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Twitter diplomacy, or "Twiplomacy," refers to the use of social network and microblogging website, Twitter, by heads of state, leaders of intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), and their diplomats to conduct diplomatic outreach and public diplomacy.

A 2013 study by website Twiplomacy (@Twiplomacy) found that 153 of the 193 countries represented at the United Nations (@UN) had established government Twitter accounts. The same study also found that those accounts amounted to 505 Twitter handles used by world leaders and their foreign ministers, with their tweets able to reach a combined audience of over 106 million followers.

By 2014, Twitter had gradually re-defined how governments outreached to foreign audiences. The carefully scripted and generally secretive messaging of international relations was increasingly made available to global audiences through "hashtag diplomacy" and Twitter's 140-character limit.

Origins of Twitter diplomacy

The use of Twitter by world leaders and diplomats was on the rise as of April 2014, but Twitter diplomacy was only one aspect of the growing trend toward digital diplomacy, also known as eDiplomacy or Facebook diplomacy, by many world governments.

Digital diplomacy

Author Wilson Dizard wrote in his 2001 book, "Digital Diplomacy: US Foreign Policy in the Information Age," that Former British Foreign Secretary, Lord Palmerston, exclaimed, "My God, this is the end of diplomacy!" upon receiving his first telegraph in the 1840s. The media used to conduct diplomacy have clearly followed history's technological advances, and digital diplomacy is one of the most recent developments.

There is no definition of digital diplomacy currently accepted by an international body, it is generally regarded as the use of the internet and information communication technologies to help achieve diplomatic objectives. National definitions of digital diplomacy are varied but similar--for example, the United Kingdom's Digital Strategy concept versus the United States eDiplomacy initiative. The essence of the concept is that social media creates and maintains conversations between policymakers and citizens, between diplomats and foreign publics.

In 2003, the US Department of State (@StateDept) established the Office of eDiplomacy, which was one of the first programs by a ministry of foreign affairs dedicated to digital diplomacy. As of 2014, digital diplomacy had become the norm, with heads of state, ministers, ambassadors, and government agencies well-established on popular social media platforms.

Twitter and diplomacy

As of April 2014, an estimated 241 million active users had joined Twitter since founder Jack Dorsey's (@jack) first tweet on March 26, 2006, making it a powerful tool for outreach. World leaders and their diplomats have taken note of Twitter's rapid expansion and have begun using it to engage with foreign publics and their own citizens. Conversely, Twitter also offers policymakers the possibility to hear the many perspectives of a worldwide audience, as Twitter is a medium for instant, two-way exchanges.

Commenting in a 2013 publication on the subject for the Geneva-based, non-profit Diplo, former Italian Foreign Minister Giulio Terzi (@GiulioTerzi) said of Twitter diplomacy, “Social media exposes foreign policymakers to global audiences while at the same time allowing governments to reach them instantly... Twitter has two big positive effects on foreign policy: it fosters a beneficial exchange of ideas between policymakers and civil society and enhances diplomats’ ability to gather information and to anticipate, analyze, manage, and react to events.”

Twitter diplomacy and controversy

Confrontations via Twitter diplomacy are visible to a worldwide audience because of Twitter's global nature.

In April 2014, tensions between the US State Department and the Russian Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs (@mfa_russia) over the 2014 Crimean crisis devolved into dueling tweets, with both ministries using the hashtag #UnitedforUkraine to convey opposite points of view.

Tweeting to a global audience also poses challenges to leaders and diplomats. In early 2014, Iranian President Hassan Rouhani (@HassanRouhani) decided to delete a controversial tweet that received much media attention, though it was likely intended for his domestic audience.

Studying Twitter diplomacy

As of 2014, dedicated studies of Twitter diplomacy have begun to emerge, though little formal research is currently available. Much of the information about Twitter diplomacy is via anecdotal information in media reports, and the concept is manifested on Twitter through tweets with the hashtags #TwitterDiplomacy or #Twiplomacy.

Italian Press and Public Affairs Officer Andreas Sandre (@andreas212nyc) authored a 2013 work for Geneva-based, non-profit Diplo, "Twitter for Diplomats." This publication chronicles the development of Twitter diplomacy, and includes a series of highlights about some of the most notable diplomatic exchanges via Twitter. "Twitter for Diplomats" also offers suggestions about Twitter's effective use by diplomats.

Another study of Twitter diplomacy was undertaken by website Twiplomacy, the stated purpose of which was to study Twitter's use by world leaders. The website also publishes the results of its annual country-by-country studies, which began in 2012. Its 2013 study, "Twiplomacy: Heads of state and government on Twitter, July 2013" is the most recent version. Unlike non-profit Diplo, Twiplomacy is administered by for-profit public relations and communications firm Burson-Marsteller (@B_M).

Use by governments and intergovernmental organizations

Twiplomacy's 2013 study provided new insight into the use of Twitter by governments. Twitter registration by region includes:

• Africa: 71% of governments
• Asia: 75% of governments
• Europe: 100% of governments
• North America: 18 governments
• Oceania: 38% of governments
• South America: 92% of governments

By heads of state and government

US President Barack Obama (@BarackObama) is credited as being the first head of state to establish a Twitter account, originally affiliated with his 2008 presidential campaign, on March 5, 2007 as user number 813,286. As of April 2014, he is also the most followed head of state on Twitter. With over 42 million followers as of April 2014, he is the third most-followed person on Twitter behind pop stars Katy Perry (@katyperry) and Justin Bieber (@justinbieber).

Other heads of state and government to pioneer the conduct of Twitter diplomacy include Mexican president Enrique Peña Nieto (@EPN), Belgian Prime Minister Elio Di Rupo (@ElioDiRupo), and Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper (@PMHarper), all of whom joined Twitter in 2007.

By leaders of intergovernmental organizations

As of April 2014, the United Nations (UN) is the most followed intergovernmental organization, with its website showing over 2.56 million viewers in April 2014. Many of the UN's subordinate funds and agencies also attract large numbers of followers. The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF, @UNICEF) achieved greater popularity than its parent organization, the UN, and is followed by over 2.69 million as of April 2014.

By diplomats and diplomatic missions

Former Israeli ambassador to the United States, Michael Oren, echoed the sentiment of many diplomats when responding to a May 2012 question about why he joined Twitter: "Today there are few alternatives as far-reachng and effective, with very wide audiences and young audiences, as Twitter. Twitter is another tool that enables me to communicate with other diplomats and journalists, while also allowing me to add a personal touch."

Foreign ministries have caught on, and some are making efforts to advertise their presence on Twitter. The UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office (@foreignoffice), for example, published a consolidated list of all UK missions on social media.

The US State Department, one of the leaders in digital diplomacy, maintains an active presence on Twitter. Although former US Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton (@HillaryClinton) encouraged American diplomats to tweet, she did not establish her personal handle until 2013, after she had already left office. Current Secretary John Kerry (@JohnKerry) re-activated his personal Twitter handle after one year on the job. Former US ambassador to the Russian Federation, Michael McFaul (@McFaul), pioneered the use of Twitter for American ambassadors with a steady stream of English/Russian tweets during his 2011-2014 tenure. An academic by trade and not a career diplomat, Ambassador McFaul's tweets were generally blunt and un-polished--uncommon characteristics in the diplomatic world--earning both frequent criticism from the Russian government and praise from his supporters.

Notable use by civil society

Non-governmental organizations

Of the 99 international organizations covered by Twiplomacy's 2013 study, Greenpeace (@Greenpeace) has tweeted the longest; it registered with Twitter in 2007.

The most followed non-governmental organization is the World Wildlife Fund ([WWF, https://twitter.com/WWF @WWF]), with over 1.33 million followers. Its followers are also highly active, with each of its tweets being re-tweeted an average of 69 times.

Activist and opposition groups

Twitter also allows activist and opposition groups the possibility to achieve the same cyber presence as sovereign governments. Whereas printing assets and distribution networks are required for the dissemination of printed word, the internet and Twitter allow anyone with internet access and an operating device to access a global audience.

The power of Twitter when by opposition groups was significantly manifested during the Arab Spring uprising, when Twitter was credited with being used to rally protestors in various countries. More recently, in Turkey, Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan blocked access to Twitter in May 2014 due its widespread use by political opponents and activists.

Religious groups

Religious organizations have long been vocal and influential in international relations, and are now starting to be heard on Twitter.

The Roman Catholic Pope, Pope Francis (@Pontifex), is one of the most-followed and influential world leaders. His English-language Twitter alone, one of several registered to the Pope, boasts nearly 4 million viewers. More telling, however, is that each of his tweets are re-tweeted an average of 8,219 times; he is re-tweeted an average of 11,116 times on his Spanish-language handle.

Academia and policy advisors

Academics and policy advisors are also prolific on Twitter.

Notable scholars and policy thinkers, previously reachable only by one-way articles or television appearances, are now available for instant, two-way communications with both policy makers and the general public.

The Think Tank and Global Society Program of the University of Pennsylvania annually ranks the most influential think thanks in the world, and all of its top picks for 2013 are highly active on Twitter: Brookings Institution (@BrookingsInst), Chatham House (@ChathamHouse), and the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (@CarnegieEndow). The goal of think tanks is traditionally to bridge the gap between policy and knowledge, and their presence on Twitter allows them to enter into instant conversations with their target audience.