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Coordinates: 12°30′36″N 53°55′12″E / 12.51000°N 53.92000°E / 12.51000; 53.92000
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doi : 10.3406/crai.2002.22441.</ref> As further investigation showed, they were left by sailors who visited the island between the 1st century BC and the 6th century AD. The majority of the texts is written in the Indian [[Brahmi script|Brāhmī script]], but there are also inscriptions in [[South Arabian script|South-Arabian]], [[Ge'ez script|Ethiopian]], Greek, [[Palmyrene script|Palmyrene]] and Bactrian scripts and languages. This corpus of nearly 250 texts and drawings thus constitutes one of the main sources for the investigation of Indian Ocean trade networks in the first centuries of our era.<ref name=strauch>{{cite book|title=Foreign Sailors on Socotra. The inscriptions and drawings from the cave Hoq|year=2012|publisher=Dr. Ute Hempen Verlag|location=Bremen|isbn=978-3-934106-91-8|pages=592|coauthors=Mikhail D. Bukharin, Peter De Geest, Hédi Dridi, Maria Gorea, Julian Jansen Van Rensburg, Christian Julien Robin, Bharati Shelat, Nicholas Sims-Williams, Ingo Strauch|editor=Strauch, Ingo}}</ref>
doi : 10.3406/crai.2002.22441.</ref> As further investigation showed, they were left by sailors who visited the island between the 1st century BC and the 6th century AD. The majority of the texts is written in the Indian [[Brahmi script|Brāhmī script]], but there are also inscriptions in [[South Arabian script|South-Arabian]], [[Ge'ez script|Ethiopian]], Greek, [[Palmyrene script|Palmyrene]] and Bactrian scripts and languages. This corpus of nearly 250 texts and drawings thus constitutes one of the main sources for the investigation of Indian Ocean trade networks in the first centuries of our era.<ref name=strauch>{{cite book|title=Foreign Sailors on Socotra. The inscriptions and drawings from the cave Hoq|year=2012|publisher=Dr. Ute Hempen Verlag|location=Bremen|isbn=978-3-934106-91-8|pages=592|coauthors=Mikhail D. Bukharin, Peter De Geest, Hédi Dridi, Maria Gorea, Julian Jansen Van Rensburg, Christian Julien Robin, Bharati Shelat, Nicholas Sims-Williams, Ingo Strauch|editor=Strauch, Ingo}}</ref>


A local tradition holds that the inhabitants were converted to [[Christianity]] by [[Thomas the Apostle]] in AD 52. In the 10th century, the Arab geographer [[Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani]] stated that in his time most of the inhabitants were Christians.{{Citation needed|date=July 2008}} Socotra is also mentioned in ''[[The Travels of Marco Polo]]''; Marco Polo did not pass anywhere near the island but recorded a report that "the inhabitants are baptised Christians and have an 'archbishop'" who, it is further explained, "has nothing to do with the Pope in Rome, but is subject to an archbishop who lives at Baghdad". They were [[Nestorian Church|Nestorians]] but also practised ancient magic rituals despite the warnings of their archbishop.<ref>{{cite book|last=Polo|first= Marco|title=The Travels of Marco Polo. Translated and with an Introduction by Ronald Latham|publisher= Penguin Books|year=1958|pages=296–297| ISBN =0-14-044057-7}}</ref>
A local tradition holds that the inhabitants were converted to [[Christianity]] by [[Thomas the Apostle]] in AD 52. In the 10th century, the Arab geographer [[Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani]] stated that in his time most of the inhabitants were Christians. Socotra is also mentioned in ''[[The Travels of Marco Polo]]''; Marco Polo did not pass anywhere near the island but recorded a report that "the inhabitants are baptized Christians and have an 'archbishop'" who, it is further explained, "has nothing to do with the Pope in Rome, but is subject to an archbishop who lives at Baghdad". They were [[Nestorian Church|Nestorians]] but also practised ancient magic rituals despite the warnings of their archbishop.<ref>{{cite book|last=Polo|first= Marco|title=The Travels of Marco Polo. Translated and with an Introduction by Ronald Latham|publisher= Penguin Books|year=1958|pages=296–297| ISBN =0-14-044057-7}}</ref>


In 1507, a fleet commanded by [[Tristão da Cunha]] with [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] landed an occupying force at the then capital of Suq. Their objective was a [[Portugal|Portuguese]] base to stop Arab commerce from the [[Red Sea]] to the Indian Ocean, and to liberate the presumed friendly Christians from Islamic rule. Here they started to build a fortress. However, they were not welcomed as enthusiastically as they had expected and abandoned the island four years later, as it was not advantageous as a base.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vtZtMBLJ7GgC&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1 |title=Foundations of the Portuguese empire, 1415–1580|first=Bailey Wallys|last=Diffie|first2=George Davison |last2=Winius|page=233|year=1977|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|isbn=0-8166-0782-6}}</ref>
In 1507, a fleet commanded by [[Tristão da Cunha]] with [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] landed an occupying force at the then capital of Suq. Their objective was a [[Portugal|Portuguese]] base to stop Arab commerce from the [[Red Sea]] to the Indian Ocean, and to liberate the presumed friendly Christians from Islamic rule. Here they started to build a fortress. However, they were not welcomed as enthusiastically as they had expected and abandoned the island four years later, as it was not advantageous as a base.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vtZtMBLJ7GgC&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1 |title=Foundations of the Portuguese empire, 1415–1580|first=Bailey Wallys|last=Diffie|first2=George Davison |last2=Winius|page=233|year=1977|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|isbn=0-8166-0782-6}}</ref>


The islands passed under the control of the [[Mahra Sultanate|Mahra]] sultans in 1511. Later, in January 1876, it became a [[UK|British]] [[protectorate]] along with the remainder of the [[Mahra State of Qishn and Socotra]]. For the British it was an important strategic stop-over.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} The [[Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company|P&O]] ship ''Aden'' sank after being wrecked on a reef near Socotra, in 1897, with the loss of 78 lives.
The islands passed under the control of the [[Mahra Sultanate|Mahra]] sultans in 1511. Later, in January 1876, it became a [[UK|British]] [[protectorate]] along with the remainder of the [[Mahra State of Qishn and Socotra]]. The [[Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company|P&O]] ship ''Aden'' sank after being wrecked on a reef near Socotra, in 1897, with the loss of 78 lives.


In October 1967, the Mahra sultanate was abolished. On 30 November 1967, Socotra became part of [[South Yemen]]. Since [[Yemeni unification]] in 1990 it has been part of the [[Republic of Yemen]].
In October 1967, the Mahra sultanate was abolished. On 30 November 1967, Socotra became part of [[South Yemen]]. Since [[Yemeni unification]] in 1990 it has been part of the [[Republic of Yemen]].
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==Geography and climate==
==Geography and climate==
[[File:Socotra Cave 06.JPG|left|300px|thumb|Halah Cave (كهف حالة) east of the island. [[Stalagmite]]s and [[stalactite]]s show how high it can reach compared to the {{convert|1.7|m|ft}} man with the torch. It is several hundred metres deep, with total darkness.]]
[[File:Socotra Cave 06.JPG|left|300px|thumb|Halah Cave (كهف حالة) east of the island. [[Stalagmite]]s and [[stalactite]]s show how high it can reach compared to the {{convert|1.7|m|ft}} man with the torch. It is several hundred metres deep, with total darkness.]]
Socotra is one of the most isolated landforms on Earth of [[continent]]al origin (i.e. not of [[volcano|volcanic]] origin).{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} The archipelago was once part of the [[supercontinent]] of [[Gondwana]] and detached during the [[Miocene]], in the same set of [[rift (geology)|rift]]ing events that opened the [[Gulf of Aden]] to its northwest.
Socotra is one of the most isolated landforms on Earth of [[continent]]al origin (i.e. not of [[volcano|volcanic]] origin). The archipelago was once part of the [[supercontinent]] of [[Gondwana]] and detached during the [[Miocene]], in the same set of [[rift (geology)|rift]]ing events that opened the [[Gulf of Aden]] to its northwest.


The archipelago consists of the main island of Socotra ({{convert|3665|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}), the three smaller islands of [[Abd al Kuri]], [[Samhah]] and [[Darsa]] and small rock outcrops like Ka'l Fir'awn and Sābūnīyah that are uninhabitable by humans but important for [[seabird]]s.<ref name=GEF>{{cite journal |last1=Shobrak |first1=Mohammed |last2=Alsuhaibany |first2=Abdullah |last3=Al-Sagheir |first3=Omer |others=Photographs by Abdullah Alsuhaibany |month=November |year=2003 |title=Status of Breeding Seabirds in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden |work=PERSGA Technical Series |issue=8 |publisher=Regional Organization for Conservation of Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA) |location=Jeddah, Saudia Arabia |format=PDF |language=English and Arabic |url=http://www.persga.org/Files//Publications/Technical/TS/TS8_Status_of_Breeding_Seabirds.pdf}}</ref>
The archipelago consists of the main island of Socotra ({{convert|3665|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}), the three smaller islands of [[Abd al Kuri]], [[Samhah]] and [[Darsa]] and small rock outcrops like Ka'l Fir'awn and Sābūnīyah that are uninhabitable by humans but important for [[seabird]]s.<ref name=GEF>{{cite journal |last1=Shobrak |first1=Mohammed |last2=Alsuhaibany |first2=Abdullah |last3=Al-Sagheir |first3=Omer |others=Photographs by Abdullah Alsuhaibany |month=November |year=2003 |title=Status of Breeding Seabirds in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden |work=PERSGA Technical Series |issue=8 |publisher=Regional Organization for Conservation of Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA) |location=Jeddah, Saudia Arabia |format=PDF |language=English and Arabic |url=http://www.persga.org/Files//Publications/Technical/TS/TS8_Status_of_Breeding_Seabirds.pdf}}</ref>
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The main island has three geographical terrains: the narrow coastal [[plain]]s, a [[limestone]] [[plateau]] permeated with [[karst]]ic caves, and the Haghier Mountains.<ref name = Flora>{{cite web|url=http://www.socotraislandadventure.com/Socotra_%20fauna&flora.htm|title = Socotra Fauna and Flora}}</ref> The mountains rise to {{convert|1503|m|ft}}.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=11317 |title= Socotra High Point, Yemen |publisher= Peakbagger.com |accessdate =8 October 2011}}</ref> The island is about {{convert|125|km|mi}} long and {{convert|45|km|mi}} north to south.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.socotraislandadventure.com/Socotra_%20fauna&flora.htm |title= Natural History |publisher= DBT Socotra Adventure Tour |accessdate =8 October 2011}}</ref>
The main island has three geographical terrains: the narrow coastal [[plain]]s, a [[limestone]] [[plateau]] permeated with [[karst]]ic caves, and the Haghier Mountains.<ref name = Flora>{{cite web|url=http://www.socotraislandadventure.com/Socotra_%20fauna&flora.htm|title = Socotra Fauna and Flora}}</ref> The mountains rise to {{convert|1503|m|ft}}.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=11317 |title= Socotra High Point, Yemen |publisher= Peakbagger.com |accessdate =8 October 2011}}</ref> The island is about {{convert|125|km|mi}} long and {{convert|45|km|mi}} north to south.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.socotraislandadventure.com/Socotra_%20fauna&flora.htm |title= Natural History |publisher= DBT Socotra Adventure Tour |accessdate =8 October 2011}}</ref>


The climate of Socotra is classified in the [[Köppen climate classification]] as BWh and BSh, meaning a [[tropical climate|tropical]] [[desert climate]] and [[Semi-arid climate|semi-desert climate]] with a mean annual temperature over 25&nbsp;°C (78&nbsp;°F). Yearly rainfall is light, but is fairly spread throughout the year. Generally the higher inland areas receive more rain than the coastal lowlands, due to [[orographic lift]] provided by the interior mountains.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} The [[monsoon]] season brings strong winds and high seas. For many centuries, the sailors of Gujarat called the maritime route near Socotra as "Sikotro Sinh", meaning the lion of Socotra, that constantly roars - referring to the high seas near Socotra.
The climate of Socotra is classified in the [[Köppen climate classification]] as BWh and BSh, meaning a [[tropical climate|tropical]] [[desert climate]] and [[Semi-arid climate|semi-desert climate]] with a mean annual temperature over 25&nbsp;°C (78&nbsp;°F). Yearly rainfall is light, but is fairly spread throughout the year. Generally the higher inland areas receive more rain than the coastal lowlands, due to [[orographic lift]] provided by the interior mountains. The [[monsoon]] season brings strong winds and high seas. For many centuries, the sailors of Gujarat called the maritime route near Socotra as "Sikotro Sinh", meaning the lion of Socotra, that constantly roars - referring to the high seas near Socotra.


{{Weather box |metric first= Yes |single line= Yes |location= Socotra
{{Weather box |metric first= Yes |single line= Yes |location= Socotra
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The long geological isolation of the Socotra archipelago and its fierce heat and drought have combined to create a unique and spectacular endemic flora. Botanical field surveys led by the [[Centre for Middle Eastern Plants]] (part of the [[Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh]]) indicate that 307 out of the 825 (37%) plant species on Socotra are endemic, i.e., they are found nowhere else on Earth.<ref name="Miller, A.G. 2004">{{cite book|last=Miller|first=A.G. |last2= Morris|first2=M.|year=2004|title=Ethnoflora of the Socotra Archipelago|publisher=Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh}}</ref> The entire flora of the Socotra Archipelago has been assessed for the [[IUCN Red List]], with 3 Critically Endangered and 27 Endangered plant species recognised in 2004.<ref name="Miller, A.G. 2004"/>
The long geological isolation of the Socotra archipelago and its fierce heat and drought have combined to create a unique and spectacular endemic flora. Botanical field surveys led by the [[Centre for Middle Eastern Plants]] (part of the [[Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh]]) indicate that 307 out of the 825 (37%) plant species on Socotra are endemic, i.e., they are found nowhere else on Earth.<ref name="Miller, A.G. 2004">{{cite book|last=Miller|first=A.G. |last2= Morris|first2=M.|year=2004|title=Ethnoflora of the Socotra Archipelago|publisher=Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh}}</ref> The entire flora of the Socotra Archipelago has been assessed for the [[IUCN Red List]], with 3 Critically Endangered and 27 Endangered plant species recognised in 2004.<ref name="Miller, A.G. 2004"/>


One of the most striking of Socotra's plants is the [[dragon's blood]] tree (''[[Dracaena cinnabari]]''), which is a strange-looking, umbrella-shaped tree. Its red sap was thought to be the dragon's blood of the ancients, sought after as a medicine and a dye,{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}} and today used as paint and varnish.<ref name="Miller, A.G. 2004"/> Also important in ancient times were Socotra's various endemic [[aloe]]s, used medicinally, and for cosmetics. Other endemic plants include the giant succulent tree ''[[Dorstenia gigas]]'', the cucumber tree ''[[Dendrosicyos socotranus]]'', the rare Socotran pomegranate (''[[Punica protopunica]]''), ''[[Aloe perryi]]'', and ''[[Boswellia socotrana]]''.<ref name=Kingdon>{{Cite book| last = Kingdon | first = Jonathan | authorlink = Jonathan Kingdon | title = Island Africa: The Evolution of Africa's Rare Plants and Animals | location = Princeton, New Jersey | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 1989 | pages = 38–42 | isbn = 0-691-08560-9}}</ref>
One of the most striking of Socotra's plants is the [[dragon's blood]] tree (''[[Dracaena cinnabari]]''), which is a strange-looking, umbrella-shaped tree. Its red sap was thought to be the dragon's blood of the ancients, sought after as a medicine and a dye, and today used as paint and varnish.<ref name="Miller, A.G. 2004"/> Also important in ancient times were Socotra's various endemic [[aloe]]s, used medicinally, and for cosmetics. Other endemic plants include the giant succulent tree ''[[Dorstenia gigas]]'', the cucumber tree ''[[Dendrosicyos socotranus]]'', the rare Socotran pomegranate (''[[Punica protopunica]]''), ''[[Aloe perryi]]'', and ''[[Boswellia socotrana]]''.<ref name=Kingdon>{{Cite book| last = Kingdon | first = Jonathan | authorlink = Jonathan Kingdon | title = Island Africa: The Evolution of Africa's Rare Plants and Animals | location = Princeton, New Jersey | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 1989 | pages = 38–42 | isbn = 0-691-08560-9}}</ref>


The island group also has a rich fauna, including several endemic species of [[bird]]s, such as the [[Socotra Starling]] (''Onychognathus frater''), the [[Socotra Sunbird]] (''Nectarinia balfouri''), [[Socotra Bunting]] (''Emberiza socotrana''), [[Socotra Cisticola]] (''Cisticola haesitatus''), [[Socotra Sparrow]] (''Passer insularis''), [[Socotra Golden-winged Grosbeak]] (''Rhynchostruthus socotranus''), and a species in a monotypic genus, the [[Socotra Warbler]] (''Incana incana'').<ref name=Kingdon/> Many of the bird species are endangered by predation by non-native [[feral cat]]s.<ref name="Burdick2007" /> While there are no native amphibians, the reptiles species are over 90 percent endemic to Socotra and include skinks, legless lizards, and one species of [[chameleon]], ''[[Chamaeleo monachus]]''.
The island group also has a rich fauna, including several endemic species of [[bird]]s, such as the [[Socotra Starling]] (''Onychognathus frater''), the [[Socotra Sunbird]] (''Nectarinia balfouri''), [[Socotra Bunting]] (''Emberiza socotrana''), [[Socotra Cisticola]] (''Cisticola haesitatus''), [[Socotra Sparrow]] (''Passer insularis''), [[Socotra Golden-winged Grosbeak]] (''Rhynchostruthus socotranus''), and a species in a monotypic genus, the [[Socotra Warbler]] (''Incana incana'').<ref name=Kingdon/> Many of the bird species are endangered by predation by non-native [[feral cat]]s.<ref name="Burdick2007" /> While there are no native amphibians, the reptiles species are over 90 percent endemic to Socotra and include skinks, legless lizards, and one species of [[chameleon]], ''[[Chamaeleo monachus]]''.
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==Demographics==
==Demographics==
The indigenous inhabitants of Socotra are mainly of Southern Arabian descent,<ref name="Xavier">{{cite book|first=Georg|last= Schurhammer|title=Francis Xavier; His Life, His Times: India, 1541–1544|volume= 2|publisher=Jesuit Historical Institute|year=1982|page=122}}</ref> and are said to be especially closely related with the [[Qara people|Qara]] and [[Mehri people|Mahra]] groups of Southern [[Arabia]].<ref name="Natvoltn">{{cite journal|editor-first= Norman|editor-last= Lockyer |url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=qVEEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA575|journal= Nature|volume= 29|year= 1884|pages=575–576|title=Socotra}}</ref> There are also a number of residents of [[Somali people|Somali]] and [[India]]n origin.<ref name="Xavier"/> In addition, the island is inhabited by various [[Black people|Black African]] peoples, who are believed to be descendants of runaway slaves.<ref name="Natvoltn"/> [[Socotra Swahili|Swahili]] was spoken by a fifth of the population in 1962, but is now extinct.
The indigenous inhabitants of Socotra are mainly of Southern Arabian descent,<ref name="Xavier">{{cite book|first=Georg|last= Schurhammer|title=Francis Xavier; His Life, His Times: India, 1541–1544|volume= 2|publisher=Jesuit Historical Institute|year=1982|page=122}}</ref> and are said to be especially closely related with the [[Qara people|Qara]] and [[Mehri people|Mahra]] groups of Southern [[Arabia]].<ref name="Natvoltn">{{cite journal|editor-first= Norman|editor-last= Lockyer |url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=qVEEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA575|journal= Nature|volume= 29|year= 1884|pages=575–576|title=Socotra}}</ref> There are also a number of residents of [[Somali people|Somali]] and [[India]]n origin.<ref name="Xavier"/> In addition, the island is inhabited by various [[Black people|Black African]] peoples, who are descendants of runaway slaves.<ref name="Natvoltn"/>


The Semitic language [[Soqotri language|Soqotri]], spoken originally only in Socotra, is related to such other [[Modern South Arabian]] languages on the Arabian mainland as [[Mehri language|Mehri]], Harsusi, [[Bathari language|Bathari]], Shehri, and [[Hobyot language|Hobyot]]. Soqotri is also spoken by minority populations in the [[United Arab Emirates]] and other [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf|Persian Gulf states]].
The Semitic language [[Soqotri language|Soqotri]], spoken originally only in Socotra, is related to such other [[Modern South Arabian]] languages on the Arabian mainland as [[Mehri language|Mehri]], Harsusi, [[Bathari language|Bathari]], Shehri, and [[Hobyot language|Hobyot]]. Soqotri is also spoken by minority populations in the [[United Arab Emirates]] and other [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf|Persian Gulf states]].


The majority of male residents on Socotra are reported to be in the J* subclade of [[Haplogroup J-P209|Y-DNA haplogroup J]]. Several of the female lineages on the island, notably those in [[Haplogroup N (mtDNA)|mtDNA haplogroup N]], are found nowhere else on earth.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}
The majority of male residents on Socotra are reported to be in the J* subclade of [[Haplogroup J-P209|Y-DNA haplogroup J]]. Several of the female lineages on the island, notably those in [[Haplogroup N (mtDNA)|mtDNA haplogroup N]], are found nowhere else on earth.


Almost all inhabitants of Socotra, numbering nearly 50,000,<ref name = Reuters/> live on the homonymous main island of the archipelago. The principal city, [[Hadibu]] (with a population of 8,545 at the [[census]] of 2004); the second largest town, Qulansiyah (population 3,862); and Qād̨ub (population 929){{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} are all located on the north coast of the island of Socotra. Only a few hundred people live on the islands of 'Abd-al-Kūrī and Samha; the island of Darsa and the [[islet]]s of the archipelago are uninhabited.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}}
Almost all inhabitants of Socotra, numbering nearly 50,000,<ref name = Reuters/> live on the homonymous main island of the archipelago.


The archipelago forms two [[Districts of Yemen|districts]] of the [[Hadhramaut Governorate]]:
The archipelago forms two [[Districts of Yemen|districts]] of the [[Hadhramaut Governorate]]:
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The primary occupations of the people of Socotra has traditionally been fishing, [[animal husbandry]], and the cultivation of [[date palm|dates]].
The primary occupations of the people of Socotra has traditionally been fishing, [[animal husbandry]], and the cultivation of [[date palm|dates]].


Monsoons long made the archipelago inaccessible from June to September each year. However, in July 1999, a new airport opened Socotra to the outside world year round, with both [[Yemen Airways]] and [[Felix Airways]] providing flights once a week to [[Aden]] and everyday to [[Sana'a]]. All flights stop at [[Riyan Airport|Riyan-Mukalla Airport]] ([[ICAO]] code "RIY"). Socotra Island Airport ("OYSQ") is located about 12&nbsp;km (8&nbsp;mi) west of the main city, Hadibu, and close to the third largest town in the archipelago, Qād̨ub.<ref>[http://adds.aviationweather.gov/metars/stations.txt aviationweather.gov]</ref> [[Diesel generator]]s make electricity widely available in Socotra, but even in Hadibu there is no electricity from 5:00 a.m. until 9:00 a.m. daily.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} An excellent paved road runs along the north shore from Qulansiyah to Hadibu and then to the DiHamri area; and another paved road, from the northern coast to the southern through the Dixsam Plateau.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} Public transport is limited in Socotra; taxis are available only as a kind of rent-a-car service of four-wheel-drive vehicles with drivers.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}}
Monsoons long made the archipelago inaccessible from June to September each year. However, in July 1999, a new airport opened Socotra to the outside world year round, with both [[Yemen Airways]] and [[Felix Airways]] providing flights once a week to [[Aden]] and everyday to [[Sana'a]]. All flights stop at [[Riyan Airport|Riyan-Mukalla Airport]] ([[ICAO]] code "RIY"). Socotra Island Airport ("OYSQ") is located about 12&nbsp;km (8&nbsp;mi) west of the main city, Hadibu, and close to the third largest town in the archipelago, Qād̨ub.<ref>[http://adds.aviationweather.gov/metars/stations.txt aviationweather.gov]</ref> [[Diesel generator]]s make electricity widely available in Socotra. A paved road runs along the north shore from Qulansiyah to Hadibu and then to the DiHamri area; and another paved road, from the northern coast to the southern through the Dixsam Plateau.


The former capital is located to the east of Hadibu. A small [[Yemen Army|Yemeni Army]] barracks lies at the western end of Hadibu, and the former President of Yemen, [[Ali Abdullah Saleh]], has a residence there.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}}
The former capital is located to the east of Hadibu. A small [[Yemen Army|Yemeni Army]] barracks lies at the western end of Hadibu, and the former President of Yemen, [[Ali Abdullah Saleh]], has a residence there.


Some residents raise cattle and goats. The chief export products of the island are [[date palm|dates]], [[ghee]], [[tobacco]], and [[fish]].
Some residents raise cattle and goats. The chief export products of the island are [[date palm|dates]], [[ghee]], [[tobacco]], and [[fish]].
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==Transport==
==Transport==
{{Unreferenced section|date=December 2009}}
{{Unreferenced section|date=December 2009}}
Public transport on Socotra is limited to infrequent minibuses to Qulansiyah and to the villages on the northeastern coast; car hire usually means hiring a 4WD car with driver.
Public transport on Socotra is limited.


Ships connect the only Socotra port – 5&nbsp;km (3&nbsp;mi) east of [[Hadibu]] – with the Yemeni coastal city of [[Al Mukalla]]. According to information from the ports, the journey takes 2–3 days and the service is used mostly for cargo.
Ships connect the only Socotra port – 5&nbsp;km (3&nbsp;mi) east of [[Hadibu]] – with the Yemeni coastal city of [[Al Mukalla]]. According to information from the ports, the journey takes 2–3 days and the service is used mostly for cargo.

Revision as of 08:16, 6 July 2013

For the submerged rock in the East China Sea, see Socotra Rock.
Socotra
Map
Geography
LocationIndian Ocean
Coordinates12°30′36″N 53°55′12″E / 12.51000°N 53.92000°E / 12.51000; 53.92000
ArchipelagoSocotra islands
Administration
Yemen
Demographics
Population42,842

Socotra (Template:Lang-ar Suquṭra), also spelled Soqotra, is a small archipelago of four islands in the Indian Ocean.

The largest island, also called Socotra, is about 95% of the landmass of the archipelago. It lies some 240 kilometres (150 mi) east of the Horn of Africa and 380 kilometres (240 mi) south of the Arabian Peninsula.[2] The island is very isolated and through the process of speciation, a third of its plant life is found nowhere else on the planet. It has been described as the most alien-looking place on Earth. The island measures 132 kilometres (82 mi) in length and 49.7 kilometres (30.9 mi) in width.[3]

Socotra is part of the Republic of Yemen. It had long been a part of the 'Adan Governorate. In 2004, it became attached to the Hadhramaut Governorate, which is much closer to the island than 'Adan (although the nearest governorate is Al Mahrah).

Etymology

In the notes to his translation of the Periplus, G.W.B. Huntingford remarks that the name Suqotra is not Greek in origin, but from the Sanskrit dvīpa (Skt. "island") sukhadhara ("supporting, or providing bliss"). Another probable origin of the name is the Arabic "Suq" meaning "market" and "qotra" meaning "dripping frankincense".[4]

History

Map of the Socotra archipelago

There was initially an Oldoway (or Oldowan) culture in Socotra. Oldoway stone tools were found in the area around Hadibo by V.A. Zhukov, a member of the Russian Complex Expedition in 2008.[5][6]

Socotra appears as Dioskouridou ("of Dioscurides") in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a 1st-century AD Greek navigation aid. In the notes to his translation of the Periplus, G.W.B. Huntingford remarks that the name Socotra is not Greek in origin, but derives from the Sanskrit dvipa sukhadhara ("island of bliss").[7] A recent discovery of texts in several languages, including a wooden tablet in Palmyrene dated to the 3rd century AD, indicate the diverse origins of those who used Socotra as a trading base in antiquity.[8]

In 2001 a group of Belgian speleologists of the Socotra Karst Project made a spectacular discovery. Deep inside a huge cave on the island Socotra they came across a large number of inscriptions, drawings and archaeological objects.[9][10] As further investigation showed, they were left by sailors who visited the island between the 1st century BC and the 6th century AD. The majority of the texts is written in the Indian Brāhmī script, but there are also inscriptions in South-Arabian, Ethiopian, Greek, Palmyrene and Bactrian scripts and languages. This corpus of nearly 250 texts and drawings thus constitutes one of the main sources for the investigation of Indian Ocean trade networks in the first centuries of our era.[11]

A local tradition holds that the inhabitants were converted to Christianity by Thomas the Apostle in AD 52. In the 10th century, the Arab geographer Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani stated that in his time most of the inhabitants were Christians. Socotra is also mentioned in The Travels of Marco Polo; Marco Polo did not pass anywhere near the island but recorded a report that "the inhabitants are baptized Christians and have an 'archbishop'" who, it is further explained, "has nothing to do with the Pope in Rome, but is subject to an archbishop who lives at Baghdad". They were Nestorians but also practised ancient magic rituals despite the warnings of their archbishop.[12]

In 1507, a fleet commanded by Tristão da Cunha with Afonso de Albuquerque landed an occupying force at the then capital of Suq. Their objective was a Portuguese base to stop Arab commerce from the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean, and to liberate the presumed friendly Christians from Islamic rule. Here they started to build a fortress. However, they were not welcomed as enthusiastically as they had expected and abandoned the island four years later, as it was not advantageous as a base.[13]

The islands passed under the control of the Mahra sultans in 1511. Later, in January 1876, it became a British protectorate along with the remainder of the Mahra State of Qishn and Socotra. The P&O ship Aden sank after being wrecked on a reef near Socotra, in 1897, with the loss of 78 lives.

In October 1967, the Mahra sultanate was abolished. On 30 November 1967, Socotra became part of South Yemen. Since Yemeni unification in 1990 it has been part of the Republic of Yemen.

Somali pirates have begun using Socotra as a refueling stop for hijacked maritime vessels.[14]

Geography and climate

Halah Cave (كهف حالة) east of the island. Stalagmites and stalactites show how high it can reach compared to the 1.7 metres (5.6 ft) man with the torch. It is several hundred metres deep, with total darkness.

Socotra is one of the most isolated landforms on Earth of continental origin (i.e. not of volcanic origin). The archipelago was once part of the supercontinent of Gondwana and detached during the Miocene, in the same set of rifting events that opened the Gulf of Aden to its northwest.

The archipelago consists of the main island of Socotra (3,665 km2 (1,415 sq mi)), the three smaller islands of Abd al Kuri, Samhah and Darsa and small rock outcrops like Ka'l Fir'awn and Sābūnīyah that are uninhabitable by humans but important for seabirds.[15]

The main island has three geographical terrains: the narrow coastal plains, a limestone plateau permeated with karstic caves, and the Haghier Mountains.[16] The mountains rise to 1,503 metres (4,931 ft).[17] The island is about 125 kilometres (78 mi) long and 45 kilometres (28 mi) north to south.[18]

The climate of Socotra is classified in the Köppen climate classification as BWh and BSh, meaning a tropical desert climate and semi-desert climate with a mean annual temperature over 25 °C (78 °F). Yearly rainfall is light, but is fairly spread throughout the year. Generally the higher inland areas receive more rain than the coastal lowlands, due to orographic lift provided by the interior mountains. The monsoon season brings strong winds and high seas. For many centuries, the sailors of Gujarat called the maritime route near Socotra as "Sikotro Sinh", meaning the lion of Socotra, that constantly roars - referring to the high seas near Socotra.

Climate data for Socotra
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 27.2
(81.0) 		28.5
(83.3) 		30.5
(86.9) 		32.7
(90.9) 		34.2
(93.6) 		33.9
(93.0) 		32.0
(89.6) 		32.3
(90.1) 		32.7
(90.9) 		31.4
(88.5) 		29.8
(85.6) 		28.0
(82.4) 		31.1
(88.0)
Daily mean °C (°F) 22.0
(71.6) 		23.4
(74.1) 		25.1
(77.2) 		27.5
(81.5) 		28.9
(84.0) 		29.0
(84.2) 		27.6
(81.7) 		27.5
(81.5) 		27.6
(81.7) 		26.0
(78.8) 		24.2
(75.6) 		22.7
(72.9) 		26.0
(78.7)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 16.8
(62.2) 		18.3
(64.9) 		19.8
(67.6) 		22.2
(72.0) 		23.7
(74.7) 		24.1
(75.4) 		23.2
(73.8) 		22.8
(73.0) 		22.6
(72.7) 		20.6
(69.1) 		18.7
(65.7) 		17.5
(63.5) 		20.9
(69.6)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 23
(0.9) 		18
(0.7) 		14
(0.6) 		22
(0.9) 		37
(1.5) 		18
(0.7) 		12
(0.5) 		15
(0.6) 		27
(1.1) 		38
(1.5) 		18
(0.7) 		16
(0.6) 		258
(10.2)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.0 mm) 2.0 2.0 2.1 3.4 4.1 6.0 9.7 9.3 4.9 3.2 3.0 3.0 52.7
Average relative humidity (%) 20 21 24 27 29 29 28 27 27 25 22 21 25.2
Source: Climate of Socotra — Climatic Research Unit — University of East Anglia [1]

Flora and fauna

See also: List of spiders of Socotra
Endemic tree species Dracaena cinnabari
An 1890s photograph of endemic tree species Dendrosicyos socotrana, the cucumber tree, by Henry Ogg Forbes

Socotra is considered the jewel of biodiversity in the Arabian Sea.[19] In the 1990s, a team of United Nations biologists conducted a survey of the archipelago’s flora and fauna. They counted nearly 700 endemic species, found nowhere else on earth; only Hawaii, New Caledonia, and the Galapagos Islands have more impressive numbers.[20]

The long geological isolation of the Socotra archipelago and its fierce heat and drought have combined to create a unique and spectacular endemic flora. Botanical field surveys led by the Centre for Middle Eastern Plants (part of the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh) indicate that 307 out of the 825 (37%) plant species on Socotra are endemic, i.e., they are found nowhere else on Earth.[21] The entire flora of the Socotra Archipelago has been assessed for the IUCN Red List, with 3 Critically Endangered and 27 Endangered plant species recognised in 2004.[21]

One of the most striking of Socotra's plants is the dragon's blood tree (Dracaena cinnabari), which is a strange-looking, umbrella-shaped tree. Its red sap was thought to be the dragon's blood of the ancients, sought after as a medicine and a dye, and today used as paint and varnish.[21] Also important in ancient times were Socotra's various endemic aloes, used medicinally, and for cosmetics. Other endemic plants include the giant succulent tree Dorstenia gigas, the cucumber tree Dendrosicyos socotranus, the rare Socotran pomegranate (Punica protopunica), Aloe perryi, and Boswellia socotrana.[22]

The island group also has a rich fauna, including several endemic species of birds, such as the Socotra Starling (Onychognathus frater), the Socotra Sunbird (Nectarinia balfouri), Socotra Bunting (Emberiza socotrana), Socotra Cisticola (Cisticola haesitatus), Socotra Sparrow (Passer insularis), Socotra Golden-winged Grosbeak (Rhynchostruthus socotranus), and a species in a monotypic genus, the Socotra Warbler (Incana incana).[22] Many of the bird species are endangered by predation by non-native feral cats.[20] While there are no native amphibians, the reptiles species are over 90 percent endemic to Socotra and include skinks, legless lizards, and one species of chameleon, Chamaeleo monachus.

As with many isolated island systems, bats are the only mammals native to Socotra. In contrast, the coral reefs of Socotra are diverse, with many endemic species.[22]

Over two thousand years of human settlement on the islands have slowly but continuously changed the environment, and according to Jonathan Kingdon, "the animals and plants that remain represent a degraded fraction of what once existed". The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea says the island had crocodiles and large lizards, and the present reptilian fauna appears to be greatly reduced. Until a few centuries ago, there were rivers and wetlands on the island, greater stocks of the endemic trees, and abundant pasture. The Portuguese recorded the presence of water buffaloes in the early 17th century. Now there are only sand gullies, and many native plants only survive where there is greater moisture or protection from livestock.[22] The remaining Socotra fauna is greatly threatened by goats and other introduced species, as well as climate change.

UNESCO recognition

The island was recognised by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as a world natural heritage site in July 2008. The European Union has supported such a move, calling on both UNESCO and International Organisation of Protecting Environment to classify the island archipelago among the environmental heritages.[23]

Demographics

The indigenous inhabitants of Socotra are mainly of Southern Arabian descent,[1] and are said to be especially closely related with the Qara and Mahra groups of Southern Arabia.[24] There are also a number of residents of Somali and Indian origin.[1] In addition, the island is inhabited by various Black African peoples, who are descendants of runaway slaves.[24]

The Semitic language Soqotri, spoken originally only in Socotra, is related to such other Modern South Arabian languages on the Arabian mainland as Mehri, Harsusi, Bathari, Shehri, and Hobyot. Soqotri is also spoken by minority populations in the United Arab Emirates and other Persian Gulf states.

The majority of male residents on Socotra are reported to be in the J* subclade of Y-DNA haplogroup J. Several of the female lineages on the island, notably those in mtDNA haplogroup N, are found nowhere else on earth.

Almost all inhabitants of Socotra, numbering nearly 50,000,[19] live on the homonymous main island of the archipelago.

The archipelago forms two districts of the Hadhramaut Governorate:

  • the district of Hadibu (حديبو), with a population of 32,285 and a district seat at Hadibu, consists of the eastern two-thirds of the main island of Socotra;
  • the district of Qulansiyah wa 'Abd-al-Kūrī (قلنسيه وعبد الكوري), with a population of 10,557 and a district seat at Qulansiyah, consists of the minor islands (the island of 'Abd-al-Kūrī chief among them) and the western third of the main island.

Economy

The primary occupations of the people of Socotra has traditionally been fishing, animal husbandry, and the cultivation of dates.

Monsoons long made the archipelago inaccessible from June to September each year. However, in July 1999, a new airport opened Socotra to the outside world year round, with both Yemen Airways and Felix Airways providing flights once a week to Aden and everyday to Sana'a. All flights stop at Riyan-Mukalla Airport (ICAO code "RIY"). Socotra Island Airport ("OYSQ") is located about 12 km (8 mi) west of the main city, Hadibu, and close to the third largest town in the archipelago, Qād̨ub.[25] Diesel generators make electricity widely available in Socotra. A paved road runs along the north shore from Qulansiyah to Hadibu and then to the DiHamri area; and another paved road, from the northern coast to the southern through the Dixsam Plateau.

The former capital is located to the east of Hadibu. A small Yemeni Army barracks lies at the western end of Hadibu, and the former President of Yemen, Ali Abdullah Saleh, has a residence there.

Some residents raise cattle and goats. The chief export products of the island are dates, ghee, tobacco, and fish.

At the end of the 1990s, a United Nations Development Program was launched with the aim of providing a close survey of the island of Socotra.[26] The project called Socotra Governance and Biodiversity Project have listed following goals from 2009:

  • Local governance support
  • Development and implementation of mainstreaming tools
  • Strengthening nongovernmental organizations' advocacy
  • Direction of biodiversity conservation benefits to the local people
  • Support to the fisheries sector and training of professionals

Transport

Public transport on Socotra is limited.

Ships connect the only Socotra port – 5 km (3 mi) east of Hadibu – with the Yemeni coastal city of Al Mukalla. According to information from the ports, the journey takes 2–3 days and the service is used mostly for cargo.

Yemenia and Felix Airways fly from Socotra Airport to Sana'a and Aden via Al Mukalla (RIY — Riyan Airport). The Sana'a service operates daily, while Aden flights are on Mondays, as of December 2009.

  • Halah Cave
    Halah Cave
  • Halah Cave
    Halah Cave
  • Halah Cave
    Halah Cave
  • Halah Cave
    Halah Cave
  • Halah Cave
    Halah Cave
  • Halah Cave
    Halah Cave
  • Dixam
    Dixam
  • Qlinsia
    Qlinsia
  • Nawjad
    Nawjad
  • Ar'ar
    Ar'ar

References

  1. ^ a b c Schurhammer, Georg (1982). Francis Xavier; His Life, His Times: India, 1541–1544. Vol. 2. Jesuit Historical Institute. p. 122.
  2. ^ "Socotra islands scenery in Yemen". en.youth.cn. 25 April 2008.
  3. ^ "The Most Alien-Looking Place on Earth". Dark Roasted Blend. 4 September 2008.
  4. ^ socotraislandadventure.com
  5. ^ Amirkhanov, K.A.; Zhukov, V.A.; Naumkin, V.V.; Sedov, A.V. (2009). "Эпоха олдована открыта на острове Сокотра". Pripoda (in Russian) (7).
  6. ^ Davuov, O. M.; Shunkov, M. V. "Международньій Симлозиум "Древнейшие Миграции Человека В Евразии" Махачкала, 6 – 12 сентября 2009 года".
  7. ^ Huntingford, George Wynn Brereton (1980). The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. Hakluyt Society. p. 103. ISBN 0-904180-05-0.
  8. ^ Sidebotham, Steven E. (2011). Berenike and the Ancient Maritime Spice Route. California. p. 189. ISBN 978-0-520-24430-6.
  9. ^ La grotte sanctuaire de Suqutra. Archéologia. No. 396, Janvier 2003.
  10. ^ Robin, C. and Gorea, M. (2002) Les vestiges antiques de la grotte de Hôq (Suqutra, Yémen) (note d'information). In: Comptesrendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 146e année, N. 2, 2002. pp. 409-445. doi : 10.3406/crai.2002.22441.
  11. ^ Strauch, Ingo, ed. (2012). Foreign Sailors on Socotra. The inscriptions and drawings from the cave Hoq. Bremen: Dr. Ute Hempen Verlag. p. 592. ISBN 978-3-934106-91-8. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  12. ^ Polo, Marco (1958). The Travels of Marco Polo. Translated and with an Introduction by Ronald Latham. Penguin Books. pp. 296–297. ISBN 0-14-044057-7.
  13. ^ Diffie, Bailey Wallys; Winius, George Davison (1977). Foundations of the Portuguese empire, 1415–1580. University of Minnesota Press. p. 233. ISBN 0-8166-0782-6.
  14. ^ Saul, Jonathan (5 July 2011). "Somali pirates use Yemen island as fuel base". Reuters. Retrieved 30 August 2011.
  15. ^ Shobrak, Mohammed; Alsuhaibany, Abdullah; Al-Sagheir, Omer (2003). "Status of Breeding Seabirds in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden" (PDF). PERSGA Technical Series (in English and Arabic) (8). Photographs by Abdullah Alsuhaibany. Jeddah, Saudia Arabia: Regional Organization for Conservation of Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA). {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  16. ^ "Socotra Fauna and Flora".
  17. ^ "Socotra High Point, Yemen". Peakbagger.com. Retrieved 8 October 2011.
  18. ^ "Natural History". DBT Socotra Adventure Tour. Retrieved 8 October 2011.
  19. ^ a b FACTBOX-Socotra, jewel of biodiversity in Arabian Sea. Reuters, 2008-04-23
  20. ^ a b Burdick, Alan (25 March 2007). "The Wonder Land of Socotra". T Magazine. New York: New York Times. Retrieved 9 November 2009.
  21. ^ a b c Miller, A.G.; Morris, M. (2004). Ethnoflora of the Socotra Archipelago. Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh.
  22. ^ a b c d Kingdon, Jonathan (1989). Island Africa: The Evolution of Africa's Rare Plants and Animals. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. pp. 38–42. ISBN 0-691-08560-9.
  23. ^ "EU to protect Socotra archipelago environment". Saba Net. Yemen News Agency (SABA). 15 April 2008.
  24. ^ a b Lockyer, Norman, ed. (1884). "Socotra". Nature. 29: 575–576.
  25. ^ aviationweather.gov
  26. ^ socotraproject.org

Further reading

  • Agafonov, Vladimir (2006/07). "Temethel as the Brightest Element of Soqotran Folk Poetry". Folia Orientalia. 42/43: 241–249. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
  • Agafonov, Vladimir (2013). Mehazelo - Cinderella of Socotra. ISBN 1482319225.
  • Biedermann, Zoltán (2006). Soqotra, Geschichte einer christlichen Insel im Indischen Ozean vom Altertum bis zur frühen Neuzeit. Maritime Asia 17 (in German). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-05421-8.
  • Botting, Douglas (2006) [1958]. Island of the Dragon's Blood (2nd ed.). ISBN 978-1-904246-21-3.
  • Burdick, Alan (25 March 2007). "The Wonder Land of Socotra, Yemen". The New York Times.
  • Casson, Lionel (1989). The Periplus Maris Erythraei. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-04060-5.
  • Cheung, Catherine; DeVantier, Lyndon (2006). Van Damme, Kay (ed.). Socotra: A Natural History of the Islands and their People. Odyssey Books & Guides. ISBN 962-217-770-0.
  • Doe, D. Brian (1970). Field, Henry; Laird, Edith M. (eds.). Socotra: An Archaeological Reconnaissance in 1967. Miami: Field Research Projects.
  • Doe, D. Brian (1992). Socotra: Island of Tranquility. London: Immel.
  • Elie, Serge D. (2004). "Hadiboh: From Peripheral Village to Emerging City". Chroniques Yemenites. 12.
  • Elie, Serge D. (2006). "Soqotra: South Arabia's Strategic Gateway and Symbolic Playground". British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies. 33 (2): 131–160. doi:10.1080/13530190600953278. ISSN 1353-0194. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  • Elie, Serge D. (2007). The Waning of a Pastoralist Community: An Ethnographic Exploration of Soqotra as a Transitional Social Formation (D.Phil Dissertation thesis). University of Sussex. {{cite thesis}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  • Elie, Serge D. (2008). "The Waning of Soqotra's Pastoral Community: Political Incorporation as Social Transformation". Human Organization. 67 (3): 335–345.
  • Elie, Serge D. (2009). "State-Community Relations in Yemen: Soqotra's Historical Formation as a Sub-National Polity". History and Anthropology. 20 (4): 363–393.
  • Elie, Serge D. (2010). "Soqotra: The Historical Formation of a Communal Polity". Chroniques Yéménites. 16: 31–55.
  • Elie, Serge D. (2012). "Fieldwork in Soqotra: The Formation of a Practitioner's Sensibility". Practicing Anthropology. 34 (2): 30–34.
  • Elie, Serge D. (2012). "Cultural Accommodation to State Incorporation: Language Replacement on Soqotra Island". Journal of Arabian Studies. 2 (1): 39–57.
  • Miller, A.G. & Morris, M. (2004) Ethnoflora of the Socotra Archipelago. Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh.
  • Naumkin, V. V.; Sedov, A. V. (1993). "Monuments of Socotra". Athens, Aden, Arikamedu: Essays on the interrelations between India, Arabia and the Eastern Mediterranean. Delhi: Manohar. pp. 193–250. ISBN 81-7304-079-6. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
  • Schoff, Wilfred H. (1974) [1912]. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (2nd. ed.). New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation.
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