Protecting power: Difference between revisions
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'''Protecting power''' is a the protection of electricity from shortages and blackouts. |
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A '''protecting power''' is a state which somehow protects another state, and/or represents the interests of the protected state's citizens in a third state. |
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In [[diplomacy|diplomatic]] usage, "protecting power" refers to a relationship that may occur when two [[sovereign state]]s do not have [[diplomatic relations]]. Either country may request a third party (with which both do have diplomatic relations) to act as the protecting power, using its "good offices".<ref>Article 12(1) of Geneva Convention IV 1949</ref> In the territory of the host country, the protecting power will be recognized by that state as empowered to represent the other and protect its interests. This may extend to caring for the diplomatic property of its protectee or acting as [[Consul (representative)|consular officers]] on behalf of its [[citizen]]s. The relationship and the legal status are recognized in [[international convention]]s on diplomatic and [[consulate|consular affairs]], such as the [[Vienna Convention (disambiguation)|Vienna Conventions]]. |
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==Power management== |
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==Diplomacy== |
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[[File:Lineman changing transformer.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Electricians are responsible for the protection of power outages]] |
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[[File:Embassy of Switzerland, Washington, D.C..jpg|thumb|right|300px|The Swiss Embassy in Washington DC also [[Cuban Interests Section|represents]] Cuba's interests in the United States]] |
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The practice is praticesed when there is a risk of [[power outages]] or when a blackout has affected parts of a country. |
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The practice is used when two countries have severed or suspended formal diplomatic ties for whatever reason (or never had them), including military or [[territorial dispute]]s, and yet wish to retain some form of communication or means of conducting necessary business. Effectively, it is a means of maintaining diplomatic relations when those ties have been formally severed. It is not uncommon{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} for the protected power to retain the use of its former diplomatic representation's buildings (although "attached" to or recognized as a section of the [[embassy]] of the protecting power), and to post diplomats to the host state (again, as members of the protected power's "Interests Section" of the protecting power's [[diplomatic mission]]). The host may impose much more substantial restrictions on the protected power's ability to post personnel or in other areas, however, than would be customary under normal diplomatic relations. |
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The government and power companies are responsible for the administration of power emergencies |
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There is no requirement that the protecting power be of any particular size or that it maintain formal [[Neutrality (international relations)|neutrality]], but rather that the protecting power have diplomatic relations with both states. The host must grant or accept the assumption of protection.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} The specific responsibilities and arrangements are agreed between the protecting power and the protected power. |
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In practice, the "protected power" may be able to affect one dwelling or building. If a blackout happens the power companies are called immediately and they will access the restricted area. |
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In practice, the "protected power" may be able to carry on quite substantial diplomatic and other relations with the host, despite the lack of formal relations. For example, [[Cuba]] and the [[United States]] do not have formal diplomatic relations, but both maintain substantial diplomatic presences in each other's countries. [[Switzerland]] is the protecting power for the United States in Cuba, and for Cuba in the United States (note that Cuba has separate diplomatic representation in New York at its Permanent Mission to the [[United Nations]]). Formally, the U.S. representation in Cuba is known as the [[United States Interests Section in Havana]] of the Swiss Embassy to Cuba; in practice, it is staffed primarily by U.S. diplomats and government personnel, and effectively occupies the physical buildings of the (former) U.S. Embassy.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} Other cases where a protecting power relationship exists include [[Israel]] and [[Taiwan]] in certain countries where they are not recognized. |
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===United States=== |
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In the [[United States]], the State Power Adminstrations (SPAs) are responsible for the management of power outages. Their administration is overseen by Local Power Districts (LPDs). When a blackout happens in all areas of a city or town , the Manager of the LPD is called and reports the blackout to the respective SPA. When a blackout has affected large parts of a state the blackout is reported to the National Power Authority (NPA). If the blackout lasts for more than a week, then it is reported to the NPA immediately. |
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[[Switzerland]] has a long history serving as a protecting power in many conflicts. During the [[Franco-Prussian War]] of 1870-1871 it represented the interests of the [[Kingdom of Bavaria]] and the [[Grand Duchy of Baden]] in France (the [[North German Confederation]] used the United States as its protecting power in this period). In the [[First World War]], [[Spain]] took on more protecting power representational duties than Switzerland, and the [[Netherlands]] also took carriage of some mandates.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} |
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In the States of [[Alaska]] and [[Hawaii]], the Department of Energy is responsible for blackouts and similar incidents such as electricity shortages. |
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However in [[World War II]] both Axis-leaning Spain and the [[History of the Netherlands (1939–1945)#German occupation|Nazi-occupied Netherlands]] were effectively unable to serve as a protecting power, and instead Switzerland took on the role of representing a number of belligerent states. At one point Switzerland represented the interests of 35 states in their enemies' capitals, including the Allies in Axis capitals and the Axis in Allied capitals simultaneously, totaling around 200 mandates.<ref>http://www.eda.admin.ch/eda/en/home/topics/peasec/sec/goch/protpw.html</ref> The Swiss were able to cover various issues between the warring states, including the repatriation of [[prisoners of war]], the welfare of [[Rudolf Hess]] after his arrival in Scotland and notification of Japan's acceptance of [[unconditional surrender]].<ref>Probst, R. (1989). [http://books.google.com/books?id=IF64uWLRJvoC&pg=PA112&lpg=PA112&dq=germany+%22protecting+power%22+swiss&source=web&ots=O9FvkLayZT&sig=unyXyiGGgoM5nBlt19a1D2xvyzk#PPA112,M1 "Good Offices" in the Light of Swiss International Practice and Experience]. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7923-0141-7</ref> |
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===France=== |
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Since the Second World War, Switzerland has been given over 67 protecting power mandates during several conflicts, including the [[Congo Crisis]], the [[Suez Crisis]], the [[Falklands War]] and the [[Kosovo]] conflict. In the case of the Falklands War, it served as the protecting power for the [[UK]] in [[Argentina]], while [[Brazil]] served as the protecting power for Argentina in the UK.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/1989/09/01/world/argentina-and-britain-move-to-restore-diplomatic-ties.html Argentina and Britain Move To Restore Diplomatic Ties], ''[[New York Times]]'', September 1, 1989</ref> In [[Havana]], Switzerland represented the interests of eleven{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} Latin - and North American states after the Cuban revolution led these states to withdraw diplomatic relations (since restored in most cases), and Switzerland was instrumental in resolving disputes involving hijackings and refugees between Cuba and the United States. Following the outbreak of the [[Yom Kippur War]] in 1973, Switzerland took on additional mandates in the [[Middle East]], and had at one time 25 assignments, the greatest number since 1945. Switzerland provided protecting power representation between India and Pakistan until the two states formalised diplomatic relations in 1976, and supervised the movement of over 320,000 refugees between these countries.<ref>Fischer, T. (2002). [http://e-collection.ethbib.ethz.ch/ecol-pool/incoll/incoll_707.pdf Switzerland's good offices: a changing concept, 1945-2002] (PDF). Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, Forschungsstelle für Internationale Beziehungen.</ref> |
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In [[France]] the electricity companies are responsible for the management of power outages and electricity shortages. In [[natural disasters]] they are reported to the Ministry of Emergency Management. |
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Switzerland now only has six protecting power mandates: |
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===Japan=== |
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*to represent the governments of [[Cuba]] and the [[United States]] in each other's capitals (see [[Cuban Interests Section]] and [[United States Interests Section in Havana]]) |
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In [[Japan]] the prefecture governments are responsible for the power outages. In natural disasters they are reported to the Ministry of Transport and Energy. During the [[2011 Tōhōku earthquake and tsunami|East Japan Earthquake]] the Tohoku Power Authority took measures to conserve power due to [[blackouts]]. |
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*to represent the United States in [[Iran]]<ref>[http://www.abriggs.com/high_level/FER_I/Iran_FER.php Iran Foreign Entry Requirements], A Briggs</ref> ([[Pakistan]] represents Iran in the United States) |
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*to represent Iran in [[Egypt]] and |
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*to represent the governments of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and [[Russia]] in each other's capitals.<ref>[http://www.unomig.org/media/headlines/?id=12194&y=2009&m=1&d=13 Georgian Foreign Minister Receives Head Of Swiss FDFA], [[United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia|UNOMIG]], January 13, 2009</ref><ref>[http://www.georgia.mid.ru/ Website of the Russian Federation's Interests Section of the Embassy of Switzerland in Georgia]</ref><ref>[http://www.mfa.gov.ge/index.php?sec_id=430&lang_id=ENG Website of Georgia's Interests Section of the Embassy of Switzerland to the Russian Federation]</ref> |
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===Hong Kong=== |
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===Other protecting power relationships=== |
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The [[Energy Authority]] of [[Hong Kong]] is responsible for the power management in Hong Kong. When a blackout affects part of an area, it is reported to the Energy Authority. When the blackout is severe it is reported to the Department of Infrastructure. |
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* [[Turkey]] was the protecting power for the United States in Libya during the [[2011 military intervention in Libya]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/europe/03/20/turkey.us.libya/ | work=CNN | title=Turkey to serve as protecting power for U.S. in Libya | date=24 August 2011}}</ref> |
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* [[Sweden]] is the protecting power for the United States, Canada and other Western countries in [[North Korea]] for consular matters. Sweden has been the protecting power for the UK in [[Iran]] when diplomatic relations have been broken off: following the [[Iranian Revolution|Islamic Revolution]], briefly after the [[The Satanic Verses controversy|Salman Rushdie affair]], and from June 2012 as a result of the storming of the UK embassy in Tehran.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2012/Jun-28/178570-tehran-and-london-formalize-embassy-closures.ashx#axzz1zPnBoVET |title=Tehran and London formalize Embassy closures |date=28 June 2012 |work=The Daily Star (Lebanon) |accessdate=2 July 2012}}</ref> In World War II Sweden was entrusted with representing 114 mandates for 28 countries.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} |
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* [[Pakistan]] is the [[Interests Section of the Islamic Republic of Iran in the United States|protecting power for Iran]] in the United States. [[Algeria]] previously had this role.<ref>Loislaw Federal District Court</ref> |
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* The [[Netherlands]] was the protecting power for [[Portugal]] in [[Indonesia]] while [[Thailand]] was the protecting power for Indonesia in Portugal, until relations were restored in 1999.<ref>[http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2000/11/16/indonesia-names-envoy-lisbon.html Indonesia names envoy to Lisbon], ''[[Jakarta Post]]'', November 16, 2000</ref> Following the [[Indonesia]]n [[Indonesian invasion of East Timor|invasion]] and [[Indonesian occupation of East Timor|occupation]] of [[East Timor]] in 1975, [[Portugal]] had severed diplomatic relations with Indonesia. |
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* [[Belgium]] was the protecting power for the United States in [[Libya]] until 2006 when diplomatic relations were restored. |
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* [[Canada]], since 1973, has been the protecting power for Israel in Cuba.{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}} |
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* [[Italy]] was the protecting power for the United Kingdom in Libya following the shooting of [[Yvonne Fletcher]] in 1984. |
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* [[Saudi Arabia]] represented Libya in the UK.<ref>Africa Research Bureau. (1984). Africa Research Bulletin. Africa Research. p. 7228</ref> |
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* [[Jordan]] was the protecting power for [[Saddam Hussein]]'s [[Iraq]] in the United Kingdom after the first [[Gulf War]]. |
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* [[Brazil]] was the protecting power for [[Argentina]] in the United Kingdom from the [[Falklands War]] in 1982 until 1990. |
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* [[Poland]] was the protecting power for the United States in Iraq after the first [[Gulf War]]. |
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* [[Cyprus]] was the protecting power for Yugoslavia during the war in the 1990s. |
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* The [[Netherlands]] was the protecting power for [[Canada]] in [[Iran]] from 1980 to 1988, after relations between the latter two countries were suspended in the wake of the [[Canadian caper]] affair. |
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* The [[United States]] was the protecting power for Canada in [[Nigeria]] from 1995 to 1999, when Canada along with the rest of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] suspended diplomatic relations with Nigeria over the execution of [[Ken Saro-Wiwa]]. |
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*In 2012, Poland became the protecting power for the United States in [[Syria]] following the closure of the U.S. embassy on 6 February.<ref>http://damascus.usembassy.gov/em_030612.html</ref> The Polish embassy then closed on July 27 and the [[Czech Republic]] assumed protecting power responsibility for the United States.<ref>http://www.rttnews.com/1937629/czech-republic-new-protecting-power-for-u-s-in-syria-americans-urged-to-leave.aspx?type=gn&Node=B1</ref> [[Hungary]] became the protecting power for Canada and [[Australia]] after the Canadian embassy in [[Damascus]] closed on 5 March.<ref>http://www.vancouversun.com/news/Australians+scrambling+Canada+closes+Syrian+embassy/6262879/story.html</ref><ref>http://blogs.canada.com/2012/03/08/australia-secures-assistance-for-citizens-still-in-syria/</ref> |
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*Italy is the protecting power for Canada in Iran following the [[Canada–Iran_relations#2012_embassy_closure|2012 suspension of diplomatic relations between Canada and Iran]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Canada Thanks Italy for Agreeing to Represent Interests in Iran|url=http://www.international.gc.ca/media/aff/news-communiques/2012/09/17a.aspx?lang=eng&view=d|accessdate=17 September 2012|newspaper=Foreign Affairs Media Relations Office|date=17 September 2012}}</ref> However this is not verified by the Iranian Government yet <ref>{{cite news|title=Iran Not Consulted on Selection of Italian Embassy as Canada's Interests Section|url=http://english.farsnews.com/newstext.php?nn=9106240836|accessdate=18 September 2012|newspaper=Fars News Agency|date=18 September 2012}}</ref> |
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===Singapore=== |
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Certain countries may have agreements to provide limited consular services to the citizens of other countries. This does not necessarily constitute a protecting power relationship, as the host country may not have formally agreed, and there may in fact be diplomatic relations between the host country and the third country, but no physical representation. Without the agreement of the host country, [[consular officials]] in this role may not be recognized as representing the interests of another, and be limited to a "good offices"{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} role. |
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[[SingPower]] is the governing body in [[Singapore]] responsible for the administration of power outages and electricity shortages. During the [[2016 Southern Malaysia blackout|2016 blackout in southern Malaysia]] the [[Ministry of Energy and Resources]] took measures to prevent the blackout from spreading to Singapore. |
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* The United States provides consular services to citizens of the [[Federated States of Micronesia]], the Republic of the [[Marshall Islands]] and the Republic of [[Palau]], which formerly were part of a US [[Trust Territory]]. |
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* Certain Commonwealth countries, including Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the United Kingdom, have agreements in certain countries to provide consular services for citizens of the other countries where they do not have physical representation. The United Kingdom provides consular assistance to Canadians abroad where there is no Canadian mission, as stated in each Canadian passport. Canada provides consular assistance to Australian citizens to several states in Latin America and Africa; while [[Australian diplomatic missions]] reciprocate in several Asia-Pacific states.<ref>DFAIT Canada http://travel.gc.ca/assistance/embassies</ref><ref>DFAT Australia http://www.dfat.gov.au/missions/</ref> |
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* Under Article 20 section 2c of the Treaty on the functioning of the European Union (TFEU) citizens of [[European Union]] countries may request consular services at the missions of other EU countries when their home country does not have a mission locally.<ref name="TFEU consolidated">[http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2008:115:0047:0199:EN:PDF Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union], Europa</ref> |
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*In 2006, Governments of Montenegro and Serbia adopted the ''Memorandum of Agreement between the Republic of Montenegro and the Republic of Serbia on Consular Protection and Services to the Citizens of Montenegro''. By this agreement, [[Serbia]], through its network of diplomatic and consular [[Serbian diplomatic missions|missions]], provides consular services to the Montenegrin citizens on the territory of states in which Montenegro has no missions of its own.<ref>http://www.mip.gov.me/en/index.php/Bilateral-Relations/republic-of-serbia.html</ref> |
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===New Zealand=== |
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* Historically a protecting power held a permanent [[protectorate]] over a weaker state, which in practice could constitute a form of colonial domination, in the logic of [[indirect rule]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} |
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* The term ''friendly protection'' also applied to 'guarantor' state(s) vowing to prevent the protected state (or a specific part) being overrun by a third party. |
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* Protecting power has a distinct and separate meaning under the [[Geneva Conventions]] for protection of civilians in times of war.<ref>{{Cite web| title= From Geneva to Sri Lanka | url= http://www2.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/eacea085bacc7974c1256ec40042c62b/e185c37b35eabbd8c1257610004015c3?OpenDocument | work= International Relations and Security Network |date= 12 August 2009| publisher= ReliefWeb | accessdate=2010-09-14 | quote= The [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] (ICRC), which is the official protecting power of the Geneva Conventions, has just put forward guidance on what it means to take part in hostilities, according to their understanding.}}</ref> |
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[[KiwiPower]] is the administrating body for power management and failures. During the [[2011 Christchurch earthquake]] the [[South Island Council]] took measures to temporarily stop [[ultilities]] during earthquakes. |
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==References== |
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== Safety== |
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{{Refimprove|date=September 2010}} |
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{{Reflist|2}} |
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Proper installation and wiring is needed to ensure the safety of the electrical system. This follows the electrocution of a Japanese man in a [[Seoul]] shopping centre in June 2013. In the United States the [[Department of Mining and Energy]] set new laws in October 2011 for all electricians to conduct a 6-month safety check up following the death of 13 people in a [[New York City]] shopping mall by electrocution. Power stations in [[South Korea]] need check ups following the death of a worker in November 2016. |
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==External links== |
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*[http://foia.state.gov/masterdocs/07FAM/07FAM1030.PDF Procedures, U.S. as Protecting Power] (PDF) U.S. State Department{{Dead link|date=December 2011}} |
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*[http://foia.state.gov/masterdocs/07fam/07fam1010.pdf Protection of Foreign Interests and Third Country Protecting Power] (PDF) U.S. State Department{{Dead link|date=December 2011}} |
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[[Category:Electricity shortages]] |
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{{Diplomacy}} |
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Protecting Power}} |
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[[Category:International relations terms]] |
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Revision as of 14:59, 15 October 2013
Protecting power is a the protection of electricity from shortages and blackouts.
Power management
The practice is praticesed when there is a risk of power outages or when a blackout has affected parts of a country.
The government and power companies are responsible for the administration of power emergencies
In practice, the "protected power" may be able to affect one dwelling or building. If a blackout happens the power companies are called immediately and they will access the restricted area.
United States
In the United States, the State Power Adminstrations (SPAs) are responsible for the management of power outages. Their administration is overseen by Local Power Districts (LPDs). When a blackout happens in all areas of a city or town , the Manager of the LPD is called and reports the blackout to the respective SPA. When a blackout has affected large parts of a state the blackout is reported to the National Power Authority (NPA). If the blackout lasts for more than a week, then it is reported to the NPA immediately.
In the States of Alaska and Hawaii, the Department of Energy is responsible for blackouts and similar incidents such as electricity shortages.
France
In France the electricity companies are responsible for the management of power outages and electricity shortages. In natural disasters they are reported to the Ministry of Emergency Management.
Japan
In Japan the prefecture governments are responsible for the power outages. In natural disasters they are reported to the Ministry of Transport and Energy. During the East Japan Earthquake the Tohoku Power Authority took measures to conserve power due to blackouts.
Hong Kong
The Energy Authority of Hong Kong is responsible for the power management in Hong Kong. When a blackout affects part of an area, it is reported to the Energy Authority. When the blackout is severe it is reported to the Department of Infrastructure.
Singapore
SingPower is the governing body in Singapore responsible for the administration of power outages and electricity shortages. During the 2016 blackout in southern Malaysia the Ministry of Energy and Resources took measures to prevent the blackout from spreading to Singapore.
New Zealand
KiwiPower is the administrating body for power management and failures. During the 2011 Christchurch earthquake the South Island Council took measures to temporarily stop ultilities during earthquakes.
Safety
Proper installation and wiring is needed to ensure the safety of the electrical system. This follows the electrocution of a Japanese man in a Seoul shopping centre in June 2013. In the United States the Department of Mining and Energy set new laws in October 2011 for all electricians to conduct a 6-month safety check up following the death of 13 people in a New York City shopping mall by electrocution. Power stations in South Korea need check ups following the death of a worker in November 2016.