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==History==
==History==
The traditional food preparation method of corn (maize), [[nixtamalization]], by native [[New World]] cultivators who had domesticated corn required treatment of the grain with [[calcium hydroxide|lime]], an [[alkali]]. The lime treatment now has been shown to make niacin nutritionally available and reduce the chance of developing pellagra.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rajakumar, K |title=Pellagra in the United States: A Historical Perspective |journal=Southern Medical Journal |volume=98 |issue=3 |pages=272–277 |year=2000 |issn= 00384348 |pmid=10728513}}</ref> When corn cultivation was adopted worldwide, this preparation method was not accepted because the benefit was not understood. The original cultivators, often heavily dependent on corn, did not suffer from pellagra; it became common only when corn became a staple that was eaten without the traditional treatment.
The traditional food preparation method of [[maize]] ("corn"), [[nixtamalization]], by native [[New World]] cultivators who had domesticated corn required treatment of the grain with [[calcium hydroxide|lime]], an [[alkali]]. The lime treatment now has been shown to make niacin nutritionally available and reduce the chance of developing pellagra.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rajakumar, K |title=Pellagra in the United States: A Historical Perspective |journal=Southern Medical Journal |volume=98 |issue=3 |pages=272–277 |year=2000 |issn= 00384348 |pmid=10728513}}</ref> When maize cultivation was adopted worldwide, this preparation method was not accepted because the benefit was not understood. The original cultivators, often heavily dependent on maize, did not suffer from pellagra; it became common only when maize became a staple that was eaten without the traditional treatment.


Pellagra was first described in [[Spain]] in 1735 by [[Gaspar Casal]], who published a first clinical description in his posthumous ''Natural and Medical History of the Asturian Principality'' (1762). This led to the disease being known as "Asturian leprosy", and it is recognized as the first modern pathological description of a syndrome.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Stratigos JD, Katsambas A |title=Pellagra: a still existing disease |journal=Br. J. Dermatol. |volume=96 |issue=1 |pages=99–106 |year=1977 |pmid=843444 |doi= 10.1111/j.1365-2133.1977.tb05197.x}}</ref> It was an endemic disease in northern [[Italy]], where it was named ''pelle agra'' (''pelle'' = skin; ''agra'' = sour) by Francesco Frapoli of [[Milan]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Definition of Pellagra| work = MedicineNet.com | url = http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=4821 | accessdate = 2007-06-18}}</ref> Because pellagra outbreaks occurred in regions where [[maize]] was a dominant food crop, the belief for centuries was that the maize either carried a toxic substance or was a carrier of disease. Pellagra was also conjectured to be carried by insects. Later, the lack of pellagra outbreaks in [[Mesoamerica]], where maize is a major food crop, led researchers to investigate processing techniques in that region.
Pellagra was first described in [[Spain]] in 1735 by [[Gaspar Casal]], who published a first clinical description in his posthumous ''Natural and Medical History of the Asturian Principality'' (1762). This led to the disease being known as "Asturian leprosy", and it is recognized as the first modern pathological description of a syndrome.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Stratigos JD, Katsambas A |title=Pellagra: a still existing disease |journal=Br. J. Dermatol. |volume=96 |issue=1 |pages=99–106 |year=1977 |pmid=843444 |doi= 10.1111/j.1365-2133.1977.tb05197.x}}</ref> It was an endemic disease in northern [[Italy]], where it was named ''pelle agra'' (''pelle'' = skin; ''agra'' = sour) by Francesco Frapoli of [[Milan]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Definition of Pellagra| work = MedicineNet.com | url = http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=4821 | accessdate = 2007-06-18}}</ref> Because pellagra outbreaks occurred in regions where [[maize]] was a dominant food crop, the belief for centuries was that the maize either carried a toxic substance or was a carrier of disease. Pellagra was also conjectured to be carried by insects. Later, the lack of pellagra outbreaks in [[Mesoamerica]], where maize is a major food crop, led researchers to investigate processing techniques in that region.

Revision as of 21:30, 8 January 2013

Pellagra
SpecialtyEndocrinology Edit this on Wikidata

Pellagra is a vitamin deficiency disease most commonly caused by a chronic lack of niacin (vitamin B3) in the diet. It can be caused by decreased intake of niacin or tryptophan,[1] and possibly by excessive intake of leucine.[2] It may also result from alterations in protein metabolism in disorders such as carcinoid syndrome. A deficiency of the amino acid lysine can lead to a deficiency of niacin, as well.[3]

History

The traditional food preparation method of maize ("corn"), nixtamalization, by native New World cultivators who had domesticated corn required treatment of the grain with lime, an alkali. The lime treatment now has been shown to make niacin nutritionally available and reduce the chance of developing pellagra.[4] When maize cultivation was adopted worldwide, this preparation method was not accepted because the benefit was not understood. The original cultivators, often heavily dependent on maize, did not suffer from pellagra; it became common only when maize became a staple that was eaten without the traditional treatment.

Pellagra was first described in Spain in 1735 by Gaspar Casal, who published a first clinical description in his posthumous Natural and Medical History of the Asturian Principality (1762). This led to the disease being known as "Asturian leprosy", and it is recognized as the first modern pathological description of a syndrome.[5] It was an endemic disease in northern Italy, where it was named pelle agra (pelle = skin; agra = sour) by Francesco Frapoli of Milan.[6] Because pellagra outbreaks occurred in regions where maize was a dominant food crop, the belief for centuries was that the maize either carried a toxic substance or was a carrier of disease. Pellagra was also conjectured to be carried by insects. Later, the lack of pellagra outbreaks in Mesoamerica, where maize is a major food crop, led researchers to investigate processing techniques in that region.

Dr. Joseph Goldberger

In the early 1900s, pellagra reached epidemic proportions in the American South. Pellagra deaths in South Carolina numbered 1,306 during the first ten months of 1915; 100,000 Southerners were affected in 1916. At this time, the scientific community held that pellagra was probably caused by a germ or some unknown toxin in corn.[7] The Spartanburg Pellagra Hospital in Spartanburg, South Carolina, was the nation's first facility dedicated to discovering the cause of pellagra. It was established in 1914 with a special congressional appropriation to the U.S. Public Health Service (PHS) and set up primarily for research. In 1915, Joseph Goldberger, assigned to study pellagra by the Surgeon General of the United States, showed pellagra was linked to diet by inducing the disease in prisoners, using the Spartanburg Pellagra Hospital as his clinic. By 1926, Goldberger established a balanced diet or a small amount of brewer's yeast[8] prevented pellagra.

Goldberger experimented on 11 prisoners. Before the experiment, the prisoners were eating fruits and vegetables from the prison garden. Goldberger started feeding them only corn. About two weeks into the experiment, the prisoners complained of headaches, confusion, and loss of appetite. In the third week, seven of the 11 broke out in pellagra, and two prisoners begged for release. Goldberger cured them, feeding them fruits and vegetables again, and gave them their freedom. However, he failed to identify a specific element whose absence caused the pellagra. Goldberger continued his work, and came to realize the cause of Pellegra was a lack of Vitamin B (Niacin)

In 1937, Conrad Elvehjem, of Madison, Wisconsin, showed the vitamin niacin cured pellagra (manifested as black tongue in dogs). Later studies by Dr. Tom Spies, Marion Blankenhorn, and Clark Cooper established that niacin also cured pellagra in humans, for which Time Magazine dubbed them its 1938 Men of the Year in comprehensive science.

Research conducted between 1900 and 1950 found the number of cases of women with pellagra was consistently double the number of cases of afflicted men.[9] This is thought to be due to the inhibitory effect of estrogen on the conversion of the amino acid tryptophan to niacin,[10] or to the differential and unequal access to quality foods within the household. Some researchers of the time gave a few explanations regarding the difference.[11] As primary wage earners, men were given consideration and preference at the dinner table. They also had pocket money to buy food outside the household. Women gave quality protein foods to their children first. Women also would eat after everyone else had a chance to eat.[citation needed]

Gillman and Gillman related skeletal tissue and pellagra in their research in South African Blacks. They provide some of the best evidence for skeletal manifestations of pellagra and the reaction of bone in malnutrition. They claimed radiological studies of adult pellagrins demonstrated marked osteoporosis. A negative mineral balance in pellagrins was noted, which indicated active mobilization and excretion of endogenous mineral substances, and undoubtedly impacted the turnover of bone. Extensive dental caries were present in over half of pellagra patients. In most cases, caries were associated with "severe gingival retraction, sepsis, exposure of cementum, and loosening of teeth".[12] Pellagra is no longer common in the United States.

Epidemiology

Pellagra can be common in people who obtain most of their food energy from maize ("corn" in American English), notably rural South America, where maize is a staple food. If maize is not nixtamalized, it is a poor source of tryptophan, as well as niacin. Nixtamalization corrects the niacin deficiency, and is a common practice in Native American cultures that grow corn. Following the corn cycle, the symptoms usually appear during spring, increase in the summer due to greater sun exposure, and return the following spring. Indeed, pellagra was once endemic in the poorer states of the U.S. South, such as Mississippi and Alabama, as well as among the residents of jails and orphanages as studied by Dr. Joseph Goldberger.

Pellagra is common in Africa, Indonesia, and China. In affluent societies, a majority of patients with clinical pellagra are poor, homeless, alcohol-dependent, or psychiatric patients who refuse food.[13] Pellagra was common among prisoners of Soviet labor camps, the Gulag. It can be found in cases of chronic alcoholism. In addition, pellagra, as a micronutrient deficiency disease, frequently affects populations of refugees and other displaced people due to their unique, long-term residential circumstances and dependence on food aid. Refugees typically rely on limited sources of niacin provided to them, such as groundnuts; the instability in the nutritional content and distribution of food aid can be the cause of pellagra in displaced populations.

Symptoms

The dermatologic features of this disorder include desquamation, erythema, scaling, and keratosis of sun-exposed areas, all of which this patient had.

Pellagra is classically described by "the four D's": diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia and death.[14] A more comprehensive list of symptoms includes:

Frostig and Spies (acc. to Cleary and Cleary) described more specific psychological symptoms of pellagra as:[15]

  • Psychosensory disturbances (impressions as being painful, annoying bright lights, odors intolerance causing nausea and vomiting, dizziness after sudden movements)
  • Psychomotor disturbances (restlessness, tense and a desire to quarrel, increased preparedness for motor action)
  • Emotional disturbances

Pathophysiology

Pellagra can develop according to several mechanisms, all of which ultimately revolve around niacin deficiency. The first is simple dietary lack of niacin. Second, it may result from deficiency of tryptophan,[1] an essential amino acid found in meat, poultry, fish, and eggs[16] that the body converts into niacin. Third, it may be caused by excess leucine, though the relationship is unclear.[2]

Alterations in protein metabolism may also produce pellagra-like symptoms. An example is carcinoid syndrome, a disease in which carcinoid tumors produce excessive serotonin. In normal patients, only one percent of dietary tryptophan is converted to serotonin; however, in patients with carcinoid syndrome, this value may increase to 70%. The diversion of tryptophan to making serotonin in patients with metastatic tumors can result in tryptophan deficiency. Carcinoid syndrome thus may produce decreased protein synthesis, niacin deficiency, and clinical manifestations of pellagra.

Prognosis

Untreated, the disease can kill within four or five years. Treatment is with nicotinamide, a chemical related to niacin. The frequency and amount of nicotinamide administered depends on the degree to which the condition has progressed.

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Pitche P (2005). "Pellagra". Sante. 15 (3): 205–8. PMID 16207585.
  2. ^ a b Bapurao S, Krishnaswamy K (1978). "Vitamin B6 nutritional status of pellagrins and their leucine tolerance". Am J Clin Nutr. 31 (5): 819–24. PMID 206127.
  3. ^ "Lysine | amino acid health benefits, dietary sources, side effects". Vitamins-supplements.org. Retrieved 2012-07-31.
  4. ^ Rajakumar, K (2000). "Pellagra in the United States: A Historical Perspective". Southern Medical Journal. 98 (3): 272–277. ISSN 0038-4348. PMID 10728513.
  5. ^ Stratigos JD, Katsambas A (1977). "Pellagra: a still existing disease". Br. J. Dermatol. 96 (1): 99–106. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2133.1977.tb05197.x. PMID 843444.
  6. ^ "Definition of Pellagra". MedicineNet.com. Retrieved 2007-06-18.
  7. ^ Bollet A (1992). "Politics and pellagra: the epidemic of pellagra in the U.S. in the early twentieth century". Yale J Biol Med. 65 (3): 211–21. PMC 2589605. PMID 1285449.
  8. ^ Swan, Patricia (2005). "Goldberger's War: The Life and Work of a Public Health Crusader (review)". Bulletin of the History of Medicine. 79 (1). The Johns Hopkins University Press: 146–7. doi:10.1353/bhm.2005.0046.
  9. ^ Miller DF (1978). "Pellagra deaths in the United States". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 31 (4): 558–9. PMID 637029.
  10. ^ Brenton, Barrett (2000). "Pellagra, Sex and Gender: Biocultural Perspectives on Differential Diets and Healths". Nutritional Anthropology. 23 (1): 20–24. doi:10.1525/nua.2000.23.1.20. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  11. ^ Carpenter, Kenneth (1981). Pellagra. Stroudsburg, Pa: Hutchinson Ross Pub. Co. ISBN 0-87933-364-2.
  12. ^ Gillman, Joseph (1951). Perspectives in Human Malnutrition: A Contribution to the Biology of Disease from a Clinical and Pathological Study of Chronic Malnutrition and Pellagra in the African. New York, New York: Grune and Stratton. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  13. ^ Jagielska G, Tomaszewicz-Libudzic EC, Brzozowska A (2007). "Pellagra: a rare complication of anorexia nervosa". Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 16 (7): 417–20. doi:10.1007/s00787-007-0613-4. PMID 17712518.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ Hegyi J, Schwartz R, Hegyi V (2004). "Pellagra: dermatitis, dementia, and diarrhea". Int J Dermatol. 43 (1): 1–5. doi:10.1111/j.1365-4632.2004.01959.x. PMID 14693013.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  15. ^ Cleary MJ, Cleary JP (1989). "Anorexia nervosa: a form of subclinical pellagra". Int Clin Nutr Rev. 9: 137–143. ISSN 0813-9008.
  16. ^ Haas EM. "Vitamin B3—Niacin". Excepted from: Staying Healthy with Nutrition: The Complete Guide to Diet and Nutritional Medicine. Retrieved 2007-06-18.

Further reading

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