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===Seasonal Affective Disorder===
===Seasonal Affective Disorder===
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasonal_affective_disorder Seasonal affective disorder] is hypothesized to occur as a result of deficiencies in zeitgebers (such as light) that stimulate the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioural_Activation_System#Gray.27s_Biopsychological_Theory:_Behavioral_Activation_and_Inhibition_Systems reward activation system], resulting in a depressed mood. (citation?) Because circadian clocks synchronize human sleep-wake cycles to coincide with periods of the day during which reward potential is highest - that is, during the daytime<ref name="murray2009"/> - and recent studies have determined that daily rhythms in reward activation in humans are modulated by circadian clocks as well,<ref name="murray2009"/> external influences on those rhythms may influence an individual's mood.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasonal_affective_disorder Seasonal affective disorder] may occur as a result of deficiencies in zeitgebers (such as light) during the winter months that stimulate the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioural_Activation_System#Gray.27s_Biopsychological_Theory:_Behavioral_Activation_and_Inhibition_Systems reward activation system], resulting in a depressed mood. Studies have pointed to melatonin, which is regulated by circadian rhythms, as a possible mechanism. Because circadian clocks synchronize human sleep-wake cycles to coincide with periods of the day during which reward potential is highest - that is, during the daytime<ref name="murray2009"/> - and recent studies have determined that daily rhythms in reward activation in humans are modulated by circadian clocks as well,<ref name="murray2009"/> external influences on those rhythms may influence an individual's mood.


==See also==
==See also==

Revision as of 06:35, 24 April 2013

A zeitgeber is any external or environmental cue that entrains an organism's biological rhythms.[1][2]

History

The term "zeitgeber" (German for "time giver" or "synchronizer") was first used by Jürgen Aschoff, one of the founders of the field of chronobiology. His work demonstrated the existence of endogenous (internal) biological clocks, which synchronize biological rhythms. In addition, he found that certain exogenous (external) cues, which he called zeitgebers, influence the timing of these internal clocks.

Common examples of zeitgebers

  • Light
  • Temperature
  • Social interactions
  • Pharmacological manipulation
  • Exercise
  • Eating/drinking patterns

Zeitgebers and circadian rhythms

Any biological process in the body that repeats itself over a period of approximately 24 hours and maintains this rhythm in the absence of external stimuli is considered a circadian rhythm.[3] It is believed that the brain's suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), or internal pacemaker, is responsible for regulating the body's biological rhythms, influenced by a combination of internal and external cues.[2] When allowed to run freely in the absence of external stimuli, circadian rhythms have a period of about 25 hours.[3] However, humans' circadian rhythms actually tend to run in periods of about 24 hours [4], indicating that these biological rhythms are probably being influenced by environmental cues to run at a slightly shorter cycle. Therefore, changes in external zeitgebers can lead to disturbances in biological rhythms.

Biological rhythms, including cycles related to sleep and wakefulness, mood, and cognitive performance, are synchronized with the body's internal circadian clock.[5] The best way to observe the workings of this clock is to experimentally deprive individuals of external cues like light and social interaction and allow the body to experience a "free-running" environment - that is, one in which there are no zeitgebers to influence the body's rhythms.[5] Under these circumstances, the circadian clock alone modulates the body's biological rhythms. [5] Normally however, external cues like light-dark cycles and social interactions also exert an influence on the body's rhythms. These zeitgebers do so by alerting individuals to changes in the likelihood of possible rewards or threats in the environment. For example, humans are more likely to find food and shelter in the daytime and less likely to detect predators in the nighttime, meaning wakefulness tends to be most fruitful during the day and sleep is the safest activity for the nighttime.[6] Therefore, changes in light and darkness influence the body to rise during the day and become fatigued at night.

There are many different zeitgebers, and their relative influence on an individual at any given time depends on a number of factors, including the presence and operation of other kinds of zeitgebers. For example, Jürgen Aschoff showed that individuals can compensate for the absence of some zeitgebers like natural light by attending to social zeitgebers instead. Specifically, individuals placed in total darkness for four days did not differ on a variety of measures, including body temperature and various psychomotor tasks like time estimation and finger tapping, from individuals placed in an artificial light-dark environment when both groups were given the same strict time schedule.[7] Researchers concluded that social zeitgebers, like meal times and interactions with other people, can entrain biological rhythms in ways similar to those of other common zeitgebers like light.

Effects of changes in zeitgebers

Cognitive performance

Researchers have shown that the 24-hour circadian clock also influences cognitive performance in a wide variety of paradigms, including serial search, verbal reasoning, working memory tasks, suppressing wrong answers, and manual dexterity.[5][8] Performance on these tasks varies over the course of a day, with each type of task having a unique daily rhythm. For example, the best time to perform a working memory task tends to be midday, while immediate memory is best in the morning, and simple processing is ideally performed in the evening.[8] In addition, individual differences among participants can have an effect on daily rhythms in performance. One study found that children performed mental math exercises best in the morning,[9] while another found that young adults did best in the evening.[10] This variation in the performance of various tasks is attributable to a number of factors, including relative working memory load, change in strategy, hemispheric dominance, ability to suppress answers, age, level of practice, and morningness-eveningness, many of which fluctuate according to time of day.[8] Based on these findings, researchers conclude that factors that disturb circadian rhythms can also affect cognitive performance. When an individual experiences changes in zeitgebers, such as being irregularly scheduled for the night shift, those changes can negatively impact an individual in a variety of ways. One example of this phenomenon is jetlag.

Mood disorders

Disturbances in zeitgebers can exert a negative influence on emotion and mood as well as cognitive functioning.[5] The disturbance of biological rhythms by zeitgebers is theorized to increase risk for some forms of psychopathology. There is strong evidence that individuals with depression experience irregular biological rhythms, including disrupted sleep-wake cycles, temperature, and cortisol rhythms.[11] These findings support the theory first proposed by Ehlers, Frank, and Kupfer in 1988 that says that stressful life events can lead to depressive episodes by disrupting social and biological rhythms, leading to negative symptoms like sleep disturbance that can trigger depression in vulnerable individuals.[1] Recent work has also demonstrated that interventions like light therapy, sleep deprivation, and some pharmacological antidepressants may be effective in treating depression by reordering these rhythms to their natural state.[12] Such interventions influence an individual's mood, body temperature, cortisol levels, and melatonin production, all of which appear to be irregular in depressed individuals.


Social zeitgebers and mood disorders

Some researchers have suggested that the disturbances in biological rhythms present in depressed individuals may actually be the result of previous disruptions in social interactions, which serve as cues for those rhythms.[1] For example, newly married or cohabiting couples often need to adjust to each other's sleeping rhythms when beginning to share the same bed for the first time. This adjustment can be difficult and may lead to disruptions in sleep quality and quantity, and possibly increase risk for depression as a result. Recent studies have also found a connection between the disruption of social rhythms and the triggering of manic episodes in bipolar disorder.[13] However, differentiating between zeitgeber disturbances that lead to depression and those that lead to manic episodes has proven difficult.

The aim of Interpersonal and Social Rhythm Therapy (IPSRT) is to regulate and normalize an individual's social rhythms, including meal times, personal relationships, exercise, and social demands. In doing so, therapists hope to normalize, in turn, the individual's biological rhythms and mood. Studies have not found much evidence for individuals with bipolar disorder experiencing increased mood following this treatment, but those individuals did experience longer periods between episodes, indicating that normalizing rhythms may have a preventative effect.[12]

Seasonal Affective Disorder

Seasonal affective disorder may occur as a result of deficiencies in zeitgebers (such as light) during the winter months that stimulate the reward activation system, resulting in a depressed mood. Studies have pointed to melatonin, which is regulated by circadian rhythms, as a possible mechanism. Because circadian clocks synchronize human sleep-wake cycles to coincide with periods of the day during which reward potential is highest - that is, during the daytime[6] - and recent studies have determined that daily rhythms in reward activation in humans are modulated by circadian clocks as well,[6] external influences on those rhythms may influence an individual's mood.

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c Ehlers, C.L., Frank, E. & Kupfer, D.J. (1988). Social zeitgebers and biological rhythms. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 45, 948-952.
  2. ^ a b Grandin, L.D., Alloy, L.B., & Abramson, L.Y. (2006). The social zeitgeber theory, circadian rhythms, and mood disorders: Review and evaluation. Clinical Psychology Review 26, 679–694.
  3. ^ a b Refinetti, R., & Menaker, M. (1992). The circadian rhythm of body temperature. Physiology and Behavior, 51, 613−637.
  4. ^ Panda, S., Hogenesch, J. B., & Kay, S. A. (2002). Circadian rhythms from flies to humans. Nature, 417, 329−335
  5. ^ a b c d e Kyriacou, C.P. & Hastings, M.H. (2010). Circadian clocks: Genes, sleep, and cognition. Trends in Cognitive Science, 14, 259-267
  6. ^ a b c Murray, G., Nicholas, C.L., Kleiman, J., Dwyer, R., Carrington, M.J., Allen, N.B., & Trinder, J. (2009). Nature’s Clocks and Human Mood: The Circadian System Modulates Reward Motivation. Emotion, 9, 5, 705–716.
  7. ^ Aschoff, J. et al. (January 1971). "Circadian Rhythms in Continuous Darkness: Entrainment by Social Cues". Science 171 (3967): 213–215.
  8. ^ a b c Carrier, J. & Monk, T.H. (2000). Circadian rhythms of performance: New trends. CHRONOBIOLOGY INTERNATIONAL, 17, 6, 719-732.
  9. ^ Rutenfranz J, Helbruegge T. 1957. U ̈ ber Tageschwankungen der Rechengeschwindigkeit bei 11-ja ̈hrigen Kindern. Z Kinderheilk. 80:65–82
  10. ^ Blake MJF. 1967. Time of day effects on performance in a range of tasks. Psychonom Sci. 9:349–50.
  11. ^ Howland, R. H., & Thase, M. E. (1999). Affective disorders: Biological aspects. In T. Millon, P. H. Blaney, & R. D. Davis (Eds.), Oxford textbook of psychopathology (pp. 166−202). London: Oxford University Press.
  12. ^ a b Monteleone, P., Martiadis, V., & Maj, M. (2011). Circadian rhythms and treatment implications in depression. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 35, 1569–1574.
  13. ^ Malkoff-Schwartz, S., Frank, E., Anderson, B. P, Hlastala, S. A., Luther, J. F., Sherril, J. T., et al. (2000). Social rhythm disruption and stressful life events in the onset of bipolar and unipolar episodes. Psychological Medicine, 30, 1005−1016.
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