew James | title = A Military History of Modern Egypt: From the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War | date = 30 May 2006 |page=215 }}</ref>
-*Bactrian camels were used by Romanian forces during World War II in the Caucasian region.<ref name=wwii-color>{{cite web|url=http://www.ww2incolor.com/Romanian+Forces/F_32844_l.html|title=Romanian troops using camels|work=WWII in Color}}</ref>
 *The [[Somaliland Camel Corps]] was created by colonial authorities in [[British Somaliland]] in 1912; it was disbanded in 1944.<ref name=fedresearchdiv04>{{cite book| edition = 3rd| publisher = Kessinger Publishing| isbn = 9781419147999| author = Federal Research Division| title = Somalia a Country Study| series = Area handbook series| date = 30 June 2004 | pages = 230–231}}</ref>
+*Bactrian camels were used by Romanian forces during World War II in the Caucasian region.<ref name=wwii-color>{{cite web|url=http://www.ww2incolor.com/Romanian+Forces/F_32844_l.html|title=Romanian troops using camels|work=WWII in Color}}</ref>
 *The [[Bikaner Camel Corps]] of [[British India]] fought alongside the [[British Indian Army]] in World Wars I and II.<ref name=indianetzone>{{cite web| last = Jupiter Infomedia Ltd| title = Bikaner Camel Corps, Presidency Armies in British India| work = IndiaNetzone| accessdate = 6 December 2012| date = 28 November 2012<!--| url = http://www.indianetzone.com/64/bikaner_camel_corps.htm-->}}</ref>
 *The ''[[Tropas Nómadas]]'' (Nomad Troops) were an auxiliary regiment of [[Sahrawi people|Sahrawi]] tribesmen serving in the colonial army in Spanish Sahara (today Western Sahara). Operational from the 1930s until the end of the Spanish presence in the territory in 1975, the ''Tropas Nómadas'' were equipped with small arms and led by Spanish officers. The unit guarded outposts and sometimes conducted patrols on camelback.<!--Mainly info from "Tropas Nómadas" Wikipedia page, some info confirmed by the following references--><ref name=shelley07>{{cite magazine| last = Shelley| first = Toby| title = Sons of the Clouds| journal = Red Pepper| accessdate = 6 December 2012| date =   December 2007| url = http://www.redpepper.org.uk/sons-of-the-clouds/ | location=Location}}</ref><ref name=hermandad>{{cite web| author = Hermandad de Veteranos Tropas Nómadas del Sáhara| work = Historia: Agrupación de Tropas Nómadas| title = Los Medios| trans_title=The Means| accessdate = 6 December 2012| url = http://hermandadtropasnomadas.com/historia2-11.html | language = Spanish}}</ref>
@@ Line 112: / Line 110: @@
 [[File:Camelcalf-feeding.jpg|right|thumb|Camel calf feeding on its mother's milk]]
-[[Camel milk]] is a [[staple food]] of desert nomad tribes and is sometimes considered a meal in and of itself; a nomad can live on only camel milk for almost a month.<ref name=sandiegozoo /><ref name=bulliet75>{{cite book | publisher = Columbia University Press | isbn = 9780231072359 | last = Bulliet | first = Richard W. | title = The Camel and the Wheel | year = 1975 |pages=23, 25, 28, 35–36, 38–40}}</ref><ref name=davidson06 /><ref name=fao12>{{cite web| publisher = FAO's Animal Production and Health Division| title = Camel Milk| work = Milk & Dairy Products| accessdate = 6 December 2012| date = 25 September 2012| url = http://www.fao.org/AG/AGAInfo/themes/en/dairy/camel.html}}</ref> Camel milk is rich in vitamins, minerals, proteins, and immunoglobulins;<ref name=shamsia09>{{cite journal| volume = 1| issue = 2| pages = 52–58| last = Shamsia| first = S. M.| title = Nutritional and therapeutic properties of camel and human milks| journal = International Journal of Genetics and Molecular Biology| date = July 2009| url=http://www.academicjournals.org/ijgmb/pdf/pdf2009/july/Shamsia.pdf}}</ref> compared to cow's milk, it is lower in fat and higher in lactose, potassium, iron, and vitamin C.<ref name=camello /> [[Bedouin]]s believe the curative powers of camel milk are enhanced if the camel's diet consists of certain desert plants.<ref name=sandiegozoo /><ref name=yagil-milkuses>{{cite book|title=Milk Products and Their Uses|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/X6528E/X6528E04.htm|last=Yagil|quote=The belief among the Bedouin of the Sinai Peninsula, is that any internal disease can be cured by drinking camel milk. The milk is said to be of such a strength, and to have such health-giving properties, that all the bacteria are driven from the body. This said to be true only for camels that eat certain shrubs and bushes. The shrubs and bushes are, themselves, used in the preparation of medicines. However, camels which eat straw are said to lose this ability.}}</ref> Camel milk can readily be made into a drinkable [[yogurt]], as well as butter or cheese, though the yields for the latter tend to be low.<ref name=sandiegozoo /><ref name=fao06 />
+[[Camel milk]] is a [[staple food]] of desert nomad tribes and is sometimes considered a meal in and of itself; a nomad can live on only camel milk for almost a month.<ref name=sandiegozoo /><ref name=bulliet75>{{cite book | publisher = Columbia University Press | isbn = 9780231072359 | last = Bulliet | first = Richard W. | title = The Camel and the Wheel | year = 1975 |pages=23, 25, 28, 35–36, 38–40}}</ref><ref name=davidson06 /><ref name=fao12>{{cite web| publisher = FAO's Animal Production and Health Division| title = Camel Milk| work = Milk & Dairy Products| accessdate = 6 December 2012| date = 25 September 2012| url = http://www.fao.org/AG/AGAInfo/themes/en/dairy/camel.html}}</ref> Camel milk is rich in vitamins, minerals, proteins, and immunoglobulins;<ref name=shamsia09>{{cite journal| volume = 1| issue = 2| pages = 52–58| last = Shamsia| first = S. M.| title = Nutritional and therapeutic properties of camel and human milks| journal = International Journal of Genetics and Molecular Biology| date = July 2009| url=http://www.academicjournals.org/ijgmb/pdf/pdf2009/july/Shamsia.pdf}}</ref> compared to cow's milk, it is lower in fat and higher in lactose, potassium, iron, and vitamin C.<ref name=camello /> Bedouins believe the curative powers of camel milk are enhanced if the camel's diet consists of certain desert plants.<ref name=sandiegozoo /><ref name=yagil-milkuses>{{cite book|title=Milk Products and Their Uses|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/X6528E/X6528E04.htm|last=Yagil|quote=The belief among the Bedouin of the Sinai Peninsula, is that any internal disease can be cured by drinking camel milk. The milk is said to be of such a strength, and to have such health-giving properties, that all the bacteria are driven from the body. This said to be true only for camels that eat certain shrubs and bushes. The shrubs and bushes are, themselves, used in the preparation of medicines. However, camels which eat straw are said to lose this ability.}}</ref> Camel milk can readily be made into a drinkable [[yogurt]], as well as butter or cheese, though the yields for cheese tend to be low.<ref name=sandiegozoo /><ref name=fao06 />
 Camel milk cannot be made into [[butter]] by the traditional churning method. It can be made if it is soured first, churned, and a [[clarifying agent]] added.<ref name=sandiegozoo /> Until recently, camel milk could not be made into [[camel milk|camel cheese]] because [[rennet]] was unable to coagulate the milk proteins to allow the collection of [[curd]]s.<ref name=ramet-making>{{cite book|title=Camel milk and cheese making|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/T0755E/t0755e02.htm |last=Ramet}}</ref> Under the commission of the [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], Professor J.P. Ramet of the [[École Nationale Supérieure d'Agronomie et des Industries Alimentaires]] was able to produce curdling by the addition of [[calcium phosphate]] and vegetable rennet.<ref name=fao06>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/english/newsroom/highlights/2001/010701-e.htm|title=Fresh from your local drome'dairy'?|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization|date=6 July 2001}}</ref> The cheese produced from this process has low levels of cholesterol and is easy to digest, even for the lactose intolerant.<ref name=ramet-processing>{{cite book|title=Methods of processing camel milk into cheese|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/T0755E/t0755e04.htm |last=Ramet}}</ref><ref name=young>{{cite web| last = Young| first = Philippa| title = In Mongolian the Word 'Gobi' Means 'Desert'| accessdate = 6 December 2012| url = http://philippayoung.com/?tag=camelcheese&page=2|quote=As evening approaches we are offered camel meat boats, dumplings stuffed with a finely chopped mixture of meat and vegetables, followed by camel milk tea and finally, warm fresh camel's milk to aid digestion and help us sleep.}}</ref> The sale of camel cheese is limited owing to the small output of the few dairies producing camel cheese and the absence of camel cheese in local (West African) markets.<ref name=fao06 /> Cheese imports from countries that traditionally breed camels are difficult to obtain due to restrictions on dairy imports from these regions.<ref name=assocpress03>{{cite news| author = Associated Press| title = Camel cheese could enrich Sahara Desert herder| newspaper = The Augusta Chronicle| date = 16 November 2003| url=http://chronicle.augusta.com/stories/2003/11/16/biz_392229.shtml|accessdate= 7 December 2012|publisher=Morris Communications LLC}}</ref>
-Camel [[milk]] has been made into [[ice cream]] on a camel farm in the [[Netherlands]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/in-pictures-15589766 |title=Netherland's 'crazy' camel farmer |publisher=BBC |date=5 November 2011 |accessdate=7 November 2011}}</ref>
+Camel [[milk]] has been made into [[ice cream]] in a [[Netherlands]] camel farm.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/in-pictures-15589766 |title=Netherland's 'crazy' camel farmer |publisher=BBC |date=5 November 2011 |accessdate=7 November 2011}}</ref>
 ====Meat====
 [[File:Camels in Dubai 2.jpg|right|thumb|alt=Camels sitting in hay|Domesticated camel calves in [[Dubai]]]]
-A camel [[Body|carcass]] can provide a substantial amount of meat. The male dromedary carcass can weigh {{convert|300|–|400|kg|lb|0|abbr=on|sigfig=1}}, while the carcass of a male Bactrian can weigh up to {{convert|650|kg|lb|0|abbr=on|sigfig=2}}. The carcass of a female camel weighs less than the male, ranging between {{convert|250|and|350|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name=mukasa81 /> The brisket, ribs and loin are among the preferred parts, and the hump is considered a delicacy.<ref name=yagil-camelother>{{cite book|title=Camels Products Other Than Milk|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/X6528E/X6528E06.htm|last=Yagil}}</ref> The hump contains "white and sickly fat", which can be used to make the ''khli'' (preserved meat) of mutton, beef, or camel.<ref name=madame03>{{cite book|title=Traditional Moroccan Cooking: Recipes from Fez|author=Madame Guinaudeau|publisher=Serif|location=London|year=2003|isbn=1-897959-43-5}}</ref> Camel meat is reported to taste like coarse beef, but older camels can prove to be very tough,<ref name=camello /><ref name=mukasa81 /> although camel meat becomes more tender the more it is cooked.<ref name=rubenstein10>{{cite news| last = Rubenstein| first = Dustin| title = How to Cook Camel| newspaper = The New York Times| accessdate = 7 December 2012| date = 23 July 2010| url = http://scientistatwork.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/07/23/how-to-cook-camel/|quote=He cut the pieces very small and cooked them for a long time. I decided to try something a bit different the following night and cut the pieces a bit bigger and cooked them for less time, as I like my meat rarer than he does. This was a bad idea. It seems that the more you cook camel, the more tender it becomes. So we had what amounted to two pounds or more  of rubber for dinner that night.}}</ref> The [[Abu Dhabi]] Officers' Club serves a camel burger mixed with beef or lamb fat in order to improve the texture and taste.<ref name=arthur12>{{cite news| last = Arthur| first = Rick| title = The Instant Expert: camels, the ships of the desert| newspaper = The National| date = 4 January 2012 |accessdate=7 December 2012 | location=UAE|publisher=Abu Dhabi Media|quote=As the meat can be dry, however, the Abu Dhabi Officer's Club, for one, serves camel burger with beef or lamb fat mixed in, improving texture and taste.}}</ref> In [[Karachi, Pakistan]], [[Nihari]] restaurants prepare this dish from camel meat.<ref name=jasra00>{{cite book| publisher = The Camel Applied Research and Development Network| last1 = Jasra| first1 = Abdel Wahid| first2 = G. B. |last2=Isani|author3= Camel Applied Research and Development Network| title = Socio-economics of camel herders in Pakistan| year = 2000|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=aRRJAAAAYAAJ&q=nihari+camel+pakistan&dq=nihari+camel+pakistan|page=164}}</ref>
+A camel [[Body|carcass]] can provide a substantial amount of meat. The male dromedary carcass can weigh {{convert|300|–|400|kg|lb|0|abbr=on|sigfig=1}}, while the carcass of a male Bactrian can weigh up to {{convert|650|kg|lb|0|abbr=on|sigfig=2}}. The carcass of a female dromedary weighs less than the male, ranging between {{convert|250|and|350|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name=mukasa81 /> The brisket, ribs and loin are among the preferred parts, and the hump is considered a delicacy.<ref name=yagil-camelother>{{cite book|title=Camels Products Other Than Milk|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/X6528E/X6528E06.htm|last=Yagil}}</ref> The hump contains "white and sickly fat", which can be used to make the ''khli'' (preserved meat) of mutton, beef, or camel.<ref name=madame03>{{cite book|title=Traditional Moroccan Cooking: Recipes from Fez|author=Madame Guinaudeau|publisher=Serif|location=London|year=2003|isbn=1-897959-43-5}}</ref> Camel meat is reported to taste like coarse beef, but older camels can prove to be very tough,<ref name=camello /><ref name=mukasa81 /> although camel meat becomes more tender the more it is cooked.<ref name=rubenstein10>{{cite news| last = Rubenstein| first = Dustin| title = How to Cook Camel| newspaper = The New York Times| accessdate = 7 December 2012| date = 23 July 2010| url = http://scientistatwork.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/07/23/how-to-cook-camel/|quote=He cut the pieces very small and cooked them for a long time. I decided to try something a bit different the following night and cut the pieces a bit bigger and cooked them for less time, as I like my meat rarer than he does. This was a bad idea. It seems that the more you cook camel, the more tender it becomes. So we had what amounted to two pounds or more  of rubber for dinner that night.}}</ref> The [[Abu Dhabi]] Officers' Club serves a camel burger mixed with beef or lamb fat in order to improve the texture and taste.<ref name=arthur12>{{cite news| last = Arthur| first = Rick| title = The Instant Expert: camels, the ships of the desert| newspaper = The National| date = 4 January 2012 |accessdate=7 December 2012 | location=UAE|publisher=Abu Dhabi Media|quote=As the meat can be dry, however, the Abu Dhabi Officer's Club, for one, serves camel burger with beef or lamb fat mixed in, improving texture and taste.}}</ref> In [[Karachi, Pakistan]], some restaurants prepare [[nihari]] from camel meat.<ref name=jasra00>{{cite book| publisher = The Camel Applied Research and Development Network| last1 = Jasra| first1 = Abdel Wahid| first2 = G. B. |last2=Isani|author3= Camel Applied Research and Development Network| title = Socio-economics of camel herders in Pakistan| year = 2000|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=aRRJAAAAYAAJ&q=nihari+camel+pakistan&dq=nihari+camel+pakistan|page=164}}</ref>
 Camel meat has been eaten for centuries. It has been recorded by [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] writers as an available dish in ancient [[Persia]] at banquets, usually roasted whole.<ref name=sherwood12 /> The ancient [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] emperor [[Elagabalus|Heliogabalus]] enjoyed camel's heel.<ref name=davidson06>{{cite book| edition = 2nd| publisher = Oxford University Press, USA| isbn = 0192806815| last1 = Davidson| first1 = Alan| first2 = Jane|last2= Davidson| editor-first = Tom |editor-last = Jaine| title = The Oxford Companion to Food| date = 15 October 2006 | pages=68, 129, 266, 762}}</ref> Camel meat is still eaten in certain regions, including [[Somalia]], [[Djibouti]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Egypt]], [[Libya]], [[Sudan]], [[Kazakhstan]], and other arid regions where alternative forms of protein may be limited or where camel meat has had a long cultural history.<ref name=mukasa81 /><ref name=davidson06 /><ref name=yagil-camelother /> Camel blood is also consumable, as is the case in northern [[Kenya]], where camel blood is drunken with milk and acts as a key source of [[iron]], [[vitamin D]], salts, and minerals.<ref name=mukasa81 /><ref name=yagil-camelother /><ref name=cnn10>{{cite web| last = Webster| first = George| title = Dubai diners flock to eat new 'camel burger'| work = CNN World| accessdate = 7 December 2012| date = 9 February 2010| url = http://www.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/meast/02/09/camel.burgers.dubai/index.html|publisher=CNN}}</ref> Camel meat is also occasionally found in [[Australian cuisine]]: for example, a camel [[lasagna]] is available in [[Alice Springs]].<ref name=sherwood12>{{cite web| last = Sherwood| first = Andy| title = Camel burgers in Abu Dhabi| work = Time Out Abu Dhabi| accessdate = 7 December 2012| date = 17 September 2012| url = http://www.timeoutabudhabi.com/restaurants/features/35060-camel-burgers-in-abu-dhabi/page/2#.UMIy67ZjyFA}}</ref><ref name=cnn10 />
@@ Line 130: / Line 128: @@
 Camel meat is [[halal]] for [[Islam|Muslims]]; however, according to some [[Islamic schools and branches|Islamic schools of thought]], a state of impurity is brought on by the consumption of it. Consequently, they hold that Muslims must perform'' [[wudhu]]'' before [[salah|praying]].<ref name="purification">{{cite web|url=http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/engagement/resources/texts/muslim/hadith/abudawud/001.sat.html#001.0184|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110716145540/http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/engagement/resources/texts/muslim/hadith/abudawud/001.sat.html#001.0184|archivedate=16 July 2011|series=Partial Translation of Sunan Abu-Dawud, Book 1|work=Purification (Kitab Al-Taharah)|title=Book 1, Number 0184|publisher= Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement|accessdate=25 December|quote=Narrated Al-Bara' ibn Azib: The Messenger of Allah (peace_be_upon_him) was asked about performing ablution after eating the flesh of the camel. He replied: Perform ablution, after eating it. He was asked about performing ablution after eating meat. He replied: Do not perform ablution after eating it. He was asked about saying prayer in places where the camels lie down. He replied: Do not offer prayer in places where the camels lie down. These are the places of Satan. He was asked about saying prayer in the sheepfolds. He replied: You may offer prayer in such places; these are the places of blessing.}}</ref>
-Also, some [[Islamic schools and branches|Islamic schools of thought]] consider it ''[[haraam]]'' for a [[Muslim]] to perform ''[[salah]]'' in places where camels lie, as it is said to be a dwelling place of ''[[shaytan]]''.<ref name="purification"/>
+Also, some [[Islamic schools and branches|Islamic schools of thought]] consider it ''[[haraam]]'' for a Muslim to perform ''[[salah]]'' in places where camels lie, as it is said to be a dwelling place of ''[[shaytan]]''.<ref name="purification"/>
 According to ''[[ahadith]]'' collected by [[Sahih al-Bukhari|Bukhari]] and [[Sahih Muslim|Muslim]], [[Muhammad]] ordered a certain group of people to drink camel milk and urine as a medicine.<ref>{{cite book|title=Sahih Bukhari|others=Translated by M. Muhsin Khan|url=http://sunnah.com/urn/53380 |chapter=Punishment of Disbelievers at War with Allah and His Apostle: Volume 8, Book 82, Hadith 794}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=[[Sahih Muslim]]|others=Translated by Abdul Hamid Siddiqui|url=http://sunnah.com/urn/241300|chapter=The Book Pertaining to the Oath, for Establishing the Responsibility of Murders, Fighting, Requital Book 16 Number 4130–4132}}</ref> However, according to [[Abū Ḥanīfa]], the drinking of camel urine, while not forbidden (''ḥaram''), is disliked (''makrūh'') in Islam.<ref name="alden">{{cite book | title = The Word of Islam | first =John Alden|last= Williams| publisher = [[University of Texas Press]] | year = 1994 | isbn = 9780292790766 | pages =98 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=cbaZiqERLEQC&pg=PA98 }}</ref>
@@ Line 136: / Line 134: @@
 ====Judaism====
 {{see also|Taboo food and drink}}
-According to [[Jewish]] tradition, camel meat and milk are not [[kosher]].<ref name=heinemen>{{cite web| last = Heinemann| first = Moshe| publisher = Star-K| title = Cholov Yisroel: Does a Neshama Good| work = Kashrus Kurrents| accessdate = 7 December 2012| url = http://www.star-k.org/kashrus/kk-issues-cholovYisroel.htm}}</ref> Camels possess only one of the two [[kosher foods|kosher criteria]]; although they [[Ruminant|chew their cud]], they do not possess [[Cloven hoof|cloven hooves]].<ref><code>{{Bibleverse||Leviticus|11|KJV}}</code></ref>
+According to [[Jewish]] tradition, camel meat and milk are not [[kosher]].<ref name=heinemen>{{cite web| last = Heinemann| first = Moshe| publisher = Star-K| title = Cholov Yisroel: Does a Neshama Good| work = Kashrus Kurrents| accessdate = 7 December 2012| url = http://www.star-k.org/kashrus/kk-issues-cholovYisroel.htm}}</ref> Camels possess only one of the two [[kosher foods|kosher criteria]]; although they [[Ruminant|chew their cud]], they do not possess [[Cloven hoof|cloven hooves]]:<ref><code>{{Bibleverse||Leviticus|11|KJV}}</code></ref>
 {{quote|Nevertheless these shall ye not eat of them that only chew the cud, or of them that only part the hoof: the camel, because he cheweth the cud but parteth not the hoof, he is unclean unto you.|{{Biblesource|Leviticus|11:4}}}}
@@ Line 144: / Line 142: @@
 There are around 14 million camels alive as of 2010, with 90% being dromedaries.<ref name=dolby10 /> Dromedaries alive today are [[List of domesticated animals|domesticated animals]] (mostly living in the [[Horn of Africa]], the [[Sahel]], [[Maghreb]], [[Middle East]] and [[South Asia]]). The Horn region alone has the largest concentration of camels in the world,<ref name="Bernstein">{{cite book|first=William J.|last=Bernstein|title=A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World|publisher-Grove Press|year=2009|page=56|isbn=9780802144164}}</span></ref> where the dromedaries constitute an [[Nomadic pastoralism|important part of local nomadic life]]. They provide nomads people in Somalia (which has the largest camel herd in the world)<ref name=mukasa81 /> and Ethiopia with milk, food, and transportation.<ref name=fao12 /><ref name=abokor87>{{cite book| publisher = Nordic Africa Institute| isbn = 9789171062697| last = Abokor| first = Axmed Cali| title = The Camel in Somali Oral Tradition| year = 1987 |pages=7, 10–11}}</ref><ref name=un03>{{cite web| title = Drought threatening Somali nomads, UN humanitarian office says| work = UN News Centre| accessdate = 7 December 2012| date = 14 November 2003| url = http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=8894&Cr=somalia&Cr1=|quote=A four-year drought is threatening the lives of Somali nomads, and those of the camel herds on which they depend for transportation and milk}}</ref><ref name=farah04>{{cite journal| volume = 6| issue = 1| pages = 45–55| last1 = Farah| first1 = K. O.| first2 = D. M. |last2=Nyariki|first3= R. K. |last3=Ngugi|first4=I. M.|last4=Noor|first5=A. Y.|last5=Guliye| title = The Somali and the Camel: Ecology, Management and Economics| journal = Anthropologist| year = 2004|quote=Somali pastoralists are a camel community...There is no other community in the world where the camel plays such a pivotal role in the local economy and culture as in the Somali community. According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 1979) estimates, there are approximately 15 million dromedary camels in the world}} [http://www.mbali.info/doc265.htm Plain text version.]</ref>
 [[File:800px-2003camel.PNG|thumb|left|300px|alt=A world map with large camel populations marked|Commercial camel market headcount in 2003]]
-The Bactrian camel is, as of 2010, reduced to an estimated 1.4&nbsp;million animals, most of which domesticated.<ref name=fedewa00/><ref name=dolby10>{{cite book| publisher = Random House Digital, Inc| isbn = 9780307716255| last = Dolby| first = Karen| title = You Must Remember This: Easy Tricks & Proven Tips to Never Forget Anything, Ever Again| date = 10 August 2010 | page=170}}</ref><ref name=denverzoo>{{cite web| publisher = Denver Zoo| title = Bactrian Camel| accessdate =  7 December 2012| url = http://www.denverzoo.org/downloads/dzoo_bactrian_camel.pdf}}</ref> The only truly wild Bactrian camels, of which there are less than one thousand, are thought to inhabit the [[Gobi Desert]] in China and Mongolia.<ref name=natgeo-bactrian>{{cite web | title = Bactrian Camel: Camelus bactrianus | work = National Geographic | accessdate = 28 November 2012 | url = http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/bactrian-camel/ }}</ref><ref name=iucn-bactrian>{{cite web| publisher = International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources| first = J.|last= Hare| title = Camelus ferus| work = IUCN Redlist| accessdate = 7 December 2012| url = http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/63543/0}}</ref>
+The Bactrian camel is, as of 2010, reduced to an estimated 1.4&nbsp;million animals, most of which domesticated.<ref name=fedewa00/><ref name=dolby10>{{cite book| publisher = Random House Digital, Inc| isbn = 9780307716255| last = Dolby| first = Karen| title = You Must Remember This: Easy Tricks & Proven Tips to Never Forget Anything, Ever Again| date = 10 August 2010 | page=170}}</ref><ref name=denverzoo>{{cite web| publisher = Denver Zoo| title = Bactrian Camel| accessdate =  7 December 2012| url = http://www.denverzoo.org/downloads/dzoo_bactrian_camel.pdf}}</ref> The only truly wild Bactrian camels, of which there are less than one thousand, are thought to inhabit the Gobi Desert in China and Mongolia.<ref name=natgeo-bactrian>{{cite web | title = Bactrian Camel: Camelus bactrianus | work = National Geographic | accessdate = 28 November 2012 | url = http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/bactrian-camel/ }}</ref><ref name=iucn-bactrian>{{cite web| publisher = International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources| first = J.|last= Hare| title = Camelus ferus| work = IUCN Redlist| accessdate = 7 December 2012| url = http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/63543/0}}</ref>
-The [[Australian feral camel|largest population of feral camels is Australia]]; there are around 700,000 feral dromedary camels in central parts of [[Australia]], descended from those introduced as a method of transport in the 19th and early 20th centuries.<ref name=dolby10 /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Saalfeld|first1=W.K.|last2=Edwards|first2=GP|isbn=1741580943|issn=18326684 |year=2008 |title=Managing the impacts of feral camels in Australia: a new way of doing business|chapter=Ecology of feral camels in Australia |format=DKCRC Report 47 |publisher=Desert Knowledge Cooperative Research Centre |location=Alice Springs |isbn=1-74158-094-3 |url=http://www.desertknowledgecrc.com.au/resource/DKCRC-Report-47-Managing-the-impacts-of-feral-camels-in-Australia_A-new-way-of-doing-business.pdf}}</ref><ref name=cnn10 /> This population is growing about 8% per year.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Demography of [[Australian feral camel]]s in Central Australia and its relevance to population control | journal = The Rangeland Journal | first1 = A.R. | last1 = Pople | last2 = McLeod|first2= S.R. | volume = 32 | pages = 11–19| url = http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/RJ09053 | accessdate = 6 June 2011 | doi=10.1071/RJ09053}}</ref> Representatives of the Australian government have culled more than 100,000 of the animals in part because the camels use too much of the limited resources needed by sheep farmers.<ref>{{cite web|last=Tsai|first=Vivian|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6BrHhZiQj|archivedate=1 November 2012|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/australia-culls-100000-feral-camels-limit-environmental-damage-many-more-will-be-killed-789326|title=Australia Culls 100,000 Feral Camels To Limit Environmental Damage, Many More Will Be Killed|date=14 September 2012|work=U.S. Edition|publisher=[[International Business Times]]|accessdate=1 November 2012}}</ref>
+The [[Australian feral camel|largest population of feral camels is in Australia]]. There are around 700,000 feral dromedary camels in central parts of [[Australia]], descended from those introduced as a method of transport in the 19th and early 20th centuries.<ref name=dolby10 /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Saalfeld|first1=W.K.|last2=Edwards|first2=GP|isbn=1741580943|issn=18326684 |year=2008 |title=Managing the impacts of feral camels in Australia: a new way of doing business|chapter=Ecology of feral camels in Australia |format=DKCRC Report 47 |publisher=Desert Knowledge Cooperative Research Centre |location=Alice Springs |isbn=1-74158-094-3 |url=http://www.desertknowledgecrc.com.au/resource/DKCRC-Report-47-Managing-the-impacts-of-feral-camels-in-Australia_A-new-way-of-doing-business.pdf}}</ref><ref name=cnn10 /> This population is growing about 8% per year.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Demography of [[Australian feral camel]]s in Central Australia and its relevance to population control | journal = The Rangeland Journal | first1 = A.R. | last1 = Pople | last2 = McLeod|first2= S.R. | volume = 32 | pages = 11–19| url = http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/RJ09053 | accessdate = 6 June 2011 | doi=10.1071/RJ09053}}</ref> Representatives of the Australian government have culled more than 100,000 of the animals in part because the camels use too much of the limited resources needed by sheep farmers.<ref>{{cite web|last=Tsai|first=Vivian|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6BrHhZiQj|archivedate=1 November 2012|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/australia-culls-100000-feral-camels-limit-environmental-damage-many-more-will-be-killed-789326|title=Australia Culls 100,000 Feral Camels To Limit Environmental Damage, Many More Will Be Killed|date=14 September 2012|work=U.S. Edition|publisher=[[International Business Times]]|accessdate=1 November 2012}}</ref>
-A small population of introduced camels, dromedaries and Bactrians, survived in the wandered through [[Southwest United States]] after having been imported in the 1800s as  part of the [[U.S. Camel Corps]] experiment. When the project ended, they were used as draft animals in mines and escaped or were released. Twenty-five of these camels were bought and imported to Canada during the [[Cariboo Gold Rush]].<ref name=mantz06/>
+A small population of introduced camels, dromedaries and Bactrians, wandered through [[Southwest United States]] after having been imported in the 1800s as  part of the [[U.S. Camel Corps]] experiment. When the project ended, they were used as draft animals in mines and escaped or were released. Twenty-five U.S. camels were bought and imported to Canada during the [[Cariboo Gold Rush]].<ref name=mantz06/>
 == See also ==