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Paan is originally from and native to [[India/Pakistan]] but it has spread to other countries [[Burma]], [[Vietnam]]. Paan is also consumed in many other Asian countries and elsewhere in the world by some Asian emigrants, with or without tobacco, in an addictive and euphoria-inducing formulation with adverse health effects.<ref name=WHOCancer>{{cite web|title=Betel-quid and areca-nut chewing and some areca-nut-derived Nitrosamines|author=IARC Working Group|publisher=The World Health Organization|url=http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol85/mono85.pdf}}</ref>
Paan is originally from and native to [[India/Pakistan]] but it has spread to other countries [[Burma]], [[Vietnam]]. Paan is also consumed in many other Asian countries and elsewhere in the world by some Asian emigrants, with or without tobacco, in an addictive and euphoria-inducing formulation with adverse health effects.<ref name=WHOCancer>{{cite web|title=Betel-quid and areca-nut chewing and some areca-nut-derived Nitrosamines|author=IARC Working Group|publisher=The World Health Organization|url=http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol85/mono85.pdf}}</ref>


*[[ISS VERYY POSIONOUSS DO NOT EAT DANGER DANGER DANGER]]
==Varieties==
<!-- This section is linked from [[Maraschino cherry]] -->
[[File:Paan Making.jpg|thumb|right|Shopkeeper making paan in an Indian store]]
Some examples of paan's numerous variations are:<ref>[http://www.speakbindas.com/paan-mouth-freshner/ Paan – mouth freshner]</ref>

;Tambaku paan
:Betel leaf filled with powdered tobacco and spices

;Paan supari / paan masala / sada paan
Betel leaf filled with a mixture of chopped or coarsely ground areca nuts and other spices

;Meetha paan / sweet paan
:Betel leaf with [[coconut]], [[fruit preserves]], [[gulkand]] (rose petal preserves), various spices. May also include [[maraschino cherry]]. Alternatively, South Asian sweet paan may contain candied fruits and/or candy-coated [[fennel]] seeds.

;Trento / olarno paan
:A mint-flavoured preparation served with potatoes

Bengali paan is known as '''deshi mahoba'''Chahi Pan,Bangla Pan,Misti Pan and has a delicate flavour. '''Maghai paan''' and '''jagannath paan''' are the signature varieties of [[Varanasi]].

The flavour and potency of paan depends, too, on the betel [[cultivar]] used, and the age of the plant at harvest. In South India, paan prepared from small and fragile leaves is called '''chigrlayele'''. In India, black paan leaves—''ambadi'' and ''kariyele'', which are thicker than the green leaves—are often chewed with tobacco.

'''New Varieties'''

A new flavored [http://www.banarasi.co paan] have been introduced that does not include the hazardous ingredients like areca nuts or betel nuts. Instead it uses rose petals, coconuts, and mint to provide the same flavour without the harmful effects.

[[File:Betel leafs Selling.JPG|thumb|left|Betel Leaf, Snapped from Madiwala Market, [[Bangalore]], [[India]]]]


==Effects on health==
==Effects on health==

Revision as of 22:57, 13 March 2014

This article is about the chewing parijat. For the leaf, see Betel. For the nut, see Areca nut.

On display are the items used in a chewing session. The betel leaves are variously folded. Slices of the dry areca nut are on the upper left and slices of the tender areca nut on the upper right. The pouch on the right has tobacco, a recent introduction.[citation needed]
Betel leaves at a market in Mandalay, Burma

Paan is in Template:Lang-hi पान from Sanskrit parṇa 'feather, leaf'[1] is a stimulating and psychoactive[2] preparation of betel leaf combined with areca nut and/or cured tobacco.[3][4] Paan is chewed and finally spat out or swallowed. Paan has many variations. Slaked lime (chunnam) paste is commonly added to bind the leaves. Some South Asian preparations include katha paste or mukhwas to freshen the breath.

Paan is originally from and native to India/Pakistan but it has spread to other countries Burma, Vietnam. Paan is also consumed in many other Asian countries and elsewhere in the world by some Asian emigrants, with or without tobacco, in an addictive and euphoria-inducing formulation with adverse health effects.[5]

Effects on health

Health effects of chewing paan: gum damage, tooth decay and oral cancer
Health effects: Tobacco-filled paan induces profuse salivation that stains mouth area.

The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and the World Health Organization (WHO) accept the scientific evidence that chewing betel quids and areca nut is carcinogenic to humans.[5][6][7][8] The main carcinogenic factor is believed to be areca nut. A recent study found that areca-nut paan with and without tobacco increased oral cancer risk by 9.9 and 8.4 times, respectively.[9]

In one study (c. 1985),[4] scientists linked malignant tumours to the site of skin or subcutaneous administration of aqueous extracts of paan in mice. In hamsters, forestomach carcinomas occurred after painting the cheek-pouch mucosa with aqueous extracts or implantation of a wax pellet containing powdered paan with tobacco into the cheek pouch; carcinomas occurred in the cheek pouch following implantation of the wax pellets. In human populations, they reported observing elevated frequencies of micronucleated cells in buccal mucosa of people who chew betel quid in the Philippines and India. The scientists also found that the proportion of micronucleated exfoliated cells is related to the site within the oral cavity where the paan is kept habitually and to the number of betel quids chewed per day. In related studies,[4] the scientists reported that oral leukoplakia shows a strong association with habits of paan chewing in India. Some follow-up studies have shown malignant transformation of a proportion of leukoplakias. Oral submucous fibrosis and lichen planus, which are generally accepted to be precancerous conditions, appear to be related to the habit of chewing paan.

In a study conducted in Taiwan,[10] scientists reported the extent of cancer risks of betel quid (paan) chewing beyond oral cancer, even when tobacco was absent. In addition to oral cancer, significant increases were seen among chewers for cancer of the oesophagus, liver, pancreas, larynx, lung, and all cancer. Chewing and smoking, as combined by most betel chewers, interacted synergistically and was responsible for half of all cancer deaths in this group. Chewing betel leaf quid and smoking, the scientists claimed, shortened the life span by nearly six years.

A Lancet Oncology publication claims that paan masala may cause tumours in different parts of the body and not just the oral cavity as previously thought.[11]

In a study conducted in Sri Lanka,[12] scientists found high prevalence of oral potentially malignant disorders in rural Sri Lankan populations. After screening for various causes, the scientists reported paan chewing to be the major risk factor, with or without tobacco.

In October 2009, 30 scientists from 10 countries met at the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), a World Health Organization sponsored group, to reassess the carcinogenicity of various agents including areca nut, a common additive in paan. They reported there is sufficient evidence that paan chewing, even without tobacco, leads to tumours in the oral cavity and oesophagus, and that paan with added tobacco is a carcinogen to the oral cavity, pharynx and oesophagus.[13]

Effects of chewing paan during pregnancy

Scientific teams from Taiwan, Malaysia and Papua New Guinea have reported that women who chew areca nut formulations, such as paan, during pregnancy significantly increase adverse outcomes for the baby. The effects were similar to those reported for women who consume alcohol or tobacco during pregnancy. Lower birth weights, reduced birth length and early term were found to be significantly higher.[14][15]

Culture

Betel leaf and areca nut consumption in the world
Beeda stall, Gallface Beach – Colombo

Chewing the mixture of areca nut and betel leaf is a tradition, custom or ritual which dates back thousands of years from India to the Pacific. Ibn Battuta describes this practice as follows: "The betel is a tree which is cultivated in the same manner as the grape-vine; ... The betel has no fruit and is grown only for the sake of its leaves ... The manner of its use is that before eating it one takes areca nut; this is like a nutmeg but is broken up until it is reduced to small pellets, and one places these in his mouth and chews them. Then he takes the leaves of betel, puts a little chalk on them, and masticates them along with the betel."

It constitutes an important and popular cultural activity in many Asian and Oceanic countries, including Myanmar, Cambodia, the Solomon Islands, Thailand, the Philippines, Laos, and Vietnam. It is not known how and when the lime paste, areca nut and the betel leaf were married together as one drug. Archaeological evidence from Thailand, Indonesia and the Philippines suggests they have been used in tandem for four thousand years or more.[16]

Paan is a ubiquitous sight in many parts of India and Southeast Asia. It is known as beeda in Hindi and vetrrilai or thambulum in Tamil, killi or tambulam in (Telugu), sireh (in Malay language), sirih (in Indonesian), suruh (in Javanese), mark (ໝາກ) in Lao, and bulath (in Sri Lanka). In urban areas, chewing paan is generally considered a nuisance because some chewers spit the paan out in public areas – compare chewing gum ban in Singapore and smoking ban. The red stain generated by the combination of ingredients when chewed are known to make a colourful stain on the ground. This is becoming an unwanted eyesore in Indian cities such as Mumbai, although many see it as an integral part of Indian culture. This is also common in some of the Persian Gulf countries, such as the UAE and Qatar, where many Indians live. Recently, the Dubai government has banned the import and sale of paan and the like.[17]

According to traditional Ayurvedic medicine, chewing areca nut and betel leaf is a good remedy against bad breath (halitosis),[18] but it can possibly lead to oral cancer.

India

Ghiyas-ud-din Khalji, the Sultan of Mandu (r. 1469–1500), watches as tender betel leaves of the finest quality are spread out and rosewater is sprinkled on them, while saffron is also added. An elaborate betel chew or paan would contain fragrant spices and rose preserves with chopped areca nuts, folio from 16th century cookbook, Nimmatnama-i Nasiruddin-Shahi

It is a tradition in South India and more so in the region often referred as 'Old Mysore' that covers Mysore, Bangalore, Mandya, Hassan, Tumkur, Chikmagalur, Shimoga and nearby regions to give two Betel leaves, areca nut (pieces or whole) and Coconut to the guests (both male and female) at any auspicious occasion. Even on a regular day it is the tradition to give a married woman, who visits the house, two Betel leaves, areca nut and coconut or some fruits along with a string of threaded flowers.

Betel leaf used to make paan is produced in different parts of India. Some states that produce betel leaf for paan include West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh. In West Bengal two types of betel leaves are produced. These are "Bangala Patta (Country Leaf)" and Mitha Patta (Sweet Leaf)". In West Bengal, Bangla patta is produced mainly in district of Dinajpur, Malda, Jalpaiguri, and Nadia. Mitha patta is produced in places such as Midnapur and South 24 Parganas.[citation needed]

The skilled paan maker is known as a paanwala in North India. In other parts, paanwalas are also known as panwaris or panwadis. At North India, there is a tradition to chew paan after Deepawali puja for blessings.

Paan (betel leaves) being served with silver foil at Sarnath near Varanasi
Paan made with areca nut and lime, with or without tobacco, causes profuse red coloured salivation. This saliva is spit, yielding stains and biological waste pollution in public spaces. Many countries and municipalities have laws to prevent paan spit.[19][20]

In the Indian state of Maharashtra the paan culture is widely criticised due to the cleanliness problems created by people who spit in public places. In Mumbai, there have been attempts to put pictures of Hindu gods in places (walls, etc.) where people commonly tend to spit, but success has been limited. One of the great Marathi artists P L Deshpande wrote a comic story on the subject of paanwala (paan vendor), and performed a televised reading session on Doordarshan during the 1980s in his unique style.

Paan is losing its appeal to farmers because of falling demand. Consumers prefer chewing tobacco formulations such as gutka over paan. Higher costs, water scarcity and unpredictable weather have made betel gardens less lucrative.[21]

Philippines

Betel quid is sold in Taiwan from road side neon decorated kiosks, named as Betelnut Beauty shops (Binlang Xi Shi, 檳榔西施). These shops sell a quid preparation of betel leaf, betel nuts, tobacco and lime with scantly clad girls as salesperson. It is a controversial business, with critics questioning entrapment, exploitation, health, class and culture.[22]

Paan has been part of the Ifugao culture in the Philippines. Known mainly as tepak sirih in Malay, it is also commonly and simply referred to as nga-nga in Tagalog. Nga-nga literally means "to chew/gnaw". Nowadays, it is mostly popular among the inhabitants of the Cordilleras and Lumads of Mindanao.

Myanmar

Paan vendor at Bogyoke Market in Yangon, Burma

Kun-ya (Template:My) is the word for paan in Myanmar, formerly Burma, where the most common configuration for chewing is a betel vine leaf (Piper betel), areca nut (from Areca cathechu), slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) and some aroma, although many betel chewers also use tobacco.[23]

Betel chewing has very long tradition in Burma, having been practised since before the beginning of recorded history.[24] Until the 1960s, both men and women loved it and every household used to have a special lacquerware box for paan, called kun-it (Template:My), which would be offered to any visitor together with cheroots to smoke and green tea to drink.[25] The leaves are kept inside the bottom of the box, which looks like a small hat box, but with a top tray for small tins, silver in well-to-do homes, of various other ingredients such as the betel nuts, slaked lime, cutch, anise seed and a nut cutter.[25] The sweet form (acho) is popular with the young, but grownups tend to prefer it with cardamom, cloves and tobacco. Spittoons, therefore, are still ubiquitous, and signs saying "No paan-spitting" are commonplace, as it makes a messy red splodge on floors and walls; many people display betel-stained teeth from the habit. Paan stalls and kiosks used to be run mainly by people of Indian origin in towns and cities. Smokers who want to kick the habit would also use betel nut to wean themselves off tobacco.

Taungoo in Lower Burma is where the best areca palms are grown indicated by the popular expression "like a betel lover taken to Taungoo".[26] Other parts of the country contribute to the best paan according to another saying "Tada-U for the leaves, Ngamyagyi for the tobacco, Taungoo for the nuts, Sagaing for the slaked lime, Pyay for the cutch". Kun, hsay, lahpet (paan, tobacco and pickled tea) are deemed essential items to offer monks and elders particularly in the old days. Young maidens traditionally carry ornamental betel boxes on a stand called kundaung and gilded flowers (pandaung) in a shinbyu (novitiation) procession. Burmese history also mentions an ancient custom of a condemned enemy asking for "a paan and a drink of water" before being executed.

An anecdotal government survey indicated that 40% of men and 20% of women in Myanmar chew betel.[27] An aggregate study of cancer registries (2002 to 2007) at the Yangon and Mandalay General Hospitals, the largest hospitals in the country, found that oral cancer was the 6th most common cancer among males, and 10th among females.[28] Of these oral carcinoma patients, 36% were regular betel quid chewers.[28] University of Dental Medicine, Yangon records from 1985 to 1988 showed that 58.6% of oral carcinoma patients were regular betel chewers.

Since the 1990s, betel chewing has been actively discouraged by successive governments, from the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) onward, on the grounds of health and tidiness.[24] In April 1995, the Yangon City Development Committee banned betel in Yangon (Rangoon), in anticipation of Visit Myanmar Year 1996, a massive effort to promote the country as a tourist destination.[29][30] Effective 29 July 2007, betel chewing, along with smoking, has been banned from the Shwedagon Pagoda, the country's most important religious site.[31] In 2010, the Ministry of Education's Department of Basic Education and Burma's Anti-Narcotics Task Force collaborated to prohibit betel shops from operating within 50 metres (160 ft) of any school.[32]

Pakistan

The consumption of paan has long been a very popular cultural tradition throughout Pakistan, especially in Memon and Muhajir households, where numerous paans were consumed throughout the day. In general, though, paan is an occasional delicacy thoroughly enjoyed by many, and almost exclusively bought from street vendors instead of any preparations at home. Pakistan grows a large variety of betel leaf (specifically in the coastal areas of Sindh), although paan is imported in large quantities from India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and, recently, Thailand. The paan business is famously handled and run by Memon traders, who migrated from western India, when Pakistan was formed in 1947 (also cite pg 60, of Pakistan, By Samuel Willard Crompton, Charles F. Gritzner) ].

The culture of chewing paan has also spread in Punjab where a paan shop can be found in almost every street and market. In the famous Anarkali Bazar in Lahore a street called paan gali is dedicated for paan and its ingredients together with other Pakistani products.[33]

Cambodia, Laos and Thailand

The chewing of the product is part of the culture of Cambodia, Laos and Thailand. Cultivation of areca nut palm and betel leaves is common in rural areas of these countries, being a traditional cash crop, and the utensils used for preparation are often treasured. Now, many young people have given up the habit, especially in urban areas, but many, especially older people, still keep to the tradition.

Vietnam

In Vietnam, the areca nut and the betel leaf are such important symbols of love and marriage that in Vietnamese the phrase "matters of betel and areca" (chuyện trầu cau) is synonymous with marriage. Areca nut chewing starts the talk between the groom's parents and the bride's parents about the young couple's marriage. Therefore, the leaves and juices are used ceremonially in Vietnamese weddings.[34]

Bangladesh

In Bangladesh, pan is chewed throughout the country by all classes. Prior to British rule, it was chewed without tobacco. It is offered to the guests and used in festivals irrespective of religion. A mixture called Dhakai pan khili (like a roll) is famous in Bangladesh and the subcontinent.

The sweet pan of the Khasi tribe is famous for its special quality. Paan is also used in Hindu puja and wedding festivals and to visit relatives. It has become a ritual, tradition and culture of Bangladeshi society. Adult women gather with pandani[35] along with friends and relatives in leisure time.

Nepal

Paan is chewed mainly by Madheshis, although the hilly migrants in terai have also taken up chewing Paan in recent days. Throughout Terai, Paan is as common as anywhere in northern India. Most leaves are imported from India, although natively its grown in some quantities, but not much commercially. Although not as ubiquitous as in the Terai, most residents of Kathmandu occasionally enjoy Paan. A sweet version of Paan called Meetha Paan is popular amongst many who do not like the strong taste of plain (sada) Paan.

  • Combining areca nut and betel leaf in Vietnam
    Combining areca nut and betel leaf in Vietnam
  • A sign in Indonesia; the legend says, "Betel-taking prohibited"
    A sign in Indonesia; the legend says, "Betel-taking prohibited"
  • Thai chew with betel, areca nut, tobacco and other components
    Thai chew with betel, areca nut, tobacco and other components
  • South Indian style paan
    South Indian style paan
  • Chocolate Paan
    Chocolate Paan
  • A container used to hold paan from 19th century India
    A container used to hold paan from 19th century India
  • Lime container by Bat Trang ceramic, Viet Nam
    Lime container by Bat Trang ceramic, Viet Nam
  • Sweet Paan on ice slab in Kolkata.
    Sweet Paan on ice slab in Kolkata.

See also

References

  1. ^ Oxford Dictionary paan
  2. ^ Song; et al. "Betel Quid Chewing Without Tobacco - A Meta-analysis of Carcinogenic and Precarcinogenic Effects". Asia Pac J Public Health. doi:10.1177/1010539513486921. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  3. ^ Mack, TM (2001). "The new pan-asian paan problem". The Lancet. 357 (9269): 1638–9. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(00)04860-1.
  4. ^ a b c The World Health Organization IARC Expert Group. "IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Humans, Vol. 37, Tobacco Habits Other than Smoking; Betel-Quid and Areca-nut Chewing; and Some Related Nitrosamines, Lyon" (PDF). IARCPress.
  5. ^ a b IARC Working Group. "Betel-quid and areca-nut chewing and some areca-nut-derived Nitrosamines" (PDF). The World Health Organization.
  6. ^ WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic, 2008: the MPOWER package (PDF). Geneva: World Health Organization. 2008. ISBN 978-92-4-159628-2.
  7. ^ Warnakulasuriya, S.; Trivedy, C; Peters, TJ (2002). "Areca nut use: An independent risk factor for oral cancer". BMJ. 324 (7341): 799–800. doi:10.1136/bmj.324.7341.799. PMC 1122751. PMID 11934759.
  8. ^ Dave, Bhavana J.; Trivedi, Amit H.; Adhvatyu, Siddharth G. (1992). "Role of areca nut consumption in the cause of oral cancers. A cytogenetic assessment". Cancer. 70 (5): 1017–23. doi:10.1002/1097-0142(19920901)70:5<1017::AID-CNCR2820700502>3.0.CO;2-#. PMID 1515978.
  9. ^ Merchant, Anwar; Husain, Syed S. M.; Hosain, Mervyn; Fikree, Fariyal F.; Pitiphat, Waranuch; Siddiqui, Amna Rehana; Hayder, Syed J.; Haider, Syed M.; Ikram, Mubashir (2000). "Paan without tobacco: An independent risk factor for oral cancer". International Journal of Cancer. 86: 128–31. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0215(20000401)86:1<128::AID-IJC20>3.0.CO;2-M. PMID 10728606.
  10. ^ Wen, Chi Pang; Tsai, Min Kuang; Chung, Wen Shen Isabella; Hsu, Hui Ling; Chang, Yen Chen; Chan, Hui Ting; Chiang, Po Huang; Cheng, Ting-Yuan David; Tsai, Shan Pou (2010). "Cancer risks from betel quid chewing beyond oral cancer: A multiple-site carcinogen when acting with smoking". Cancer Causes & Control. 21 (9): 1427–35. doi:10.1007/s10552-010-9570-1. PMID 20458529.
  11. ^ Sharma, Dinesh C (2001). "Indian betel quid more carcinogenic than anticipated". The Lancet Oncology. 2 (8): 464. doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(01)00444-2.
  12. ^ Amarasinghe, Hemantha K.; Usgodaarachchi, Udaya S.; Johnson, Newell W.; Lalloo, Ratilal; Warnakulasuriya, Saman (2010). "Betel-quid chewing with or without tobacco is a major risk factor for oral potentially malignant disorders in Sri Lanka: A case-control study". Oral Oncology. 46 (4): 297–301. doi:10.1016/j.oraloncology.2010.01.017. PMID 20189448.
  13. ^ Secretan, Béatrice; Straif, Kurt; Baan, Robert; Grosse, Yann; El Ghissassi, Fatiha; Bouvard, Véronique; Benbrahim-Tallaa, Lamia; Guha, Neela; Freeman, Crystal (2009). "A review of human carcinogens—Part E: Tobacco, areca nut, alcohol, coal smoke, and salted fish". The Lancet Oncology. 10 (11): 1033–4. doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(09)70326-2. PMID 19891056.
  14. ^ Senn, M.; Baiwog, F.; Winmai, J.; Mueller, I.; Rogerson, S.; Senn, N. (2009). "Betel nut chewing during pregnancy, Madang province, Papua New Guinea". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 105 (1–2): 126–31. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.06.021. PMID 19665325.
  15. ^ Yang, Mei-Sang; Lee, Chien-Hung; Chang, Shun-Jen; Chung, Tieh-Chi; Tsai, Eing-Mei; Ko, Allen Min-Jen; Ko, Ying-Chin (2008). "The effect of maternal betel quid exposure during pregnancy on adverse birth outcomes among aborigines in Taiwan". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 95 (1–2): 134–9. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.01.003. PMID 18282667.
  16. ^ Archaeological evidence from Thailand, Indonesia and the Philippines.
  17. ^ KhaleejTimes.com
  18. ^ Naveen Pattnaik, The Tree of Life[page needed]
  19. ^ "Paan spitting clampdown launched by Brent Council". BBC News. 23 March 2010.
  20. ^ "Fines may be effective in stopping poeple from spitting on the streets". DNA India. 25 March 2010.
  21. ^ Mahapatra; et al. (21 March 2011). "Paan loses flavour". {{cite web}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  22. ^ Mark Magnier (22 January 2009). "Taiwan's 'betel nut beauties' drum up business, and debate". Los Angeles Times.
  23. ^ Betel-quid and Areca-nut Chewing and Some Areca-Nut Derived Nitrosamines. Vol. 85. World Health Organization. 2004. p. 68. ISBN 978-92-832-1285-0.
  24. ^ a b Seekins, Donald M. (2006). Historical Dictionary of Burma (Myanmar). Scarecrow Press. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-8108-5476-5.
  25. ^ a b Forbes, Charles James (1878). British Burma and its people. J. Murray.
  26. ^ Reid, Robert (2005). Myanmar (Burma). Lonely Planet. p. 290. ISBN 978-1-74059-695-4. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  27. ^ Khin Myat (2 July 2007). "Betel chewers face health dangers". Myanmar Times. Retrieved 17 April 2012.
  28. ^ a b Oo, Htun Naing; Myint, Yi Yi; Maung, Chan Nyein; Oo, Phyu Sin; Cheng, Jun; Maruyama, Satoshi; Yamazaki, Manabu; Yagi, Minoru; Sawair, Faleh A. (2011). "Oral cancer in Myanmar: A preliminary survey based on hospital-based cancer registries". Journal of Oral Pathology & Medicine. 40: 20–6. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0714.2010.00938.x.
  29. ^ Köllner, Helmut (1998). Myanmar (Burma). Hunter Publishing. pp. 13–14. ISBN 978-3-88618-415-6. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  30. ^ Shenon, Philip (14 June 1995). "Yangon Journal; Burmese Generals Ask Less Spit, More Polish". The New York Times. Retrieved 17 April 2012.
  31. ^ Ye Kaung Myint Maung (6 August 2006). "Smoking banned at Shwedagon". Myanmar Times. Retrieved 17 April 2012.
  32. ^ Nay Nwe Moe Aung (12 July 2010). "No more betel shops near schools". Myanmar Times. Retrieved 17 April 2012.
  33. ^ http://www.dnaindia.com/world/report_paan-gali-lahore-s-very-own-chandni-chowk_1000393[full citation needed]
  34. ^ Vietspring.org[full citation needed]
  35. ^ "Pan". 27 September 2006. Retrieved 6 April 2008. {{cite web}}: |first= missing |last= (help)
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