Hispanic and Latino Americans: Difference between revisions

Hispanic and Latino Americans
	César Chávez • Ted Cruz • David Farragut; Sonia Sotomayor • Franklin Chang Díaz • Susana Martínez; Alex Rodríguez • Hilda Solis • Romana Acosta Bañuelos; Gloria Estefan • Raquel Welch • Marco Rubio
Regions with significant populations
	All areas of the United States, particularly in Major Cities and in states on the Southern border.
Languages
	Spanish • English • Indigenous languages
Religion
	Predominantly Roman Catholic;; minority of Protestants.; Minorities in numerous other religions.
Related ethnic groups
	Latin Americans, Spaniards, Native Americans, White Latin Americans, Criollos, Afro-Latin Americans, Asian Latin Americans, Mestizos, Mulattoes, Pardos, Castizos, Tejanos, Chicanos, Nuyoricans, and Brazilian Americans.

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Hispanic Americans and Latino Americans (Template:Lang-es [isˈpanos], [latinos] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)) are an ethnolinguistic group of Americans with genealogical origins in the countries of Latin America and Spain.^[5]^[6]^[7] More generally it includes all persons in the United States who self-identify as Hispanic or Latino whether fully or partially.^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11]^[12]^[13]^[14]^[15] Hispanics form an ethnicity sharing a language (Spanish) and cultural heritage, rather than a race. American Hispanics are predominantly of Mexican, and to a lesser extent, Neomexicano, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Salvadoran, Dominican, Guatemalan, and Colombian ancestry.^[13]^[16]^[17]^[18]^[19]

Hispanic Americans are the second fastest-growing ethnic group in the United States after Asian Americans.^[20] As of 2012, Hispanics constitute 17% of the United States population, or 53 million people.^[21] This figure includes 38 million Hispanophone Americans, making the US home to the largest community of Spanish speakers outside of Mexico, having surpassed Argentina, Colombia, and Spain within the last decade.^[22] Latinos overall are the second largest ethnic group in the United States, after non-Hispanic Whites (a group which, like Hispanics and Latinos, is composed of dozens of sub-groups).^[23]

Hispanics have been in the territory of present-day United States continuously^[24]^[25]^[26]^[27] since the sixteenth-century founding of Saint Augustine, Florida, by the Spanish. After Native Americans, Hispanics are the oldest ethnic group to inhabit what is today the United States.^[28]^[29]^[30]^[31] Spain colonized large areas of the Southwest and West Coast, including present-day California, New Mexico, Arizona, and Texas, all of which were also under the Republic of Mexico after its independence in the 19th century.

Terminology

The terms Hispanic and Latino refer not to a continental race, but rather an ethnicity, sharing a common culture, history, language, and heritage. According to the Smithsonian Institution, Latino includes peoples of Portuguese-speaking roots, such as Brazil, as well as those of Spanish-language origin.^[32]^[33]^[34] A Hispanic or Latino can be of any race and many are mixed race. In the United States, most Hispanics and Latinos are either white or American Indian, or of dual European and American Indian ancestry. Some Hispanic/Latinos from Caribbean and Latin American countries may also have African ancestry.^[35]^[32]

The difference between the terms Hispanic and Latino is confusing to some. Hispanics are defined as people from Spain or any of the Spanish speaking countries in Latin America. The term "Latino" has developed more varied definitions. One definition of Latino is "a Latin male in the United States".^[36] This is the oldest definition used in the United States, first Used in 1946. Using this definition encompass both Spanish speakers from Europe and the Americas. Under this definition an immigrant from Spain and immigrants from Latin America can both use Latino. This definition is more in line with the usage in the U.S. Census Bureau and OMB, as the two agencies use both terms Hispanic and Latino interchangeably. A later definition of Latino is that it possibly could be a condensed form of the term "Latino-Americano" the Spanish word for Latin-American, or someone who comes from Latin America. Under this definition a Mexican American or Cuban American, for example, is both a Hispanic and a Latino. A Brazilian American may be Latino, under this definition of Latino, which would include those of Portuguese-speaking origin. An immigrant from Spain would be classified as Hispanic but not Latino by this definition of Latino.^[37]^[38]^[39]^[40]^[41]^[42]^[43] Filipinos and Guamanians are not considered "Hispanic", although some may speak Spanish, because Spanish is not the official language of their respective countries. The Philippines and Guam were colonies of Spain for hundreds of years, but there were not as many colonists in these areas as in the Americas. English became the predominant official language in the Philippines after the Spanish-American War.

According to definitions of the U.S. government census, Brazilians that are Portuguese speakers are not considered Hispanic, and are not included in the "Hispanic or Latino" population surveys. One criterion of the U.S. government census is that Hispanic/Latinos be of a Spanish speaking country. Blog discussions about identity note that a significant number of Brazilians have Spanish ancestry due to the colonial history and movement of peoples on the continent, as well as African ancestry from numerous peoples due to the slavery times.^[44]^[45] Brazil's culture has also been affected by other immigrant cultures, including Italy, Japan, China, Germany, Lebanon, and Russia.^[46]

Preference between the terms among Hispanics and Latinos in the United States often depends on their geography of residence. Those in the Eastern United States tend to prefer the term Hispanic, whereas those in the West tend to prefer Latino (or Chicano if they are Mexican American).^[12] Both terms refer to ethnicity, as a person of Latino or Hispanic origin can be of any race.^[13]^[47]

In Spanish, Latina is used for persons of feminine gender; Latino is used for those of masculine gender, or by default. For example, a group of mixed or unknown gender would still be referred to as Latinos. The neologism Latinx was coined as a gender-neutral alternative to this traditional usage.^[48] The X functions as a variable, encompassing those who identify as male, female, or non-binary.

History

Historical population
Census	Pop.	%±
1850	116,943	—
1880	393,555	—
1900	503,189	—
1910	797,994	58.6%
1920	1,286,154	61.2%
1930	1,653,987	28.6%
1940	2,021,820	22.2%
1950	3,231,409	59.8%
1960	5,814,784	79.9%
1970	8,920,940	53.4%
1980	14,608,673	63.8%
1990	22,354,059	53.0%
2000	35,305,818	57.9%
2010	50,477,594	43.0%
2013 (est.)	53,986,412	7.0%
Sources: ^[49]

16th and 17th centuries

A continuous Hispanic/Latino presence in the territory of the United States has existed since the 16th century,^[24]^[25]^[26]^[27] earlier than any other European group. Spanish explorers were pioneers in the territory of the present-day United States. The first confirmed European landing in the continental U.S. was by Juan Ponce de León, who landed in 1513 at a lush shore he christened La Florida.

Within three decades of Ponce de León's landing, the Spanish became the first Europeans to reach the Appalachian Mountains, the Mississippi River, the Grand Canyon and the Great Plains. Spanish ships sailed along the East Coast, penetrating to present-day Bangor, Maine, and up the Pacific Coast as far as Oregon. From 1528 to 1536, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and three fellows from a Spanish expedition that foundered (including an African named Estevanico) journeyed from Florida to the Gulf of California, 267 years before the Lewis and Clark Expedition.

In 1540 Hernando de Soto undertook an extensive exploration of the present U.S. That same year Francisco Vásquez de Coronado led 2,000 Spaniards and Mexican Indians across today's Arizona–Mexico border and traveled as far as central Kansas, close to the exact geographic center of what is now the continental United States. Other Spanish explorers of the US include, among others: Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón, Pánfilo de Narváez, Sebastián Vizcaíno, Gaspar de Portolà, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, Tristán de Luna y Arellano and Juan de Oñate, and non-Spanish explorers working for the Spanish Crown, such as Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo. In all, Spaniards probed half of today's lower 48 states before the first English colonization effort in 1585 at Roanoke Island off the East Coast.

In 1565 the Spanish created the first permanent European settlement in the continental United States, at St. Augustine, Florida. Santa Fe, New Mexico was founded before Jamestown, Virginia (founded in 1607) and the New England Plymouth Colony (of Mayflower and Pilgrims fame; founded in 1620). Spanish missionaries and colonists founded settlements in San Antonio, Texas, Tucson, Arizona, and San Diego, Los Angeles and San Francisco, California, to name just a few.

18th and 19th centuries

Almost 80 years before John Smith's alleged rescue by Pocahontas in the colony of Virginia, a man by the name of Juan Ortiz(no sited references) told of his rescue by an Indian girl from execution by her tribe. Spanish colonists held a thanksgiving type feast near St. Augustine with Florida Indians, probably on stewed pork and garbanzo beans —56 years before the noted Pilgrim and Native American festival in Massachusetts.

As late as 1783, at the end of the American Revolutionary War (a conflict in which Spain aided and fought alongside the United States), Spain held claim to roughly half of the territory of today's continental United States. From 1819 to 1848, the United States (through treaties, purchase, diplomacy, and the Mexican-American War) increased its area by roughly a third at Spanish and Mexican expense, acquiring three of today's four most populous states — California, Texas and Florida.

20th century

The Hispanic and Latino role in the history and present of the United States is addressed in more detail below (See Notables and their contributions). During the 20th and 21st centuries, Hispanic and Latino immigration to the US increased markedly. To recognize their current and historic contributions, on September 17, 1968, President Lyndon B. Johnson designated a week in mid-September as National Hispanic Heritage Week, with Congress's authorization. In 1988, President Ronald Reagan extended the observance to a month, designated Hispanic Heritage Month.^[50]

Demographics

**Population by national origin (2010)**
(self-identified ethnicity, not by birthplace)^[51]
Hispanic Group	Population	% of Hispanics
Mexican	31,798,258	63.0
Puerto Rican	4,623,716	9.2
Cuban	1,785,547	3.5
Salvadoran	1,648,968	3.3
Dominican	1,414,703	2.8
Guatemalan	1,044,209	2.1
Colombian	908,734	1.8
Spanish	635,253	1.3
Honduran	633,401	1.3
Ecuadorian	564,631	1.1
Peruvian	531,358	1.1
Nicaraguan	348,202	0.7
Argentine	224,952	0.4
Venezuelan	215,023	0.4
Panamanian	165,456	0.3
Chilean	126,810	0.3
Costa Rican	126,418	0.3
Bolivian	99,210	0.2
Uruguayan	56,884	0.1
Paraguayan	20,023	-
All other	3,505,838	6.9
Total	50,477,594	100

As of 2011, Hispanics accounted for 16.7% of the national population, or around 52 million people.^[21] The Hispanic growth rate over the April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2007 period was 28.7%—about four times the rate of the nation's total population (at 7.2%).^[52] The growth rate from July 1, 2005 to July 1, 2006 alone was 3.4%^[53]—about three and a half times the rate of the nation's total population (at 1.0%).^[52] Based on the 2010 census, Hispanics are now the largest minority group in 191 out of 366 metropolitan areas in the US.^[54] The projected Hispanic population of the United States for July 1, 2050 is 132.8 million people, or 30.2% of the nation's total projected population on that date.^[55]

Geographic distribution

**US metropolitan areas with over 1 million Hispanics (2011)**^[56]
Rank	Metropolitan area	Hispanic population	Percent Hispanic
1	Los Angeles, California	5,804,000	45%
2	New York, New York	4,317,000	24%
3	San Juan, Puerto Rico	2,617,089	99%
4	Houston, Texas	2,105,000	37%
5	Riverside, California	2,062,000	48%
6	Chicago, Illinois	1,971,000	22%
7	Dallas, Texas	1,809,000	28%
8	Miami, Florida	1,627,000	65%
9	Phoenix, Arizona	1,163,000	30%
10	San Francisco, California	1,114,000	23%
11	San Antonio, Texas	1,112,000	56%
12	San Diego, California	1,021,000	33%

**States and territories with the highest proportion of Hispanics** (2013)^[57]
Rank	State	Percent Hispanic
1	Puerto Rico	99.0%
2	New Mexico	47.3%
3	California	38.4%
4	Texas	38.4%
5	Arizona	30.3%
6	Nevada	27.5%
7	Florida	23.6%
8	Colorado	21.0%
9	New Jersey	18.9%
10	New York	18.4%
11	Illinois	16.5%

Of the nation's total Hispanic or Latino population, 49% (21.5 million) live in California or Texas.^[58]

The majority of Mexican Americans are concentrated in the Southwest and the West Coast/West, primarily in California, Texas, Arizona, Nevada, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah. The majority of the Hispanic population in the Southeast and Great Plains (Plains States), concentrated in Florida, are of Cuban origin; However, the Mexican, Dominican and Puerto Rican populations have risen significantly in this region since the mid-1990s.

The Hispanic population in the Northeast, concentrated in New York, New Jersey, and Southeastern Pennsylvania, is composed mostly of Hispanics of Dominican and Puerto Rican origin. The remainder of Hispanics and Latinos may be found throughout the country, though South Americans tend to concentrate on the East Coast and Central Americans on the West Coast. Nevertheless, since the 1990s, several cities on the East Coast have seen often impressive increases in their Mexican population, namely Miami and Philadelphia.

National origin

As of 2007, some 64% of the nation's Hispanic population are of Mexican origin (see table). Another 9% are of Puerto Rican origin, with about 3% each of Cuban, Salvadoran and Dominican origins. The remainder are of other Central American or South American origin, or of origin directly from Spain. 60.2% of all Hispanic and Latino Americans were born in the United States.^[59]

There are few recent immigrants directly from Spain. In the 2000 Census, 299,948 Americans, of whom 83% were native-born,^[60] specifically reported their ancestry as Spaniard.^[61] Additionally, in the 2000 Census some 2,187,144 Americans reported "Spanish" as their ancestry.

In northern New Mexico and southern Colorado, there is a large portion of Hispanics who trace their ancestry to Spanish settlers of the late 16th century through the 17th century. People from this background often self-identify as "Hispanos", "Spanish", or "Hispanic". Many of these settlers also intermarried with local Amerindians, creating a Mestizo population.^[62] Likewise, southern Louisiana is home to communities of people of Canary Islands descent, known as Isleños, in addition to other people of Spanish ancestry.

Race

Actress Alexis Bledel is White Hispanic of Argentinian and Mexican heritage. Bledel grew up in a Spanish speaking household, and did not learn English until she began school.^[63]^[64]

Hispanic or Latino origin is independent of race and is termed "ethnicity" by the United States Census Bureau.

According to the 2007 American Community Survey, 92% of Hispanic and Latinos were White. The largest numbers of White Hispanics come from within the Argentine, Colombian, Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, Spanish, and Venezuelan communities.^[65]^[66] The largest numbers of Black Hispanics are from the Spanish Caribbean islands, including the Cuban, Dominican, Panamanian, and Puerto Rican, communities.

A significant portion of the Hispanic and Latino population self-identifies as Mestizo, particularly the Mexican and Central American community. Mestizo is not a racial category in the U.S. Census, but signifies someone who has both European and American Indian Ancestry. According to the 2010 United States Census, 36.7% of Hispanic/Latino Americans identify as "some other race" as these Hispanic/Latinos may feel the U.S. census does not describe their European or American Indian ancestry as they understand it to be.^[67]

Half of the Hispanic/Latino population in the United States self-identifies as "white", Most of the multi-racial population in the Mexican, Salvadoran, and Guatemalan communities are of European and Native American ancestry, while most of the multiracial population in the Cuban, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rican communities are of European and African ancestry.

Hispanic and Latinos are racially diverse, although different "races" dominate each Hispanic group. For example, of major US Hispanic groups with populations of over 1 million, Mexico, Guatemala, and El Salvador are countries where people with American Indian population and White Ancestry are the majority with very few people of African descent. In Puerto Rico the people of European ancestry are the majority, however there are also populations of African descent as well as American Indian descent. In the Dominican Republic there is a stronger African component within their populations, but there are also populations of European ancestry as well as people of American Indian descent. Cubans are mostly of White Latin American ancestry, however there are also populations of African descent and American Indian descent.^[68]^[69]^[70]^[71]The race and culture of each Hispanic/Latino country and their United States diaspora differs by history and geography. Mexicans represent the bulk of the US Hispanic/Latino population, and most Mexican Americans that migrate to the United States are mestizo, which causes many non-Hispanics to equate being Hispanic with being of American Indian descent. Official sources report the racial makeup of these Hispanic subgroups as follows, Argentina,^[72] Uruguay,^[72] Puerto Rico,^[72] Cuba,^[72] and Chile,^[72] having the highest percentage of European ancestry in their respective countries, (in order listed) usually of Spanish/Italian descent. As a result of their racial diversity, Hispanics form an ethnicity sharing a language (Spanish) and cultural heritage, rather than a race.

Chicanos, Nuevomexicanos, Tejanos, and Nuyoricans

Chicanos, Nuevomexicanos and Tejanos are Americans of Spanish and or Mexican descent. Chicanos live in the Southwest, Nuevomexicanos in New Mexico, and Tejanos in Texas. Nuevomexicanos and Tejanos are distinct cultures with their own cuisines, dialects and musical traditions.The term "Chicano" became popular amongst Chicanos in the 1960s during the Chicano nationalism and Chicano Movement, and is today seen as an ethnic and cultural identity by some. Political activist César Chávez and novelist José Antonio Villarreal are famous Chicanos.

Nuyoricans are Americans of Puerto Rican descent from the New York City area. There are close to two million Nuyoricans in the US. Famous Nuyoricans include US Supreme Court Judge Sonia Sotomayor and singer Jennifer Lopez.

Notable contributions

Hispanic and Latino Americans have made distinguished contributions to the United States in all major fields, such as politics, the military, music, literature, philosophy, sports, business and economy, and science.^[73]

Arts and entertainment

In 1995, the American Latino Media Arts Award, or ALMA Award was created. It's a distinction given to Latino performers (actors, film and television directors, and musicians) by the National Council of La Raza.

Music

There are many Hispanic American musicians that have achieved international fame, such as Jennifer López, Joan Baez, Linda Ronstadt, Carmen Miranda, Zack de la Rocha, Fergie, Gloria Estefan, Celia Cruz, Tito Puente, Kat DeLuna, Selena, Ricky Martin, Marc Anthony, Carlos Santana, Shakira, Christina Aguilera, Pitbull, Los Lonely Boys, Frankie J, Jerry García, Robert Trujillo, Aventura and Tom Araya.

Among the Hispanic American musicians who were pioneers in the early stages of rock and roll were Ritchie Valens, who scored several hits, most notably "La Bamba" and Herman Santiago wrote the lyrics to the iconic rock and roll song "Why Do Fools Fall in Love". Another song that became popular in the United States and is heard during the Holiday/Christmas season is "Feliz Navidad" by José Feliciano.

In 1986, Billboard magazine introduced the Hot Latin Songs chart which ranks the best-performing songs on Spanish-language radio stations in the United States. Seven years later, Billboard initiated the Top Latin Albums which ranks top-selling Latin albums in the United States.^[74] Similarly, the Recording Industry Association of America incorporated "Los Premios de Oro y Platino" (The Gold and Platinum Awards) to certify Latin recordings which contains at least 50% of its content recorded in Spanish.^[75]

In 1989, Univision established the Lo Nuestro Awards which became the first award ceremony to recognize the most talented performers of Spanish-language music and was considered to be the "Hispanic Grammys".^[76]^[77] In 2000, the Latin Academy of Recording Arts & Sciences (LARAS) established the Latin Grammy Awards to recognize musicians who perform in Spanish or Portuguese.^[78] Unlike The Recording Academy, LARAS extends its membership internationally to Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking communities worldwide in Latin America, Spain, and Portugal.^[79]

Film, radio, television, and theatre

Myrtle González, famous for her silent films in the 1910s, is considered the first female Latin star in Hollywood.^[80]

Hispanics and Latinos have also contributed some prominent actors and others in the film industry, a few of whom includes actors José Ferrer, the first Hispanic actor to win an Academy Award for his role in Cyrano de Bergerac, Anthony Quinn, Cameron Diaz, Martin Sheen, Rodrigo Santoro, Fernanda Montenegro, Daniel de Oliveira, Wagner Moura, Cheech Marín, Salma Hayek, Dolores del Río, Anita Page, Rita Hayworth, Antonio Banderas, Raquel Welch, Benicio del Toro, Eva Mendes, Zoe Saldana, Edward James Olmos, Maria Montez, Ramón Novarro, Ricardo Montalbán, Cesar Romero, Rosie Perez, Katy Jurado, Rita Moreno, Lupe Vélez, Esai Morales, Andy García, Rosario Dawson, John Leguizamo, and, behind the camera, directors Robert Rodriguez, Guillermo del Toro, Alfonso Cuarón and Brett Ratner (also producers and cinematographers) and Luis Valdez.

In standup comedy, Paul Rodríguez, Greg Giraldo, Cheech Marin, George Lopez, Freddie Prinze, Jade Esteban Estrada, Carlos Mencia, John Mendoza, and others are prominent.

Some of the Hispanic or Latino actors who achieved notable success in U.S. television include Desi Arnaz, Lynda Carter, Jimmy Smits, Selena Gomez, Carlos Pena, Jr., Eva Longoria, Sofía Vergara, Benjamin Bratt, Ricardo Montalbán, America Ferrera, Erik Estrada, Cote de Pablo, Freddie Prinze, Lauren Vélez, and Charlie Sheen. Kenny Ortega is an Emmy Award-winning producer, director, and choreographer who has choreographed many major television events such as Super Bowl XXX, the 72nd Academy Awards, and Michael Jacksons memorial service.

Hispanics and Latinos are underrepresented in U.S. television, radio, and film. This is combatted by organizations such as the Hispanic Organization of Latin Actors (HOLA), founded in 1975; and National Hispanic Media Coalition (NHMC), founded in 1986.^[81] Together with numerous Latino civil rights organizations, the NHMC led a "brownout" of the national television networks in 1999, after discovering that there were no Latinos in any of their new prime time shows that year.^[82] This resulted in the signing of historic diversity agreements with ABC, CBS, Fox, and NBC that have since increased the hiring of Hispanic and Latino talent and other staff in all of the networks.

Latino Public Broadcasting (LPB) funds programs of educational and cultural significance to Hispanic Americans. These programs are distributed to various public television stations throughout the United States.

Robert Rodríguez is a Mexican American film director, screenwriter, producer, cinematographer, editor and musician.
Carolina Herrera, Venezuelan American fashion designer. Her designs have dressed numerous American First Ladies.
Anita Page is part Salvadoran American and was referred to as "the girl with the most beautiful face in Hollywood" in the 1920s.
In 2010, Forbes ranked Cameron Diaz, a Cuban American, as the richest Hispanic female celebrity, ranking number 60 among the top 100.^[83]^[84]
Óscar de la Renta, Dominican American fashion designer.
Eva Longoria, a Mexican American actress, producer, activist, and business woman.
Cristela Alonzo is the first Latina to create, produce, write, and star in her own network show.
Mario Lopez has appeared on several television series, in films, and on Broadway.
Selena Gomez is an American actress and singer.
Sofía Vergara actress, comedienne, producer, television host, model and businesswoman.

Business and finance

La Época is an upscale Miami department store founded and owned by Cuban Americans.

U.S. Century Bank is one of the largest Hispanic-owned banks in the United States.^[85]

The total number of Hispanic-owned businesses in 2002 was 1.6 million, having grown at triple the national rate for the preceding five years.^[50]

Hispanic and Latino business leaders include Cuban immigrant Roberto Goizueta, who rose to head of The Coca-Cola Company.^[86] Advertising magnate Arte Moreno became the first Hispanic to own a major league team in the United States when he purchased the Los Angeles Angels baseball club.^[87] Also a major sports team owner is Linda G. Alvarado, president and CEO of Alvarado Construction, Inc and co-owner of the Colorado Rockies baseball team.

The largest Hispanic-owned food company in the US is Goya Foods, because of World War II hero Joseph A. Unanue, the son of the company's founders.^[88] Angel Ramos was the founder of Telemundo, Puerto Rico's first television station^[89] and now the second largest Spanish-language television network in the United States, with an average viewership over one million in primetime. Samuel A. Ramirez, Sr. made Wall Street history by becoming the first Hispanic to launch a successful investment banking firm, Ramirez & Co.^[90]^[91] Nina Tassler is president of CBS Entertainment since September 2004. She is the highest-profile Latina in network television and one of the few executives who has the power to approve the airing or renewal of series.

Fashion

In the world of fashion, notable Hispanic and Latino designers include Oscar de la Renta, Carolina Herrera, and Narciso Rodríguez among others. Christy Turlington, Gisele Bündchen and Lea T achieved international fame as models.

Government and politics

As of 2007 there were more than five thousand elected officeholders in the United States who were of Latino origin.^[92]

In the House of Representatives, Hispanic and Latino representatives have included Ladislas Lazaro, Antonio M. Fernández, Henry B. Gonzalez, Kika de la Garza, Herman Badillo, Romualdo Pacheco, and Manuel Lujan, Jr., out of almost two dozen former Representatives. Current Representatives include Luis Gutiérrez, Ileana Ros-Lehtinen, Nydia Velázquez, Joe Baca, Loretta Sanchez, Silvestre Reyes, Rubén Hinojosa, Linda Sánchez, and John Salazar—in all, they number twenty-three. Former senators are Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazolo, Mel Martinez, Dennis Chavez, Joseph Montoya, and Ken Salazar. As of January 2011, the U.S. Senate includes Hispanic members Bob Menendez, a Democrat, and Republicans Ted Cruz and Marco Rubio, all Cuban Americans.^[93]

Numerous Hispanics and Latinos hold elective and appointed office in state and local government throughout the United States.^[94] Current Hispanic Governors include Republican Nevada Governor Brian Sandoval and Republican New Mexico Governor Susana Martinez; upon taking office in 2011, Martinez became the first Latina governor in the history of the United States.^[95] Former Hispanic governors include Democrats Jerry Apodaca, Raul Hector Castro, and Bill Richardson, as well as Republicans Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazolo, Romualdo Pacheco, and Bob Martinez.

Since 1988,^[96] when Ronald Reagan appointed Lauro Cavazos the Secretary of Education, the first Hispanic United States Cabinet member, Hispanic Americans have had an increasing presence in presidential administrations. Hispanics serving in subsequent cabinets include Ken Salazar, current Secretary of the Interior; Hilda Solis, current United States Secretary of Labor; Alberto Gonzales, former United States Attorney General; Carlos Gutierrez, Secretary of Commerce; Federico Peña, former Secretary of Energy; Henry Cisneros, former Secretary of Housing and Urban Development; Manuel Lujan, Jr., former Secretary of the Interior; and Bill Richardson, former Secretary of Energy and Ambassador to the United Nations. Six of the last ten US Treasurers, including the latest three, are Hispanic women.

In 2009, Sonia Sotomayor became the first Supreme Court Associate Justice of Hispanic or Latino origin.

The Congressional Hispanic Caucus (CHC), founded in December 1976, and the Congressional Hispanic Conference (CHC), founded on March 19, 2003, are two organizations that promote policy of importance to Americans of Hispanic descent. They are divided into the two major American political parties: The Congressional Hispanic Caucus is composed entirely of Democratic representatives, whereas the Congressional Hispanic Conference is composed entirely of Republican representatives.

Literature and journalism

Among the distinguished Hispanic and Latino authors and their works may be noted:

Isabel Allende (The House of the Spirits and City of the Beasts)
Sandra Cisneros (The House on Mango Street and Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories)
Julia Álvarez ("How the García Girls Lost Their Accents")
Jorge Majfud (Crisis)
Rudolfo Anaya (Bless Me, Ultima and Heart of Aztlan)
Giannina Braschi (Empire of Dreams, Yo-Yo Boing!, and United States of Banana)
Junot Díaz (The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao)
Frank X Gaspar (Leaving Pico)
Rigoberto González (Butterfly Boy: Memories of a Chicano Mariposa)
Jovita González de Mireles (Caballero, cowritten with Eve Raleigh, and Dew On The Thorn)
Oscar Hijuelos (The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love)
Micol Ostow ("Mind Your Manners, Dick and Jane", "Emily Goldberg Learns to Salsa")^[97]
Benito Pastoriza Iyodo (A Matter of Men and September Elegies)
Tomas Rivera (...And the Earth did Not Devour Him)
Richard Rodríguez (Hunger of Memory)
Rubén Salazar (journalist)
George Santayana (novelist and philosopher: "Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it")
Sergio Troncoso (From This Wicked Patch of Dust and The Last Tortilla and Other Stories)
Alisa Valdes-Rodriguez (Haters)
Victor Villaseñor (Rain of Gold)
Oscar Zeta Acosta (The Revolt of the Cockroach People)
Guadalupe Baca-Vaughn (The Souls in Purgatory)

Military

Major General Luis R. Esteves, the first Hispanic to graduate from the United States Military Academy ("West Point").

Hispanics and Latinos have participated in the military of the United States and in every major military conflict from the American Revolution onward.^[98] Tens of thousands of Latinos are deployed in the Iraq War, the Afghanistan War, and U.S. military missions and bases elsewhere. Hispanics and Latinos have not only distinguished themselves in the battlefields but also reached the high echelons of the military, serving their country in sensitive leadership positions on domestic and foreign posts. Up to now, 43 Hispanics and Latinos have been awarded the nation's highest military distinction, the Medal of Honor (also known as the Congressional Medal of Honor). The following is a list of some notable Hispanics/Latinos in the military:

American Revolution

Lieutenant Jorge Farragut Mesquida (1755–1817)-Participated in the American Revolution as a lieutenant in the South Carolina Navy.

American Civil War

Admiral David Farragut- Farragut was promoted to vice admiral on December 21, 1864, and to full admiral on July 25, 1866, after the war, thereby becoming the first person to be named full admiral in the Navy's history.^[99]
Colonel Ambrosio José Gonzales – Gonzales was active during the bombardment of Fort Sumter and because of his actions was appointed Colonel of artillery and assigned to duty as Chief of Artillery in the department of South Carolina, Georgia and Florida.

Brigadier General Diego Archuleta (1814–1884) – was a member of the Mexican Army who fought against the United States in the Mexican–American War. During the American Civil War he joined the Union Army (US Army) and became the first Hispanic to reach the military rank of Brigadier General. He commanded The First New Mexico Volunteer Infantry in the Battle of Valverde. He was later appointed an Indian (Native Americans) Agent by Abraham Lincoln.^[100]

Colonel Carlos de la Mesa – Grandfather of Major General Terry de la Mesa Allen, Sr. commanding general of the First Infantry Division in North Africa and Sicily, and later the commander of the 104th Infantry Division during World War II. Colonel Carlos de la Mesa was a Spanish national who fought at Gettysburg for the Union Army in the Spanish Company of the "Garibaldi Guard" of the 39th New York State Volunteers.^[101]
Colonel Federico Fernández Cavada – Commanded the 114th Pennsylvania Volunteer infantry regiment when it took the field in the Peach Orchard at Gettysburg.^[102]
Colonel Miguel E. Pino – Commanded the 2nd Regiment of New Mexico Volunteers, which fought at the Battle of Valverde in February and the Battle of Glorieta Pass and helped defeat the attempted invasion of New Mexico by the Confederate Army.^[103]
Colonel Santos Benavides – Commanded his own regiment, the "Benavides Regiment." He was the highest ranking Mexican-American in the Confederate Army.^[102]
Major Salvador Vallejo – Officer in one of the California units that served with the Union Army in the West.^[103]
Captain Adolfo Fernández Cavada – Cavada served in the 114th Pennsylvania Volunteers at Gettysburg with his brother, Colonel Federico Fernandez Cavada. He served with distinction in the Army of the Potomac from Fredericksburg to Gettysburg and was a "special aide-de-camp" to General Andrew A. Humphreys.^[102]^[104]
Captain Roman Anthony Baca – Member of the Union forces in the New Mexico Volunteers. He also served as a spy for the Union Army in Texas.^[103]
Lieutenant Augusto Rodriguez – A Puerto Rican native who served as an officer in the 15th Connecticut Volunteer Infantry, of the Union Army. Rodríguez served in the defenses of Washington, D.C. and led his men in the Battles of Fredericksburg and Wyse Fork.^[105]
Lola Sánchez – Sánchez was a Cuban born woman who became a Confederate spy who helped the Confederates obtain a victory against the Union Forces in the "Battle of Horse Landing".
Loreta Janeta Velazquez as known as "Lieutenant Harry Buford" – She was a Cuban woman who donned Confederate garb and served as a Confederate officer and spy during the American Civil War.

World War I

Major General Luis R. Esteves, U.S. Army- In 1915, Esteves became the first Hispanic to graduate from the United States Military Academy ("West Point"). Esteves also organized the Puerto Rican National Guard.
First Lieutenant Félix Rigau Carrera, known as "El Aguila de Sabana Grande" (The Eagle from Sabana Grande)-Was the first Hispanic fighter pilot in the United States Marine Corps.^[106]
Private Marcelino Serna- Was an undocumented Mexican immigrant who joined the United States Army and became the most decorated soldier from Texas in World War I. Serna was the first Hispanic to be awarded the Distinguished Service Cross.

World War II

Lieutenant General Pedro del Valle – the first Hispanic to reach the rank of Lieutenant General. He played an instrumental role in the seizure of Guadalcanal and Okinawa as Commanding General of the U.S. 1st Marine Division during World War II.
Lieutenant General Elwood R. Quesada (1904–1993) – Commanding general of the 9th Fighter Command, where he established advanced headquarters on the Normandy beachhead on D-Day plus one, and directed his planes in aerial cover and air support for the Allied invasion of the European continent during World War II. He was the foremost proponent of "the inherent flexibility of air power", a principle he helped prove during the war.
Major General Terry de la Mesa Allen, Sr. (1888–1969) – was the commanding general of the 1st Infantry Division in North Africa and Sicily during World War II, and was made commander of the 104th Infantry Division.
Colonel Virgil R. Miller – was the Regimental Commander of the 442d Regimental Combat Team, a unit that was composed of "Nisei" (second generation Americans of Japanese descent), during World War II. He led the 442nd in its rescue of the Lost Texas Battalion of the 36th Infantry Division, in the forests of the Vosges Mountains in northeastern France.^[107]^[108]
Captain Marion Frederic Ramírez de Arellano (1913–1980) – served in World War II and was the first Hispanic submarine commander.
First Lieutenant Oscar Francis Perdomo, of the 464th Fighter Squadron, 507th Fighter Group was the last "Ace in a Day" for the United States in World War II.
CWO2 Joseph B. Aviles, Sr. – a member of the United States Coast Guard and the first Hispanic-American to be promoted to Chief Petty Officer, received a war-time promotion to Chief Warrant Officer (November 27, 1944), thus becoming the first Hispanic American to reach that level as well.^[109]
Sergeant First Class Agustín Ramos Calero – was the most decorated Hispanic soldier in the European Theatre of World War II.
PFC Guy Gabaldon, USMC – captured over a thousand prisoners during the World War II Battle of Saipan.
Tech4 Carmen Contreras-Bozak – the first Hispanic to serve in the U.S. Women's Army Corps where she served as an interpreter and in numerous administrative positions.^[110]

Korean War

Major General Salvador E. Felices, U.S. Air Force – In 1953, Felices flew in 19 combat missions over North Korea, during the Korean War. In 1957, he participated in "Operation Power Flite", a historic project that was given to the Fifteenth Air Force by the Strategic Air Command headquarters. Operation Power Flite was the first around the world non-stop flight by an all-jet aircraft.
First Lieutenant Baldomero Lopez – is the only Hispanic graduate of the United States Naval Academy ("Annapolis") to be awarded the Medal of Honor.
Sergeant First Class Modesto Cartagena- was a member of the 65th Infantry Regiment, an all-Puerto Rican regiment also known as "The Borinqueneers", during World War II and the Korean War. He was the most decorated Puerto Rican soldier in history.^[111]

Cuban Missile Crisis

Admiral Horacio Rivero, Jr.- second Hispanic four-star Admiral, was the commander of the American fleet sent by President John F. Kennedy to set up a quarantine (blockade) of the Soviet ships during the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Vietnam War

Sergeant First Class Jorge Otero Barreto a.k.a. "The Puerto Rican Rambo"- was the most decorated Hispanic American soldier in the Vietnam War^[112]

Post-Vietnam

Lieutenant General Ricardo Sanchez- top commander of the Coalition forces during the first year of the occupation of Iraq, 2003–2004, during the Iraq War
Lieutenant General Edward D. Baca- In 1994, Baca became the first Hispanic Chief of the National Guard Bureau.
Vice Admiral Antonia Novello, M.D., Public Health Service Commissioned Corps- In 1990, Novello became the first Hispanic (and first female) U.S. Surgeon General.
Vice Admiral Richard Carmona, M.D., Public Health Service Commissioned Corps- Carmona served as the 17th Surgeon General of the United States, under President George W. Bush.
Brigadier General Joseph V. Medina, USMC -made history by becoming the first Marine Corps officer to take command of a Naval flotilla.
Rear Admiral Ronald J. Rábago is the first person of Hispanic American descent to be promoted to Rear Admiral (lower half) in the United States Coast Guard.^[113]
Captain Linda Garcia Cubero, United States Air Force- in 1980 became the first Hispanic woman graduate of the United States Air Force.
Major General Erneido Oliva. He was appointed to the position of Deputy Commanding General of the D.C. National Guard.
Brigadier General Carmelita Vigil-Schimmenti, United States Air Force- in 1985 became the first Hispanic female to attain the rank of Brigadier General in the Air Force.^[114]^[115]
On August 2, 2006, Brigadier General Angela Salinas, made history when she became the first Hispanic female to obtain a general rank in the Marines.^[116]
Chief Master Sergeant Ramón Colón-López is pararescueman who in 2007, was the only Hispanic among the first six airmen to be awarded the newly created Air Force Combat Action Medal.

Medal of Honor

The following 43 Hispanics were awarded the Medal of Honor:

Philip Bazaar, Joseph H. De Castro, John Ortega, France Silva, David B. Barkley, Lucian Adams, Rudolph B. Davila, Marcario Garcia, Harold Gonsalves, David M. Gonzales, Silvestre S. Herrera, Jose M. Lopez, Joe P. Martinez, Manuel Perez Jr., Cleto L. Rodriguez, Alejandro R. Ruiz, Jose F. Valdez, Ysmael R. Villegas, Fernando Luis García, Edward Gomez, Ambrosio Guillen, Rodolfo P. Hernandez, Baldomero Lopez, Benito Martinez, Eugene Arnold Obregon, Joseph C. Rodriguez, John P. Baca, Roy P. Benavidez, Emilio A. De La Garza, Ralph E. Dias, Daniel Fernandez, Alfredo Cantu "Freddy" Gonzalez, Jose Francisco Jimenez, Miguel Keith, Carlos James Lozada, Alfred V. Rascon, Louis R. Rocco, Euripides Rubio, Hector Santiago-Colon, Elmelindo Rodrigues Smith, Jay R. Vargas, Humbert Roque Versace, and Maximo Yabes.

National intelligence

In the spy arena, José Rodríguez, a native of Puerto Rico, was the Deputy Director of Operations and subsequently Director of the National Clandestine Service (D/NCS), two senior positions in the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), between 2004 and 2007.^[117]

Lieutenant Colonel Mercedes O. Cubria (1903–1980), a.k.a. La Tía (The Aunt), was the first Cuban-born female officer in the U.S. Army. She served in the Women's Army Corps during World War II, in the U.S. Army during the Korean War, and was recalled into service during the Cuban Missile Crisis. In 1988, she was posthumously inducted into the Military Intelligence Hall of Fame.^[118]

Science and technology

Among Hispanic Americans who have excelled in science are Luis Walter Álvarez, Nobel Prize–winning physicist, and his son Walter Alvarez, a geologist. They first proposed that an asteroid impact on the Yucatán Peninsula caused the extinction of the dinosaurs. Mario J. Molina won the Nobel Prize in chemistry and currently works in the chemistry department at the University of California, San Diego. Dr. Victor Manuel Blanco is an astronomer who in 1959 discovered "Blanco 1", a galactic cluster.^[119] F. J. Duarte is a laser physicist and author; he received the Engineering Excellence Award from the prestigious Optical Society of America for the invention of the N-slit laser interferometer.^[120] Alfredo Quiñones-Hinojosa is the Director of the Pituitary Surgery Program at Johns Hopkins Hospital and the Director of the Brain Tumor Stem Cell Laboratory at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. Physicist Albert Baez made important contributions to the early development of X-ray microscopes and later X-ray telescopes. His nephew John Carlos Baez is also a noted mathematical physicist. Francisco J. Ayala is a biologist and philosopher, former president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and has been awarded the National Medal of Science and the Templeton Prize. Peruvian-American biophysicist Carlos Bustamante has been named a Searle Scholar and Alfred P. Sloan Foundation Fellow. Luis von Ahn is one of the pioneers of crowdsourcing and the founder of the companies reCAPTCHA and Duolingo. Colombian-American Ana Maria Rey received a MacArthur Fellowship for her work in atomic physics in 2013.

Dr. Fernando E. Rodríguez Vargas discovered the bacteria that cause dental cavity. Dr. Gualberto Ruaño is a biotechnology pioneer in the field of personalized medicine and the inventor of molecular diagnostic systems, Coupled Amplification and Sequencing (CAS) System, used worldwide for the management of viral diseases.^[121] Fermín Tangüis was an agriculturist and scientist who developed the Tangüis Cotton in Peru and saved that nation's cotton industry.^[122] Severo Ochoa, born in Spain, was a co-winner of the 1959 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Dr. Sarah Stewart, a Mexican-American Microbiologist, is credited with the discovery of the Polyomavirus and successfully demonstrating that cancer causing viruses could be transmitted from animal to animal. Mexican-American psychiatrist Dr. Nora Volkow, whose brain imaging studies helped characterize the mechanisms of drug addiction, is the current director of the National Institute on Drug Abuse. Dr. Helen Rodríguez Trías, an early advocate for women's reproductive rights, helped drive and draft U.S. federal sterilization guidelines in 1979. She was awarded the Presidential Citizens Medal by President Bill Clinton, and was the first Latina president of the American Public Health Association.

Some Hispanics and Latinos have made their names in astronautics, including several NASA astronauts:^[123] Franklin Chang-Diaz, the first Latin American NASA astronaut, is co-recordholder for the most flights in outer space, and is the leading researcher on the plasma engine for rockets; France A. Córdova, former NASA chief scientist; Juan R. Cruz, NASA aerospace engineer; Lieutenant Carlos I. Noriega, NASA mission specialist and computer scientist; Dr. Orlando Figueroa, mechanical engineer and Director of Mars Exploration in NASA; Amri Hernández-Pellerano, engineer who designs, builds and tests the electronics that will regulate the solar array power in order to charge the spacecraft battery and distribute power to the different loads or users inside various spacecraft at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center.

Olga D. González-Sanabria won an R&D 100 Award for her role in the development of the "Long Cycle-Life Nickel-Hydrogen Batteries" which help enable the International Space Station power system. Mercedes Reaves, research engineer and scientist who is responsible for the design of a viable full-scale solar sail and the development and testing of a scale model solar sail at NASA Langley Research Center. Dr. Pedro Rodríguez, inventor and mechanical engineer who is the director of a test laboratory at NASA and of a portable, battery-operated lift seat for people suffering from knee arthritis. Dr. Felix Soto Toro, electrical engineer and astronaut applicant who developed the Advanced Payload Transfer Measurement System (ASPTMS) (Electronic 3D measuring system); Ellen Ochoa, a pioneer of spacecraft technology and astronaut; Joseph Acaba, Fernando Caldeiro, Sidney Gutierrez, Jose Hernández, Michael López-Alegría, John Olivas, and George Zamka, who are current or former astronauts.

Sports

Baseball

The large number of Hispanic and Latino American stars in Major League Baseball (MLB) includes players like Ted Williams (considered by many to be the greatest hitter of all time), Miguel Cabrera, Lefty Gómez, Iván Rodríguez, Carlos González, Roberto Clemente, Adrian Gonzalez, David Ortiz, Fernando Valenzuela, Nomar Garciaparra, Albert Pujols, Omar Vizquel, managers Al López, Ozzie Guillén, and Felipe Alou, and General Manager Omar Minaya.

Basketball and football

There have been far fewer football and basketball players, let alone star players, but Tom Flores was the first Hispanic head coach and the first Hispanic quarterback in American professional football, and won Super Bowls as a player, as assistant coach and as head coach for the Oakland Raiders. Anthony Múñoz is enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame, ranked #17 on Sporting News's 1999 list of the 100 greatest football players, and was the highest-ranked offensive lineman. Jim Plunkett won the Heisman Trophy and was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame, and Joe Kapp is inducted into the Canadian Football Hall of Fame and College Football Hall of Fame. Steve Van Buren, Martin Gramatica, Victor Cruz, Tony Gonzalez, Marc Bulger, Tony Romo and Mark Sanchez can also be cited among successful Hispanics and Latinos in the National Football League (NFL).

Trevor Ariza, Mark Aguirre, Carmelo Anthony, Manu Ginobili, Carlos Arroyo, Gilbert Arenas, Rolando Blackman, Pau Gasol, Jose Calderon, José Juan Barea and Charlie Villanueva can be cited in the National Basketball Association (NBA). Dick Versace made history when he became the first person of Hispanic heritage to coach an NBA team. Rebecca Lobo was a major star and champion of collegiate (National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)) and Olympic basketball and played professionally in the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA). Diana Taurasi became just the seventh player ever to win an NCAA title, a WNBA title, and as well an Olympic gold medal. Orlando Antigua became in 1995 the first Hispanic and the first non-black in 52 years to play for the Harlem Globetrotters.

Tennis

Tennis players includes legend Pancho Gonzales and Olympic tennis champions and professional players Mary Joe Fernández and Gigi Fernández.

Soccer

Soccer players in the Major League Soccer (MLS) includes several like Tab Ramos, Claudio Reyna, Marcelo Balboa and Carlos Bocanegra.

Other sports

Boxing's first Hispanic world champion was Panama Al Brown. Some other champions include Oscar De La Hoya, Miguel Cotto, Bobby Chacon, Joel Casamayor, Michael Carbajal, John Ruiz, and Carlos Ortiz.

Ricco Rodriguez, Tito Ortiz, Diego Sanchez, Nick Diaz, Nathan Diaz' Dominick Cruz, Frank Shamrock, Gilbert Melendez, Roger Huerta, Carlos Condit, Kelvin Gastelum, and UFC Heavy Weight Champion Cain Velasquez have been competitors in the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) of mixed martial arts.

In 1991 Bill Guerin whose mother is Nicaraguan became the first Hispanic player in the National Hockey League (NHL). He was also selected to four NHL All-Star Games. In 1999 Scott Gomez won the NHL Rookie of the Year Award.^[124]

Figure skater Rudy Galindo; golfers Chi Chi Rodríguez, Nancy López, and Lee Trevino; softball player Lisa Fernández; and Paul Rodríguez Jr., X Games professional skateboarder, are all Hispanic or Latino Americans who have distinguished themselves in their sports.

In sports entertainment we find the professional wrestlers Alberto Del Rio, Rey Mysterio, Eddie Guerrero, Tyler Black and Melina Pérez, and executive Vickie Guerrero.

Socioeconomics

Education

Bachelor's Degree or Higher
Educational Attainment (2010)
Ethnicity or nationality	Percent of Population
Venezuelan	50%
Argentinean	39%
Chilean	36%
Bolivian	34%
Colombian	31%
Panamanian	31%
Peruvian	31%
Spaniard	30%
Non-Hispanic White	30%
Costa Rican	25%
Cuban	25%
Puerto Rican	16%
Mexican	11%
General Hispanic population	13%
General US population	28%
Sources:^[126]

In terms of educational attainment, Hispanic and Latino Americans of South American descent have the highest college graduation rates, and significantly higher than the national average. In 2013, Hispanic high school graduates passed Non-Hispanic Whites in rate of college enrollment. 69% of Hispanic high school graduates enroll in a college immediately after graduation.^[127]

Those with a bachelor's degree or higher ranges from 50% of Venezuelans compared to 18% for Ecuadorians 25 years and older. Amongst the largest Hispanic groups, those with a bachelors or higher was 25% for Cuban Americans, 16% of Puerto Ricans, 15% of Dominicans, and 11% for Mexican Americans. Over 21% of all second-generation Dominican Americans have college degrees, slightly below the national average (28%) but significantly higher than U.S.-born Mexican Americans (13%) and U.S.-born Puerto Rican Americans (12%).^[128]

Hispanic and Latinos make up the second or third largest ethnic group in Ivy League universities, considered to be the most prestigious in the United States. Hispanic and Latino enrollment at Ivy League universities has gradually increased over the years. Today, Hispanics make up between 8% of students at Yale University to 15% at Columbia University.^[129] For example, 18% of students in the Harvard University Class of 2018 are Hispanic.^[130]

Hispanics have significant enrollment in many other top universities such as Florida International University (63% of students), University of Miami (27%), and MIT, UCLA, & UC-Berkeley at 15% each. At Stanford University, Hispanics are the second largest ethnic group behind Non-Hispanic Whites, at 18% of the student population.^[131]

In the 2010 US Census, the high school graduation rate for Hispanics was 62% overall. It is highest among Cuban Americans (69%) and lowest among Mexican Americans (48%). The Puerto Rican rate is 63%, Central and South American Americans is 60%, and Dominican Americans is 52%.

Hispanic university enrollments

Universities with the largest Hispanic undergraduate enrollment (2013)^[132]

Rank	University	Hispanic enrollment	% of student body
1	Florida International University	24,105	67%
2	University of Texas at El Paso	15,459	81%
3	University of Texas Pan American	15,009	91%
4	University of Texas at San Antonio	11,932	47%
5	California State University at Northridge	11,774	38%
6	California State University at Fullerton	11,472	36%
7	Arizona State University	11,465	19%
8	California State University at Long Beach	10,836	35%
9	California State University at Los Angeles	10,392	58%
10	University of Central Florida	10,255	20%

Universities with the largest Hispanic graduate enrollment (2013)

Rank	University	Hispanic enrollment	% of student body
1	Nova Southeastern University	4,281	20%
2	Florida International University	3,612	42%
3	University of Southern California	2,358	11%
4	University of Texas Pan American	2,120	78%
5	University of Texas at El Paso	2,083	59%
6	CUNY Graduate Center	1,656	30%
7	University of New Mexico	1,608	26%
8	University of Texas at San Antonio	1,561	35%
9	University of Florida	1,483	9%
10	Arizona State University	1,400	10%

Hispanic student enrollment in university and college systems (2012-2013)

Rank	University system	Hispanic enrollment	% of student body
1	California Community College System^[133]	642,045	41%
2	California State University^[134]	149,137	33%
3	Florida College System^[135]	118,821	26%
4	University of Texas System^[136]	84,086	39%
5	State University System of Florida^[137]	79,931	24%
6	City University of New York^[138]	77,341	30%
7	State University of New York^[139]	43,514	9%
8	University of California	42,604	18%
9	Texas A&M University System^[140]^[141]	27,165	25%
10	Nevada System of Higher Education ^[142]	21,467	21%
-	Ivy League ^[129]	11,562	10%

Health

Hispanic and Latino Americans are the longest-living Americans, according to official data. Their life expectancy is more than two years longer than for non-Hispanic whites and almost eight years longer than for African Americans.^[143]

Workforce and average income

Median Household Income (2011)
Ethnicity or nationality	Income
Argentinean	$55,000
Peruvian	$50,000
Venezuelan	$50,000
Ecuadorian	$48,600
Colombian	$48,000
Nicaraguan	$46,700
Salvadoran	$40,000
Cuban	$38,600
Mexican	$38,000
Guatemalan	$36,400
Puerto Rican	$36,000
Dominicans	$32,300
Hondurans	$31,000
Sources:^[144]

In 2002, the average individual income among Hispanic and Latino Americans was highest for Cuban Americans ($38,733), and lowest for Dominican Americans ($26,467) and Puerto Ricans ($27,877). For Mexican Americans, it was $33,927, and $30,444 for Central and South Americans. In comparison, the income of the average Hispanic American is lower than the national average.

Among Hispanics, Cuban Americans (28.5 percent) had the highest percentage in professional–managerial occupations. The percentage for Mexican Americans was 20.7, Central and South Americans' was 8.8 percent, and Puerto Ricans was 7.2 percent. All these are lower than the average for non-Hispanics (36.2 percent).^{[citation needed]}

Poverty

According to the ACS, the poverty rate among Hispanic groups is highest among Dominican Americans (28.1 percent), Mexican Americans (23.9 percent), and Honduran Americans and Puerto Ricans (23.7 percent both). It is lowest among South Americans, such as Colombian Americans (10.6 percent) and Peruvian Americans (13.6 percent), and relatively low poverty rates are also found among Salvadoran Americans (15.0 percent) and Cuban Americans (15.2 percent).^[145]

In comparison, the average poverty rates for non-Hispanic White Americans (8.8 percent)^[145] and Asian Americans (7.1 percent) were lower than those of any Hispanic group. African Americans (21.3 percent) had a higher poverty rate than Cuban Americans and Central and South Americans, but had a lower poverty rate than Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Dominican Americans.^[145]

Cultural influence

The geographic, political, social, economic, and racial diversity of Hispanic and Latino Americans makes all Hispanics very different depending on their family heritage and/or national origin. Yet several features tend to unite Hispanics from these diverse backgrounds.

Spanish speakers in the United States
Year	Number of Spanish speakers	Percent of US population
1980	11 million	5%
1990	17.3 million	7%
2000	28.1 million	10%
2010	37 million	13%
2012	38.3 million	13%
2020 (projected)	40 million	14%
Sources:^[146]^[147]^[148]^[149]

Language

Spanish

As one of the most important uniting factors of Hispanic Americans, Spanish is an important part of Hispanic culture. Teaching Spanish to children is often one of the most valued skills taught amongst Hispanic families. Spanish is not only closely tied with the person's family, heritage, and overall culture, but valued for increased opportunities in business and one's future professional career. A 2013 Pew Research survey showed that 95% of Hispanic adults said "it's important that future generations of Hispanics speak Spanish."^[146]^[152] Given the US proximity to other Spanish-speaking countries, Spanish is being passed on to future American generations. Amongst second-generation Hispanics, 80% speak fluent Spanish, and amongst third-generation Hispanics, 40% speak fluent Spanish.^[153]

Hispanics have revived the Spanish language in the United States. First brought to North America by the Spanish during the Spanish colonial period in the 16th century, Spanish was the first European language spoken in the Americas. Spanish is the oldest European language in the United States, spoken uninterruptedly for four and a half centuries, since the founding of Saint Augustine, Florida in 1565.^[24]^[25]^[26]^[27] Today, 90% of all Hispanic and Latinos speak English, and at least 89% speak fluent Spanish.^[154] Additionally, 2.8 million non-Hispanic Americans also speak Spanish at home.^[155]

With 40% of Hispanic and Latino Americans being immigrants,^[156] and with many of the 60% who are U.S.-born being the children or grandchildren of immigrants, bilingualism is the norm in the community at large. At home, at least 69% of all Hispanics over the age of five are bilingual in English and Spanish, whereas up to 22% are monolingual English-speakers, and 9% are monolingual Spanish speakers. Another 0.4% speak a language other than English and Spanish at home.^[154]

American Spanish dialects

The Spanish dialects spoken in the US differ depending on the country of origin of the person or the person's family heritage. Generally, however, Spanish spoken in the Southwest is Mexican Spanish (or Chicano Spanish). An old, colonial variety of Spanish is spoken by descendants of the early Spanish colonists in New Mexico and Colorado, which is New Mexican Spanish. One of the major distinctions of New Mexican Spanish is its heavy use of colonial vocabulary and verb tenses that make New Mexican Spanish uniquely American amongst Spanish dialects. The Spanish spoken in Florida and in the Northeast is Caribbean Spanish and is heavily influenced by the Spanish of Cuba and Puerto Rico. Canarian Spanish is the historic Spanish dialect spoken by the descendants of the earliest Spanish colonists beginning in the 18th century in Louisiana. Spanish spoken elsewhere throughout the country varies, although is generally Mexican Spanish.^[155]^[157]

Spanglish and English dialects

Hispanics have influenced the way Americans speak with the introduction of many Spanish words into the English language. Amongst younger generations of Hispanics, Spanglish, or a mix of Spanish and English, may be a common way of speaking. Although they are fluent in both languages, speakers will switch between Spanish and English throughout the conversation. Spanglish is particularly common in Hispanic-majority cities and communities such as Miami, Hialeah, San Antonio, Los Angeles, and New York City.^[158]

Hispanics have also influenced the way English is spoken in the United States. In Miami, for example, the Miami dialect has evolved as the most common form of English spoken and heard in Miami today. This is a native dialect of English, and was developed amongst second and third generations of Cuban Americans in Miami. Today, it is commonly heard everywhere throughout the city. Gloria Estefan and Enrique Iglesias are examples of people who speak with the Miami dialect. Another major English dialect, is spoken by Chicanos and Tejanos in the Southwestern United States, called Chicano English. George Lopez and Selena are examples of speakers of Chicano English.^[159]

Religion

The most methodologically rigorous study of Hispanic or Latino religious affiliation to date was the Hispanic Churches in American Public Life (HCAPL) National Survey, conducted between August and October 2000. This survey found that 70% of all Hispanic and Latino Americans are Catholic, 20% are Protestant, 3% are "alternative Christians" (such as Mormon or Jehovah's Witnesses), 1% identify with a non-Christian religion (including Muslims, Jewish, Buddhist...^[160]), and 6% have no religious preference (with only 0.37% claiming to be atheist or agnostic). This suggests that Hispanics/Latinos are not only a highly religious, but also a highly Christian constituency.

It also suggests that Hispanic/Latino Protestants are a more sizable minority than sometimes realized. Catholic affiliation is much higher among first-generation than second- or third-generation Hispanic or Latino immigrants, who exhibit a fairly high rate of defection to Protestantism.^[161] Also Hispanics and Latinos in the Bible Belt, which is mostly located in the South, are more likely to defect to Protestantism than those in other regions. Examples of Protestant denominations that experiencing an inflow of Hispanic/Latino converts are Pentecostalism^[162]^[163] and the Episcopal Church.^[164]^[165] According to Andrew Greeley, as many as 600,000 American Latinos leave Catholicism for Protestant churches every year.^[166] Hispanic or Latino Catholics are also increasingly working to enhance member retention through youth and social programs and through the spread of the Catholic Charismatic Renewal.^[167]

Media

The United States is home to thousands of Spanish-language media outlets, which range in size from giant commercial and some non-commercial broadcasting networks and major magazines with circulations numbering in the millions, to low-power AM radio stations with listeners numbering in the hundreds. There are hundreds of Internet media outlets targeting U.S. Hispanic consumers. Some of the outlets are online versions of their printed counterparts and some online exclusively.

Among the most noteworthy Hispanic/Latino-oriented media outlets are:

Univisión, the largest Spanish-language television network^{[disambiguation needed]} in the United States, with affiliates in nearly every major U.S. market, and numerous affiliates internationally;

Telemundo, the second-largest Spanish-language television network in the United States, with affiliates in nearly every major U.S. market, and numerous affiliates internationally;

Azteca América, a Spanish-language television network in the United States, with affiliates in nearly every major U.S. market, and numerous affiliates internationally;

La Opinión, a Spanish-language daily newspaper published in Los Angeles, California and distributed throughout the six counties of Southern California. It is the largest Spanish-language newspaper in the United States;

El Nuevo Herald and Diario Las Américas, both Spanish-language daily newspapers serving the greater Miami, Florida market;

La Voz de Indiana, a bilingual (English and Spanish) publication based in Indianapolis, Indiana;

Hispanic Business, an English-language business magazine about Hispanics;

mun2, a cable network that produces content for U.S.-born Hispanic and Latino audiences;

People en Español, a Spanish-language magazine counterpart of People;

ConSentido TV, a television, radio, and newspaper network in North Texas;

TBN Enlace USA, a Spanish-language Christian television network based in Tustin, California;

3ABN Latino, a Spanish-language Christian television network based in West Frankfort, Illinois;

V-me, a Spanish-language television network, a sister network of PBS;

CNN en Español, a Spanish-language all-news television network based in Atlanta, Georgia;

Vida Latina, a Spanish-language entertainment magazine distributed throughout the Southern United States.

ESPN Deportes and Fox Deportes, two Spanish-language sports television networks.

Cuisine

Adaptation of Mexican food tailored for the mainstream American market usually is very different from Mexican food typically served in Mexico.

Hispanics, particularly Cuban, Mexican, and Puerto Ricans, have influenced American cuisine and American eating habits. Mexican cuisine is now popular across the US, making tortillas and salsa more popular than hamburger buns and ketchup. Tortilla chips have also surpassed potato chips in annual sales, and plantain chips popular in Caribbean cuisines, have continued to grow in popularity.^[169] Tropical fruit such as mango, guava, and passion fruit (maracuyá) have increasingly become more popular and are now common flavors in desserts, candies, and food dishes in the US.

Due to the large Mexican American population in the Southwestern United States, and its proximity to Mexico, Mexican food there is believed to be some of the best in the US. Cubans brought Cuban cuisine to Miami, and today, cortaditos, pastelitos de guayaba, and empanadas are common mid-day snacks. Cuban culture has changed Miami's coffee drinking habits, and today a café con leche or a cortadito is commonly had, often with a pastelito (pastry) at one of the city's numerous coffee shops.^[170] The Cuban sandwich was invented in Miami, and is now also a staple and icon of the city's cuisine and culture.^[171]

Family life and values

A Quinceañera after a Catholic Mass, celebrating a daughter's 15th birthday, common amongst Hispanic families.

Hispanic and Latino culture places a strong value on family, and is commonly taught to Hispanic children as one of the most important values in life. Statistically, Hispanic families tend to have larger and closer knit families than the American average, and Hispanic families tend to prefer to live near other family members. This may mean that three or sometimes four generations may be living in the same household or near each other, although four generations is very uncommon in the US. The role of grandparents is also believed to be very important in the upbringing of children.^[172]

Hispanics tend to be very group-oriented, and an emphasis is placed on the well-being of the family, and not just on the individual. The extended family plays an important part of many Hispanic families, and frequent social, family gatherings are common. Traditional rights of passages, particularly Roman Catholic sacraments: such as baptisms, birthdays, First Holy Communions, quinceañeras, Confirmations, graduations, and weddings are all popular moments of family gatherings and celebrations in Hispanic families.^[173]^[174]

Education is another important priority for Hispanic families. Education is seen as the key towards continued upward mobility in the US amongst Hispanic families. A 2010 study by the Associated Press showed that Hispanics place a higher emphasis on education than the average American. Hispanics expect their children to graduate university.^[175]^[176]

Latin American youth today stay at home with their parents longer than before. This is due to more years spent studying and the difficulty of finding a paid job that meets their aspirations.^[177]

Intermarriage

Hispanic Americans, like immigrant groups before them, are out-marrying at high rates. Out-marriages comprise 17.4% of all existing Hispanic marriages in 2008.,^[178] and the rate is higher for newlyweds (which excludes immigrants who are already married): Among all newlyweds in 2010, 25.7% of all Hispanics married a non-Hispanic (this compares to out-marriage rates of 9.4% of whites, 17.1% of blacks, and 27.7% of Asians). The rate was larger for native-born Hispanics, with 36.2% of native-born Hispanics (both men and women) out-marrying compared to 14.2% of foreign-born Hispanics.^[179] The difference is attributed to recent immigrants tending to marry within their immediate immigrant community due to commonality of language, proximity, familial connections, and familiarity.^[178]

In 2008, 81% of Hispanics who intermarried married non-Hispanic Whites, 9% married non-Hispanic Blacks, 5% non-Hispanic Asians, and the remainder married non-Hispanic, multi-racial partners.^[178]

Of the 275,500 new intermarried pairings in 2010, 43.3% were White-Hispanic (compared to White-Asian at 14.4%, White-Black at 11.9%, and Other Combinations at 30.4%; other combinations consists of pairings between different minority groups, multi-racial people, and American Indians).^[179] Unlike blacks and Asians, intermarriage rates between White and Hispanic newlyweds do not vary by gender. The combined median earnings of White/Hispanic couples are lower than those of White/White couples but higher than those of Hispanic/Hispanic couples. 23% of Hispanic men who married White women have a college degree compared to only 10% of Hispanic men who married a Hispanic woman. 33% of Hispanic women who married a White husband are college-educated compared to 13% of Hispanic women who married a Hispanic man.^[179]

Attitudes amongst non-Hispanics toward intermarriage with Hispanics are mostly favorable with 81% of Whites, 76% of Asians, and 73% of Blacks "being fine" with a member of their family marrying a Hispanic and an additional 13% of Whites, 19% of Asians, and 16% of Blacks "being bothered but accepting of the marriage." Only 2% of Whites, 4% of Asians, and 5% of Blacks would not accept a marriage of their family member to a Hispanic.^[178]

Hispanic attitudes toward intermarriage with non-Hispanics are likewise favorable with 71% "being fine" with marriages to Whites and 81% "being fine" with marriages to Blacks. A further 22% admitted to "being bothered but accepting" of a marriage of a family member to a White and 16% admitted to "being bothered but accepting" of a marriage of a family member to a Black. Only 3% of Hispanics objected outright marriage of a family member to a non-Hispanic Black and 3% to a non-Hispanic White.^[178]

Unlike intermarriage with other racial groups, intermarriage with non-Hispanic Blacks varies by nationality of origin, with Puerto Ricans and Dominicans having by far the highest rates of intermarriage with blacks, of all major Hispanic national groups.^[175]^[180]^[181]^[182]^[183]^[184]^[185]^[186]^[187]^[188] Cubans have the highest rate of intermarriage with non-Hispanic Whites, of all major Hispanic national groups, and are the most assimilated into White American culture.^[189]^[190] Mexican Americans, who are the majority of the US Hispanic population, are most likely to intermarry with Whites and Asians when marrying out.^[191]^[192]^[193]

Sports

Hispanics are present in all major American sports and leagues, but have particularly influenced the growth in popularity of soccer in the United States. Soccer is the most popular sport across Latin America and Spain, and Hispanics brought the heritage of soccer playing to the US. Major League Soccer teams such as Chivas USA, LA Galaxy, and the Houston Dynamo, for example, have a fanbase composed primarily of Mexican Americans.^[194]^[195]^[196]

Politics

Current Hispanics and Latinos in United States government
	Political party	State	Term	Ancestry
Supreme Court
Sonia Sotomayor	N/A	N/A	2009–Present	Puerto Rican
State Governors
Brian Sandoval	Republican	Nevada	2011–Present	Mexican
Susana Martínez	Republican	New Mexico	2011–Present	Mexican
US Senate
Bob Menéndez	Democrat	New Jersey	2006–Present	Cuban
Marco Rubio	Republican	Florida	2011–Present	Cuban
Ted Cruz	Republican	Texas	2013–Present	Cuban
US House of Representatives
Charles B. Rangel	Democrat	New York	1971–Present	Puerto Rican
Ileana Ros-Lehtinen	Republican	Florida	1989–Present	Cuban
José E. Serrano	Democrat	New York	1990–Present	Puerto Rican
Ed Pastor	Democrat	Arizona	1991–Present	Mexican
Xavier Becerra	Democrat	California	1993–Present	Mexican
Luis Gutiérrez	Democrat	Illinois	1993–Present	Puerto Rican
Lucille Roybal-Allard	Democrat	California	1993–Present	Mexican
Nydia Velázquez	Democrat	New York	1993–Present	Puerto Rican
Rubén Hinojosa	Democrat	Texas	1997–Present	Mexican
Loretta Sánchez	Democrat	California	1997–Present	Mexican
Grace Napolitano	Democrat	California	1999–Present	Mexican
Mario Díaz-Balart	Republican	Florida	2003–Present	Cuban
Raúl Grijalva	Democrat	Arizona	2003–Present	Mexican
Linda Sánchez	Democrat	California	2003–Present	Mexican
Henry Roberto Cuellar	Democrat	Texas	2005–Present	Mexican
Albio Sires	Democrat	New Jersey	2006–Present	Cuban
Ben Ray Luján	Democrat	New Mexico	2009–Present	Mexican
Bill Flores	Republican	Texas	2011–Present
Jaime Herrera	Republican	Washington	2011–Present
Raúl Labrador	Republican	Idaho	2011–Present	Puerto Rican
Tony Cárdenas	Democrat	California	2013–Present	Mexican
Joaquín Castro	Democrat	Texas	2013–Present	Mexican
Pete Gallego	Democrat	Texas	2013–Present	Mexican
José Antonio García	Democrat	Florida	2013–Present	Cuban
Michelle Lujan Grisham	Democrat	New Mexico	2013–Present	Mexican
Gloria Negrete McLeod	Democrat	California	2013–Present
Raúl Ruiz	Democrat	California	2013–Present	Mexican
Ron DeSantis	Republican	Florida	2013–Present
Juan Vargas	Democrat	California	2013–Present	Mexican
Filemon Vela, Jr.	Democrat	Texas	2013–Present	Mexican

Political affiliations

The Congressional Hispanic Caucus, circa 1984

Hispanics and Latinos differ on their political views depending on their location and background, but the majority (57%)^[197] either identify themselves as or support the Democrats, and 23% identify themselves as Republicans.^[197] This 34 point gap as of December 2007 was an increase from the gap of 21 points 16 months earlier.

Cuban Americans and Colombian Americans tend to favor conservative political ideologies and support the Republicans, while Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Dominican Americans tend to favor liberal views and support the Democrats. However, because the latter groups are far more numerous—as, again, Mexican Americans alone are 64% of Hispanics and Latinos—the Democratic Party is considered to be in a far stronger position with the group overall.

Election results

The Presidency of George W. Bush had a significant impact on the political leanings of Hispanics and Latinos. As a former Governor of Texas, Bush regarded this growing community as a potential source of growth for the conservative movement and the Republican Party,^{[citation needed]} and he made some gains for the Republicans among the group.

Elections of 1996-2006

In the 1996 presidential election, 72% of Hispanics and Latinos backed President Bill Clinton, but in 2000 the Democratic total fell to 62%, and went down again in 2004, with Democrat John Kerry winning Hispanics 58–40 against Bush.^[198] Hispanics in the West, especially in California, were much stronger for the Democratic Party than in Texas and Florida. California Latinos voted 63–32 for Kerry in 2004, and both Arizona and New Mexico Latinos by a smaller 56–43 margin; but Texas Latinos were split nearly evenly, favoring Kerry 50–49, and Florida Latinos (mostly being Cuban American) backed Bush, by a 54–45 margin.

In the 2006 midterm election, however, due to the unpopularity of the Iraq War, the heated debate concerning illegal immigration, and Republican-related Congressional scandals, Hispanics and Latinos went as strongly Democratic as they have since the Clinton years. Exit polls showed the group voting for Democrats by a lopsided 69–30 margin, with Florida Latinos for the first time split evenly. The runoff election in Texas' 23rd congressional district was seen as a bellwether of Latino politics, and Democrat Ciro Rodriguez's unexpected (and unexpectedly decisive) defeat of Republican incumbent Henry Bonilla was seen as proof of a leftward lurch among Latino voters, as heavily Latino counties overwhelmingly backed Rodriguez, and heavily Anglo counties overwhelmingly backed Bonilla.

2008 election

Hispanic Vote in US Presidential Elections since 1980^[199]
Election year	Candidate of the plurality	Political party	% of Hispanic vote	Result
1980	Jimmy Carter	Democratic	56%	Lost
1984	Walter Mondale	Democratic	61%	Lost
1988	Michael Dukakis	Democratic	69%	Lost
1992	Bill Clinton	Democratic	61%	Won
1996	Bill Clinton	Democratic	72%	Won
2000	Al Gore	Democratic	62%	Lost
2004	John Kerry	Democratic	58%	Lost
2008	Barack Obama	Democratic	67%	Won
2012	Barack Obama	Democratic	71%	Won

In the 2008 Presidential election's Democratic primary Hispanics and Latinos participated in larger numbers than before, with Hillary Clinton receiving most of the group's support.^[200] Pundits discussed whether a large percentage of Hispanics and Latinos would vote for an African American candidate, in this case Barack Obama, Clinton's opponent.^[201] Hispanics/Latinos voted 2 to 1 for Mrs. Clinton, even among the younger demographic, which in the case of other groups was an Obama stronghold.^[202] Among Hispanics, 28% said race was involved in their decision, as opposed to 13% for (non-Hispanic) whites.^[202]

Obama defeated Clinton. In the matchup between Obama and Republican candidate John McCain for the presidency, Hispanics and Latinos supported Obama with 59% to McCain's 29% in the Gallup tracking poll as of June 30, 2008.^[203] This surprised some analysts, since a higher than expected percentage of Latinos and Hispanics favored Obama over McCain, who had been a leader of the comprehensive immigration reform effort.^[204] However, McCain had retracted during the Republican primary, stating that he would not support the bill if it came up again. Some analysts believed that this move hurt his chances among Hispanics and Latinos.^[205] Obama took advantage of the situation by running ads aimed at the ethnic group, in Spanish, in which he mentioned McCain's about-face.^[206]

In the general election, 67% of Hispanics and Latinos voted for Obama^[207] and 31% voted for McCain,^[208] with a relatively stronger turnout than in previous elections in states such as Colorado, New Mexico, Nevada, and Virginia helping Obama carry those formerly Republican states. Obama won 70% of non-Cuban Hispanics and 35% of the traditionally Republican Cuban Americans that have a strong presence in Florida, while the changing state demographics towards a more non-Cuban Hispanic community also contributed to his carrying Florida's Latinos with 57% of the vote.^[207]^[209] Hispanics and Latinos also supplanted Republican gains in traditional red states, for example Obama carried 63% of Texas Latinos, despite that the overall state voted for McCain by 55%.^[210]

Although during 2008 the economy and employment were top concerns for Hispanics and Latinos, immigration was "never far from their minds": almost 90% of Latino voters rated immigration as "somewhat important" or "very important" in a poll taken after the election.^[211] There is "abundant evidence" that the heated Republican opposition to the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 has done significant damage to the party's appeal to Hispanics and Latinos in the years to come, especially in the swing states such as Florida, Nevada, and New Mexico.^[211] In a Gallup poll of 4,604 registered Hispanic voters taken in the final days of June 2008, only 18% of participants identified themselves as Republicans.^[203]

Some political organizations associated with Hispanic and Latino Americans are LULAC, the NCLR, the United Farm Workers, the Cuban American National Foundation, and the National Institute for Latino Policy.

2012 election

Hispanic and Latinos went even more heavily for Democrats in the 2012 election with the Democratic incumbent Barack Obama receiving 71% and the Republican challenger Mitt Romney receiving about 27% of the vote.^[212]^[213]

Cultural issues

Hispanophobia

Hispanophobia has existed in various degrees throughout U.S. history, based largely on ethnicity, race, culture, Anti-Catholicism, economic and social conditions in Latin America, and use of the Spanish language.^[214]^[215]^[216]^[217] In 2006, Time Magazine reported that the number of hate groups in the United States increased by 33 percent since 2000, primarily due to anti-illegal immigrant and anti-Mexican sentiment.^[218] According to Federal Bureau of Investigation statistics, the number of anti-Latino hate crimes increased by 35 percent since 2003 (albeit from a low level). In California, the state with the largest Latino population, the number of hate crimes against Latinos almost doubled.^[219]

For the year 2009, the FBI reported that 483 of the 6,604 hate crimes committed in the United States were anti-Hispanic comprising 7.3% of all hate crimes. This compares to 34.6% of hate crimes being anti-Black, 17.9% being anti-Homosexual, 14.1% being anti-Jewish, and 8.3% being anti-White.^[220]

Relations with other minority groups

As a result of the rapid growth of the Hispanic population, there has been some tension with other minority populations,^[221] especially the African American population, as Hispanics have increasingly moved into once exclusively Black areas.^[222]^[223]^[224]^[225]^[226]^[227]^[228]^[229]^[230]^[231]^[232]^[233] There has also been increasing cooperation between minority groups to work together to attain political influence.^[234]^[235]^[236]^[237]^[238]

A 2007 UCLA study reported that 51% of Blacks felt that Hispanics were taking jobs and political power from them and 44% of Hispanics said they feared African-Americans identifying them with high crime rates. That said, large majorities of Hispanics credited American blacks and the civil rights movement with making life easier for them in the US.^[239]^[240]

A Pew Research Center poll from 2006 showed that Blacks overwhelmingly felt that Hispanic immigrants were hard working (78%) and had strong family values (81%) but also that they believed that immigrants took jobs from Americans (34%) with a significant minority of Blacks (22%) believing that they had directly lost a job to an immigrant and 34% of Blacks wanting immigration to be curtailed. The report also surveyed three cities: Chicago (with its well-established Latino community); Washington DC (with a less-established but quickly growing Hispanic community); and Raleigh-Durham (with a very new but rapidly growing Hispanic community). The results showed that a significant proportion of Blacks in those cities wanted immigration to be curtailed: Chicago (46%), Raleigh-Durham (57%), and Washington DC (48%).^[241]

Per a 2008 University of California, Berkeley Law School research brief, a recurring theme to Black / Hispanic tensions is the growth in "contingent, flexible, or contractor labor," which is increasingly replacing long term steady employment for jobs on the lower-rung of the pay scale (which had been disproportionately filled by Blacks). The transition to this employment arrangement corresponds directly with the growth in the Latino immigrant population. The perception is that this new labor arrangement has driven down wages, removed benefits, and rendered temporary, jobs that once were stable (but also benefiting consumers who receive lower-cost services) while passing the costs of labor (healthcare and indirectly education) onto the community at large.^[242]

A 2008 Gallup poll indicated that 60% of Hispanics and 67% of blacks believe that good relations exist between US blacks and Hispanics^[243] while only 29% of blacks, 36% of Hispanics, and 43% of whites, say Black–Hispanic relations are bad.^[243]

In 2009, in Los Angeles County, Latinos committed 77% of the hate crimes against black victims and blacks committed half of the hate crimes against Latinos.^[244]

Footnotes

^ ^a ^b ^c Gallup, Inc. "U.S. Catholic Hispanic Population Less Religious, Shrinking". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
^ "Growing number of Latinos have no religious affiliation". NBC Latino. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
^ http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-02.pdf
^ ^a ^b US Census Bureau 2013 American Community Survey B03001 1-Year Estimates HISPANIC OR LATINO ORIGIN BY SPECIFIC ORIGIN retrieved September 27, 2014
^ Luis Fraga; John A. Garcia (2010). Latino Lives in America: Making It Home. Temple University Press. p. 145. ISBN 978-1-4399-0050-5.
^ Nancy L. Fisher (1996). Cultural and Ethnic Diversity: A Guide for Genetics Professionals. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-8018-5346-3.
^ Robert H. Holden; Rina Villars (2012). Contemporary Latin America: 1970 to the Present. John Wiley & Sons. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-118-27487-3.
^ "49 CFR Part 26". Retrieved 2012-10-22. 'Hispanic Americans,' which includes persons of Mexican-, Puerto Rican-, Cuban, Dominican-, Central or South American, or other Spanish, culture or origin, regardless of race;
^ "US Small Business Administration 8(a) Program Standard Operating Procedure" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-10-22. SBA has defined 'Hispanic American' as an individual whose ancestry and culture are rooted in South America, Central America, Mexico, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, or the Iberian Peninsula, including Spain and Portugal.
^ Humes, Karen R.; Jones, Nicholas A.; Ramirez, Roberto R. "Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin: 2010" (PDF). U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved 2011-03-28. "Hispanic or Latino" refers to a person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish or Portuguese culture or origin regardless of race.
^ "American FactFinder Help: Hispanic or Latino origin". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-10-05. For Census 2000, American Community Survey: People who identify with the terms "Hispanic" or "Latino" are those who classify themselves in one of the specific Hispanic or Latino categories listed on the Census 2000 or ACS questionnaire - "Mexican," "Puerto Rican," or "Cuban" - as well as those who indicate that they are "other Spanish, Hispanic, or Latino." The countries or people who are in the Hispanic or Latino American groups in the Census Bureau's reports are the following: Spain, Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Brazil, Dominican Republic, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, El Salvador, Argentina, Bolivian, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, Venezuela. Origin can be viewed as the heritage, nationality group, lineage, or country of birth of the person or the person's parents or ancestors before their arrival in the United States. People who identify their origin as Spanish, Hispanic, or Latino may be of any "race".
1990 Census of Population and Housing: A self-designated classification for people whose origins are from Spain, the Spanish speaking countries of Central or South America, the Caribbean, or those identifying themselves generally as Spanish, Spanish-American, etc. Origin can be viewed as ancestry, nationality, or country of birth of the person or person's parents or ancestors prior to their arrival in the United States.
^ ^a ^b Office of Management and Budget. "Revisions to the Standards for the Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity. Federal Register Notice October 30, 1997". Retrieved 2012-06-01.
^ ^a ^b ^c Grieco, Elizabeth M.; Rachel C. Cassidy. "Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin: 2000" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-04-27.
^ "B03001. Hispanic or Latino origin by specific origin". 2009 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates. U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved 2010-10-17.
^ "CIA – The World Factbook – Field Listing :: Ethnic groups". Retrieved 2010-11-18.
^ "T4-2007. Hispanic or Latino By Race [15]". 2007 Population Estimates. United States Census Bureau.
^ "B03002. Hispanic or Latino origin by race". 2007 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates. United States Census Bureau.
^ Tafoya, Sonya (2004-12-06). "Shades of Belonging" (PDF). Pew Hispanic Center. Retrieved 2008-05-07.
^ https://books.google.com/books?id=6fWnsUWBYgsC&pg=PA165&lpg=PA165&dq=Neomexicano+hispanic&source=bl&ots=6ejvWkjkFe&sig=sRi5dTxb6zmUgSiaQngm8G-BmpM&hl=en&sa=X&ei=MT0BVfvdIsy1oQTSgYLQDg&ved=0CDEQ6AEwBDgU%7CThe Contested Homeland - A Chicano History of New Mexico
^ "Hispanics Were Not The Fastest-Growing Minority Group Last Year". MarketingCharts. 23 July 2013. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
^ ^a ^b US Census Bureau Public Information Office. "Most Children Younger Than Age 1 are Minorities, Census Bureau Reports - Population - Newsroom - U.S. Census Bureau". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
^ "U.S. now has most Spanish speakers outside Mexico". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
^ "Hispanics or Latinos: A Culture – Not a Race!". The Writing of F. Lennox Campello. Tripod.com. Retrieved 01-06-2009. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
^ ^a ^b ^c Small, Lawrence M (2002-08-01). "Latino Legacies". Smithsonian Magazine. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2008-04-28. There was a Hispanic presence on the continent for more than 200 years before 13 colonies on the eastern coast declared their independence from England.... By 1607, when the British established their first successful settlement, at Jamestown, Virginia, writes historian Bernard Bailyn, "Spain's American dominion extended nearly 8,000 miles, from Southern California to the Straits of Magellan...
^ ^a ^b ^c "A Brief History of St. Augustine". City of St. Augustine. Retrieved 2008-04-28. Founded in 1565, St. Augustine is the oldest continuously occupied settlement of European origin in the United States. Forty-two years before the English colonized Jamestown and fifty-five years before the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth Rock, the Spanish established at St. Augustine this nation's first enduring settlement.
^ ^a ^b ^c "A Spanish Expedition Established St. Augustine in Florida". America's Library. Library of Congress. Archived from the original on May 24, 2008. Retrieved 2008-04-28. On September 8, 1565, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés landed on the shore of what is now called Matanzas Bay and began the founding of the Presidio of San Agustin. Later the settlement would be called St. Augustine, Florida. Built on the site of an ancient Native American village, and near the place where Ponce de León, the European discoverer of Florida, landed in 1513 in search of the legendary Fountain of Youth, it has been continually inhabited since its founding.
^ ^a ^b ^c Francisco Lopez de Mendoza Grajales. "The Founding of St. Augustine, 1565". Modern History Sourcebook. Fordham University. Retrieved 2008-04-28.
^ "Oldest U.S. City — Infoplease.com". Retrieved 2008-11-21.
^ The Encyclopedia Americana. Encyclopedia Americana Corp. 1919. p. 151.
^ "Documents in Mexican American History". University of Houston. Retrieved 2008-06-11.
^ "Cuartocentennial of Colonization of New Mexico". New Mexico State University. Retrieved 2008-06-11.
^ ^a ^b 'Glossary', Smithsonian Institution (Note; It defines "Hispanic" as meaning those with Spanish-speaking roots in the Americas and Spain, and "Latino" as meaning those from both Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking cultures in Latin America.)
^ "[T]he term 'Latino' . . . is more inclusive and descriptive than the term 'Hispanic.'" Deborah A. Ramirez, 'Excluded Voices: The Disenfranchisement of Ethnic Groups From Jury Service,' 1993 Wis. L. Rev. 761, 806 (1993).
^ http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0825/is_n3_v62/ai_18771519/. {{cite news}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
^ nameDejud2007">Carlos Dejud (2007). The Relationship Among Ethnic Identity, Psychological Well-being, Academic Achievement, and Intergroup Competence of School-age Hispanic/Latino Youth. ProQuest. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-549-29853-3.
^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
^ Timothy Ready (1991). Latino Immigrant Youth: Passages from Adolescence to Adulthood. Taylor & Francis. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-8153-0057-1.
^ "Latino: People with roots in the Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking Americas. http://csuchico-dspace.calstate.edu/handle/10211.4/222
^ Anderson, Kevin (2008-10-18). "The complexity of race in New Mexico". The Guardian. London.
^ http://etd.auburn.edu/etd/bitstream/handle/10415/88/VITALE_MICHELE_14.pdf?sequence=1
^ "AP Stylebook Twitter". Retrieved 2012-04-06.
^ "Herald Style Guide". Retrieved 2012-04-06.
^ "Newsroom 101: Recent Changes to AP Style". Newsroom 101. Archived from the original on April 18, 2012. Retrieved 2012-04-06.
^ "Are Brazilians Latino (and Does Anybody Care)?". ClickZ. 2014-08-09.
^ The ALL in Portuguese Blog title=AAre Portuguese and Brazilians Hispanic?. 2014-08-09 http://www.allinportuguese.com/blog/2013/02/25/are-portuguese-and-brazilians-hispanic/. {{cite news}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Missing pipe in: |work= (help)
^ "Brazil?". Focus Migration. 2014-08-09.
^ United States Census Bureau. "U.S. Census Bureau Guidance on the Presentation and Comparison of Race and Hispanic Origin Data". Retrieved 2007-03-18. Race and Hispanic origin are two separate concepts in the federal statistical system. People who are Hispanic may be of any race. People in each race group may be either Hispanic or not Hispanic. Each person has two attributes, their race (or races) and whether or not they are Hispanic/Latino.
^ Black, Rosalind (September 22, 2014). "Oberlin Celebrates Latinx Heritage Month". Oberlin College. Retrieved October 2, 2014.
^ Campbell Gibson; Kay Jung (September 2002). "Historical Census Statistics on Population Totals By Race, 1790 to 1990, and By Hispanic Origin, 1970 to 1990, For The United States, Regions, Divisions, and States" (PDF). Population Division. United States Census Bureau.
^ ^a ^b "US Census Press Releases; Hispanic Heritage Month 2009: Sept. 15 – Oct. 15". Retrieved 2010-01-26. ^{[dead link‍]}
^ United States Census Bureau: "The Hispanic Population 2010 Census Brief: Table 1. "Hispanic or Latino Origin Population by Type: 2000 and 2010" May 2011
^ ^a ^b "T1. Population Estimates [10]; Data Set: 2007 Population Estimates". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-04-30.
^ "US Census Press Releases". United States Census Bureau. 2008-07-16. Archived from the original on March 23, 2008. Retrieved 2008-04-30.
^ USA Today: "Census: Hispanics surpass blacks in most U.S. metros" April 14, 2011
^ "Table 4. Projections of the Population by Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin for the United States: 2010 to 2050" (Excel). U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved 2010-10-24.
^ "Hispanic Population in Select U.S. Metropolitan Areas, 2011". Pew Research Center's Hispanic Trends Project. 29 August 2013. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
^ Population Division. "Population by Race and Hispanic or Latino Origin for the United States: 1990 and 2000 (PHC-T-1)". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
^ "Hispanic Population by State: 2006" (PDF). Pew Hispanic Center. Retrieved 2008-05-07.
^ "Detailed Hispanic Origin: 2007" (PDF). Pew Hispanic Center. Retrieved 2009-05-30.
^ "United States – Selected Population Profile in the United States (Spaniard)". 2007 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates. U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved 2009-04-05.
^ Brittingham, Angela (June 2004). "Ancestry: 2000. Census 2000 Brief" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-05-13. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
^ "New Mexico CultureNet – Cuartocentenario". New Mexico CultureNet. Retrieved 2008-05-13.
^ Latina Magazine "A native of Phoenix, Nanette moved with her family at age 8 to Guadalajara (and later to Mexico City), where she developed "a Mexican soul," she says... It's a legacy Alexis feels strongly connected to—and proud of. "In general I think Latinos know how to live and eat and sleep and spend time with their families," she says."
^ "A Chat With Alexis Bledel" February 19, 2003, DVDTown.com
^ "Technical Documentation for the Census 2000 Modified Race Data Summary File". United States Census Bureau.
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External links

Hispanic Americans in Congress Library of Congress
Hispanic Americans in the U.S. Army
2000 Census
Latino-Americans Become Unofficial Face of Politics Abroad by Josh Miller, PBS, April 27, 2007
Latino in America - CNN
Mexican American News - Xcano Media
Alternative Lending for Latino Market

[gallup_religion-1] Gallup, Inc. "U.S. Catholic Hispanic Population Less Religious, Shrinking". Retrieved 5 March 2015.

[2] "Growing number of Latinos have no religious affiliation". NBC Latino. Retrieved 5 March 2015.

[ReferenceA-3] ttp://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-02.pdf

[2013AmericanCommunitySurvey-4] US Census Bureau 2013 American Community Survey B03001 1-Year Estimates HISPANIC OR LATINO ORIGIN BY SPECIFIC ORIGIN retrieved September 27, 2014

[FragaGarcia2010-5] Luis Fraga; John A. Garcia (2010). Latino Lives in America: Making It Home. Temple University Press. p. 145. ISBN 978-1-4399-0050-5.

[Fisher1996-6] Nancy L. Fisher (1996). Cultural and Ethnic Diversity: A Guide for Genetics Professionals. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-8018-5346-3.

[HoldenVillars2012-7] Robert H. Holden; Rina Villars (2012). Contemporary Latin America: 1970 to the Present. John Wiley & Sons. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-118-27487-3.

[fhwa.dot.gov-8] "49 CFR Part 26". Retrieved 2012-10-22. 'Hispanic Americans,' which includes persons of Mexican-, Puerto Rican-, Cuban, Dominican-, Central or South American, or other Spanish, culture or origin, regardless of race;

[SBA_8005-9] "US Small Business Administration 8(a) Program Standard Operating Procedure" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-10-22. SBA has defined 'Hispanic American' as an individual whose ancestry and culture are rooted in South America, Central America, Mexico, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, or the Iberian Peninsula, including Spain and Portugal.

[c2010def-10] Humes, Karen R.; Jones, Nicholas A.; Ramirez, Roberto R. "Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin: 2010" (PDF). U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved 2011-03-28. "Hispanic or Latino" refers to a person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish or Portuguese culture or origin regardless of race.

[hlorigin-11] "American FactFinder Help: Hispanic or Latino origin". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-10-05. For Census 2000, American Community Survey: People who identify with the terms "Hispanic" or "Latino" are those who classify themselves in one of the specific Hispanic or Latino categories listed on the Census 2000 or ACS questionnaire - "Mexican," "Puerto Rican," or "Cuban" - as well as those who indicate that they are "other Spanish, Hispanic, or Latino." The countries or people who are in the Hispanic or Latino American groups in the Census Bureau's reports are the following: Spain, Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Brazil, Dominican Republic, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, El Salvador, Argentina, Bolivian, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, Venezuela. Origin can be viewed as the heritage, nationality group, lineage, or country of birth of the person or the person's parents or ancestors before their arrival in the United States. People who identify their origin as Spanish, Hispanic, or Latino may be of any "race".
1990 Census of Population and Housing: A self-designated classification for people whose origins are from Spain, the Spanish speaking countries of Central or South America, the Caribbean, or those identifying themselves generally as Spanish, Spanish-American, etc. Origin can be viewed as ancestry, nationality, or country of birth of the person or person's parents or ancestors prior to their arrival in the United States.

[omb-12] Office of Management and Budget. "Revisions to the Standards for the Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity. Federal Register Notice October 30, 1997". Retrieved 2012-06-01.

[overview-13] Grieco, Elizabeth M.; Rachel C. Cassidy. "Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin: 2000" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-04-27.

[hlspec-14] "B03001. Hispanic or Latino origin by specific origin". 2009 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates. U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved 2010-10-17.

[15] "CIA – The World Factbook – Field Listing :: Ethnic groups". Retrieved 2010-11-18.

[popest2007-16] "T4-2007. Hispanic or Latino By Race [15]". 2007 Population Estimates. United States Census Bureau.

[b03002-17] "B03002. Hispanic or Latino origin by race". 2007 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates. United States Census Bureau.

[tafoya-18] Tafoya, Sonya (2004-12-06). "Shades of Belonging" (PDF). Pew Hispanic Center. Retrieved 2008-05-07.

[19] ttps://books.google.com/books?id=6fWnsUWBYgsC&pg=PA165&lpg=PA165&dq=Neomexicano+hispanic&source=bl&ots=6ejvWkjkFe&sig=sRi5dTxb6zmUgSiaQngm8G-BmpM&hl=en&sa=X&ei=MT0BVfvdIsy1oQTSgYLQDg&ved=0CDEQ6AEwBDgU%7CThe Contested Homeland - A Chicano History of New Mexico

[20] "Hispanics Were Not The Fastest-Growing Minority Group Last Year". MarketingCharts. 23 July 2013. Retrieved 5 March 2015.

[census.gov-21] US Census Bureau Public Information Office. "Most Children Younger Than Age 1 are Minorities, Census Bureau Reports - Population - Newsroom - U.S. Census Bureau". Retrieved 5 March 2015.

[22] "U.S. now has most Spanish speakers outside Mexico". Retrieved 5 March 2015.

[campello-23] "Hispanics or Latinos: A Culture – Not a Race!". The Writing of F. Lennox Campello. Tripod.com. Retrieved 01-06-2009. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

[legacies-24] Small, Lawrence M (2002-08-01). "Latino Legacies". Smithsonian Magazine. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2008-04-28. There was a Hispanic presence on the continent for more than 200 years before 13 colonies on the eastern coast declared their independence from England.... By 1607, when the British established their first successful settlement, at Jamestown, Virginia, writes historian Bernard Bailyn, "Spain's American dominion extended nearly 8,000 miles, from Southern California to the Straits of Magellan...

[st-aug-25] "A Brief History of St. Augustine". City of St. Augustine. Retrieved 2008-04-28. Founded in 1565, St. Augustine is the oldest continuously occupied settlement of European origin in the United States. Forty-two years before the English colonized Jamestown and fifty-five years before the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth Rock, the Spanish established at St. Augustine this nation's first enduring settlement.

[amlib-26] "A Spanish Expedition Established St. Augustine in Florida". America's Library. Library of Congress. Archived from the original on May 24, 2008. Retrieved 2008-04-28. On September 8, 1565, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés landed on the shore of what is now called Matanzas Bay and began the founding of the Presidio of San Agustin. Later the settlement would be called St. Augustine, Florida. Built on the site of an ancient Native American village, and near the place where Ponce de León, the European discoverer of Florida, landed in 1513 in search of the legendary Fountain of Youth, it has been continually inhabited since its founding.

[mhs-27] Francisco Lopez de Mendoza Grajales. "The Founding of St. Augustine, 1565". Modern History Sourcebook. Fordham University. Retrieved 2008-04-28.

[28] "Oldest U.S. City — Infoplease.com". Retrieved 2008-11-21.

[29] The Encyclopedia Americana. Encyclopedia Americana Corp. 1919. p. 151.

[30] "Documents in Mexican American History". University of Houston. Retrieved 2008-06-11.

[31] "Cuartocentennial of Colonization of New Mexico". New Mexico State University. Retrieved 2008-06-11.

[sihistory-32] 'Glossary', Smithsonian Institution (Note; It defines "Hispanic" as meaning those with Spanish-speaking roots in the Americas and Spain, and "Latino" as meaning those from both Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking cultures in Latin America.)

[33] "[T]he term 'Latino' . . . is more inclusive and descriptive than the term 'Hispanic.'" Deborah A. Ramirez, 'Excluded Voices: The Disenfranchisement of Ethnic Groups From Jury Service,' 1993 Wis. L. Rev. 761, 806 (1993).

[34] ttp://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0825/is_n3_v62/ai_18771519/. {{cite news}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)

[35] Dejud2007">Carlos Dejud (2007). The Relationship Among Ethnic Identity, Psychological Well-being, Academic Achievement, and Intergroup Competence of School-age Hispanic/Latino Youth. ProQuest. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-549-29853-3.

[36] "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 5 March 2015.

[Ready1991-37] Timothy Ready (1991). Latino Immigrant Youth: Passages from Adolescence to Adulthood. Taylor & Francis. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-8153-0057-1.

[38] "Latino: People with roots in the Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking Americas. http://csuchico-dspace.calstate.edu/handle/10211.4/222

[39] Anderson, Kevin (2008-10-18). "The complexity of race in New Mexico". The Guardian. London.

[40] ttp://etd.auburn.edu/etd/bitstream/handle/10415/88/VITALE_MICHELE_14.pdf?sequence=1

[APTwitter-41] "AP Stylebook Twitter". Retrieved 2012-04-06.

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[D-245] The U.S. Census Bureau excludes Brazilian Americans from the "Hispanic or Latino" category.

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@@ Line 1,299: / Line 1,299: @@
 *[http://www.pbs.org/newshour/generation-next/demographic/latinamerica_04-26.html Latino-Americans Become Unofficial Face of Politics Abroad] by Josh Miller, PBS, April 27, 2007
 *[http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2009/latino.in.america/ Latino in America] - ''[[CNN]]''
-*[http://www.mexicanroots.com Mexican Roots]
+*[http://www.mexican-american.org/ Mexican American News] - Xcano Media
 *[http://www.ezdinero.com Alternative Lending for Latino Market]
 {{Latin American diaspora}}

Revision as of 13:36, 2 May 2015

Terminology

History

16th and 17th centuries

18th and 19th centuries

20th century

Demographics

Geographic distribution

National origin

Race

Chicanos, Nuevomexicanos, Tejanos, and Nuyoricans

Notable contributions

Arts and entertainment

Music

Film, radio, television, and theatre

Business and finance

Fashion

Government and politics

Literature and journalism

Military

Medal of Honor

National intelligence

Science and technology

Sports

Baseball

Basketball and football

Tennis

Soccer

Other sports

Socioeconomics

Education

Hispanic university enrollments

Health

Workforce and average income

Poverty

Cultural influence

Language

Spanish

American Spanish dialects

Spanglish and English dialects

Religion

Media

Cuisine

Family life and values

Intermarriage

Sports

Politics

Political affiliations

Election results

Elections of 1996-2006

2008 election

2012 election

Cultural issues

Hispanophobia

Relations with other minority groups

See also

Footnotes

Further reading

Surveys and historiography

Pre 1965

Culture and politics, post 1965

Regional and local

California

Texas and Southwest

Other regions

Primary sources

External links