Military advances of Genghis Khan

The Mongol army seemed to be incomparably superior in the 12th and 13th century because of their superior strategy and mobility and was the most feared at the time. Genghis Khan and others instituted various innovations that significantly helped his Mongol forces conquer large areas of territory though often being outnumbered in battles.

Organization of Troops

Genghis Khan organized the Mongol soldiers into groups based around the number ten (i.e. 10 (arban), 100 (jaghun), 1,000 (mingghan), 10,000 (tumen), and each group of soldiers had a leader whom would report higher up in his rank, up to the rank of tumen. This command structure proved to be highly flexible and allowed the Mongol army to attack en masse, divide into somewhat smaller groups to encircle and lead enemies into an ambush, or divide into small groups of 10 to mop up a fleeing and broken army. The Mongol army also was highly flexible due to the durability of its soldiers. Each Mongol soldier would have between 2 and 4 horses, allowing them to gallop for days without stopping or tiring. The Mongol soldier also could live for days off only his horse's blood and eating horse meat if times were hard.

Breaking Tribal Connections

When integrating new soldiers into the army, Genghis Khan divided the soldiers under different leaders to break up the social and tribal connections, so that there was no division based on heritage of tribal alliances. In all campaigns, the soldiers took their families along with them for the battle. Promotion was based only on merit. Each unit leader was responsible for the preparedness of his soldiers at any time and would be replaced if this was found lacking.

Mobility

Mongol soldiers were very mobile as compared to their counterparts. This would ultimately lead to better terrain scanning, learning of routes, assimilating local knowledge, and recognition of pitfalls for battle. Better mobility along with excellent political and military organization that was based upon horse speed led to the creation of a complex intelligence network and better battlefield scenarios.

Light Cavalry

Mongol cavalry soldiers, called Keshik, were extremely light troops compared to contemporary standards, allowing them to practice tactics and false retreats that would be impractical for a heavier enemy (such as European knights). Mongols under Genghis Khan and his descendants were the perfection of light cavalry/horse archer warfare. One of the commonly used techniques of Mongol soldiers was the feinted retreat. In the middle of battle, a Mongol unit or whole army would retreat suddenly, giving the opposition false confidence. After that, the opposition would find itself surrounded by Mongol soldiers that would eventually shower them with arrows. Mongols didn't favor close combat but rather preferred to fight from a distance with their bows (that could shoot up to 350 yards) and long-practiced marksmanship from horses.

It should be noted that the national sport of Afghanistan, known as Buzkashi, is reported to have come from the Mongols who often practiced the sport to sharpen their horsemenship.

Strategy

In terms of battle detail, a Mongol army leader during battle might be anywhere in the formation and would use flags and horns to order his strategies during the battle. To the Mongols, victory seemed to matter most, and they couldn't afford to lose battles nor men because they were poor in logistics and had few spare troops (at best half as many soldiers in almost all major battles than their enemies, and travelling far away from their homeland). The main weapon of the Mongol soldiers was the Hun bow and curved sword, lighter and more efficient for slashing and parrying than the European long sword. The rules of engagement were clear under Genghis Khan. For example, if two or more soldiers broke away from their group without their leader's approval, they would be put to death. The Mongol style of engaging in warfare seemed to be natural to their nomadic way of life, as they were comfortable with travelling long distances. Genghis Khan added the one necessary ingredient, which was strict discipline, to his armies which were similar to many armies of the steppes during the time.

Genghis Khan's military philosophy in general was to defeat opponents with the least risk and cost to the Mongols, relying on his loyal and meritocratically chosen generals and his soldiers.

Before invasion of an opposing area, Genghis Khan and his generals made extensive preparations in a Kurultai, or military council, to decide how the upcoming war would be conducted and as well which generals would participate; meanwhile they would thoroughly accumulate intelligence about their opponents, after which the course of hostilities would be calculated through. From this campaign planning, they decided how many units would be needed. Nevertheless, Mongol generals were armed with a high degree of independent decision-making privilege, provided they abided by Genghis Khan's general directives. Because of the light nature of Mongol armies, Genghis Khan built a sophisticated intelligence network through the Mongol army, trade networks and vassals.

Even though Mongol strategy seemed to vary slightly in response to their enemies, their actual tactics often remained the same. The idea and the advantage of flanking forces was to spread terror, gather intelligence on their opponents, and eliminate smaller opposing forces. These flanking columns had messengers that quickly relayed intelligence to the central column. Mongol armies were willing to engage field armies before seeking battle with the main opposition. Mongols were experts in laying sieges, often diverting rivers and food from cities. They also sent off refugees to other unconquered cities, in order to strain enemy resources.

Psychological warfare

Genghis Khan used psychological warfare successfully in many of his battles, especially in terms of spreading terror and fear to other towns and cities. For example, Genghis Khan would often offer an opportunity for the enemy to surrender and pay tribute. If the offer was refused, he would invade and destroy the cities and towns, but allow a few civilians to flee to spread words of their loss to other areas. When words got out that Genghis Khan's force destroyed any resistance, it became much harder for other leaders to persuade their people to resist. Genghis Khan's offer for his opponents was for either to surrender and pay tribute or to be killed. When besieging, Genghis Khan usually left a submissive town unharmed and guaranteed them protection as a resource for future campaigns and logistics; if they resisted, however, he would attack without mercy.

Notable military generals

Military generals and strategists who served Genghis Khan, such as Subutai and Jebe, played considerable roles in the practicalities of the war, using a hands-on approach. These generals were purely chosen as part of a meritocracy, as none of them were from the direct family line of Genghis. Genghis Khan did not as a general rule trust his relatives to command large number of troops for larger campaigns, and so he did not allow them to command significant numbers of soldiers.

• Jebe - (nickname meaning "the Arrow"), was one of the four "dogs of war". After surrendering to Temujin, Jebe made several accomplishments, including destroying Kuchlug's Kara-Khitai and defeating the Kievan Rus' in several battles, expanding the Mongol Empire considerably.

• Subutai - He was one of the four "dogs of war". One of the most prominent generals from the others, a brilliant strategist and good friend of Genghis Khan and his sons, he accompanied Jebe in his battles against Kara-Khitai and the Kievan Rus' and in the conquest of eastern and central Europe after Genghis Khan with his grandson Batu Khan.

• Muqali - Joined before the defeat of Jamuqa. One of the four "talented men" of Genghis Khan. Made the general of left-wing tumen. During Genghis Khan's conquest of Khwarezmid Empire, Muqali was the supreme commander of all Mongol forces in Jin China.

• Borchu - One of the four "talented men" of Genghis Khan, Borchu joined as one of the earliest generals of Genghis Khan. He was made the general of right-wing tumen and was revered as a tough commander with great leadership skills.

• Borokhul - One of the four "talented men" of Genghis Khan, Borokhul defected from Jamuqa.

• Chilaun - One of the four "talented men" of Genghis Khan, Chilaun's family helped Temujin when he was captured by the Tai'chuids.

• Qubilai - He was one of the four "dogs of war".

• Jelme - Another early general of Genghis Khan. He was one of the four "dogs of war" and was the commander of the personal guard of Genghis Khan.

Notable Post-Genghis Khan generals

• Baidar - Led the first mongol raid against Poland (1241) alongside with Kaidu.

• Guo Kan - Although not a mongolian, he was greatly admired by Mongke and Hulagu Khan for his military thinkings, he plays a key role the taking of baghdad and the destruction of the hassassin sect.

• Kaidu - Led the first mongol raid against Poland alongside with Baidar.

• Kadan - Led the mongol raid against Transylvania (1241).

• Qitbuqa - One of the Hulagu's principal generals. Killed in the Battle of Ain Jalut.

• Nogai Khan - Led the second mongol raid against Poland in 1259, the Golden Horde's armies in the war against Ilkhanate in the mid-1260s and the second mongol invasion against Hungary in 1284.

Mongol weaponry and new Technology

A 13th-century Mongol saddle cover

General usage of Mongol arms: bows, arrows, stirrups - Primary weapons were arrows and composite bows of reputedly great draw weights. The bows were made of three layers; horn bellies, a wood core and "ears", also known as "siyahs", and a back made of layers of sinew. The entire bow was then wrapped with birch bark or sometimes fish skins. They always carried several bows and many arrows with forged iron point into battle. The arrows shot by these composite bows had enormous striking power, which allowed the arrows to pierce, among other things, chain mails. There were three calibers of arrows according to some scholars (See Encyc Britannica, Warfare Conduct Of). Battlefield tactics relied on massed showers of arrows rather than individual marksmanship. In addition to bows and arrows, Mongol riders also carry swords, spears or maces which allow them to engage in hand-to-hand combat after shooting their arrows.

The closest bow in medieval time was the English longbow, with the same draw weight and range, but about twice the size. Another medieval bow, the crossbow, took much longer to fire. The small size of the Mongolian bow not only allowed them to carry it on horseback, but to shoot in any direction while their horse galloped. Stirrups allowed the Mongol to stand in his saddle. Shooting was timed with the horse's gallop for a smooth, stable shot. Combined with the sixty or so arrows they carried into combat, a Mongol soldier was a formidable ranged weapon.

Structure of the famous Mongol bow - One of, if not the greatest, technological developments of the Mongolian ordu was their composite bow. The Mongolian composite bow was made of horn and sinew, and then coated in a waterproof lacquer. It had a draw weight between one hundred pounds and one hundred-fifty pounds (450 to 670 newtons). Its range of two hundred fifty yards was about equal to that of contemporary European bows. The bow's high draw weight required the use of an Asiatic draw, hooking the thumb around the string beneath the arrow and bracing the thumb with the first finger. A thumb ring, made of horn, stone or metal, protected the pad of the thumb from the enormous cutting force of the drawn bowstring.

When the bow was unstrung, it resembled the letter 'C'. Stringing the bow, usually a two person activity, bent the ends of the 'C' completely back, turning the 'C' inside out. When strung, each arm of the bow curved away from the archer as it left the grip, then curved back towards the archer. Horn ears at the end of each arm curved away from the archer, giving the bow its classic shape. This final curve was sharp enough that, undrawn, the bowstring rested on the back surface of the ears. This shape gives the bow its enormous power and its smooth, linear draw.

Mongol warrior versus European opponent The medieval knights opposing the Mongols often wore heavy armor, which the Mongolian compound bow was capable of penetrating. When knights were struck by arrows which penetrated their armor, they were faced with the difficult task of removing the arrow embedded in their armor and their flesh. Removing the armor and/or arrow often exacerbated the wound. In contrast, many of the Mongolian soldiers wore lighter armor over silk shirts. When struck by an arrow, the silk would be carried into the wound by the arrow. Tugging gently on the silk around the arrow could free it with minimal additional wounding to the soldier. The Mongolian horses, unarmored themselves and carrying soldiers clad in light armor had much more endurance than the horses ridden by the opposing medieval knights.

Mongol siege warfare and logistics

Technology was one of the important facets of Mongolian warfare. For instance siege machines were an important part of Genghis Khan's warfare especially in attacking fortified cities. He used Chinese technicians that were very advanced for the time. The siege engines were disassembled and were carried on horses to be rebuilt at the site of the battle.

Once the main battle and siege was over, the Mongol army would follow the enemy leader until he was killed in order to prevent him from being a rallying point for his army after war. Most times the enemy leaders would try to escape realizing that they would likely lose the war, but the Mongol forces followed until they made sure they died.

The Mongol logistical system was distinguished by its mobility and practicality. Most columns of toumen were self-sufficient in the short run. The Mongol armies lived off the land heavily, bad news indeed for hapless civilians in their path. In dire straits, the Mongol warrior could drink blood from his string of remounts. Heavier equipment was brought up by well organized supply trains.

The Kharash

Essential feature of Mongolian tactics was use of Kharash. During fight Mongols drove before themselves crowd of local residents which had a role of an "alive board". During siege of city the Kharash did make breaches in walls.

Defeat of the Mongols

Undefeated in most encounters, Mongols operations under Ghengis Khan and his later successors stretched from Asia, to Central Europe, to Russia, to India, to the Middle East. What then stopped the Asiatic horsemen from conquering the land surface of the earth?

Shaky tribal structure and succession disputes - The tribal structure was a relative fragile one, held together initially by Genghis Khan's ruthless will. On his death, the empire became divided. Such division arguably saved the people of Europe for Mongol victories penetrated as far as Poland and Hungary could have gone much further. Succession disputes and deliberations however caused the fierce horsemen to withdraw from Central Europe. Russia received no such reprieve, nor did China, nor parts of the Middle East, but they met their fates separately under varying circumstances.

"Going native" - a divide and conquer factor diluting Mongol power: Over time, some conquered peoples were able to dilute, absorb or blunt Mongol advances. China is the most famous example, with the powerful Chinese culture eventually absorbing and "turning" the rough horsemen. Another factor was that success bred division, so that in time, like the Vikings, Mongol came to fight Mongol over the spoils of victory.

Mongols not as successful in terrain unsuited to cavalry or in the naval arena- The Mongols were never really tested in terrain unsuitable to mass cavalry sweeps, nor were they noted for exploits at sea. They conquered Afghanistan's main routes and cities with ease but the bulk of the country with its forbidding terrain, bane of invaders everywhere, was not pacified. The Mongols under Kublai Khan also met defeat in Japan, failing to project their power across a large body of water sufficient to overcome stout opposition on a hostile shore. Whether they would have had the same world-beating success if they had pushed into the forests and swamps beyond Poland or Hungary is open to question. Nevertheless the Asiatic horsemen demonstrated clear superiority over their European opponents in almost every encounter until the gunpowder era.

Growing power of agricultural peoples, and shrinking manpower base helped reduce Mongol military hegemony. The military manpower of the Mongols was not unlimited. There were only so many tough horsemen and ponies to go around. These drew down over time, the further away the Mongols moved from their ancestral homelands. Finally the shrinkage of the steppes by encroachment of agricultural peoples helped reduce the economic base that had produced so many ponies and fighting men. The final straw was the gunpowder age, which put an end to the run of success enjoyed by the mounted warrior, not only in Asia (China, Korea, Japan) but elsewhere as well.

See also

• Genghis Khan

References

• Zerjal, Tatiana, Yali Xue, Giorgio Bertorelle, R. Spencer Wells, Weidong Bao, Suling Zhu, Raheel Qamar, Qasim Ayub, Aisha Mohyuddin, Songbin Fu, Pu Li, Nadira Yuldasheva, Ruslan Ruzibakiev, Jiujin Xu, Qunfang Shu, Ruofu Du, Huanming Yang, Matthew E. Hurles, Elizabeth Robinson, Tudevdagva Gerelsaikhan, Bumbein Dashnyam, S. Qasim Mehdi, and Chris Tyler-Smith. 2003. The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols. The American Journal of Human Genetics 72:718-721
• "Genghis Khan and the Mongols". Genghis Khan and the Mongols. Retrieved October 12. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
• "Mongol Arms". Mongol Arms. Retrieved June 24. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
• Weatherford, Jack. Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World, 2004.