Ten Commandments

For other uses, see Ten Commandments (disambiguation).

The Ten Commandments on a monument on the grounds of the Texas State Capitol

This 1768 parchment (612x502 mm) by Jekuthiel Sofer emulated 1675 decalogue at the Esnoga synagogue of Amsterdam

The Ten Commandments, or Decalogue, are a list of religious and moral imperatives which, according to religious tradition, were written by God and given to Moses on Mount Sinai in the form of two stone tablets. They feature prominently in Judaism, Christianity and Islam. In Biblical Hebrew language, they are termed עשרת הדברים (translit. Aseret ha-Dvarîm) and in Rabbinical Hebrew עשרת הדברות (translit. Aseret ha-Dibrot), both translatable as "the ten statements." The name "decalogue" is derived from the Greek name δεκάλογος or "dekalogos" ("ten statements") found in the Septuagint (Exo34:28, Deut10:4), which is the Greek translation of the Hebrew name.

The terms "Ten Commandments" and "Decalogue" generally refer to the passages in Exodus 20:2–17 and Deuteronomy 5:6–21 (which are broadly identical). Some maintain that there is an additional set of ten commandments (Exodus 34) which they suggest predated the ten commandments now known as such.

Narrative of reception

Preparations

According to the Bible text, the commandments represented the utterances of God on Mount Sinai (sometimes called Mount Horeb), directly written by God and given to Moses, then given by Moses to the people of Israel in the third month after their Exodus from Egypt. The event of Israel's receipt of the commandments followed three days of preparation at the foot of the mount:

"...God said to Moses, 'I will come to you in a thick cloud, so that all the people will hear when I speak to you. They will then believe in you forever.'...The third day arrived. There was thunder and lightning in the morning, with a heavy cloud on the mountain, and an extremely loud blast of a ram's horn. The people in the camp trembled. Moses led the people out of the camp toward the Divine Presence. They stood transfixed at the foot of the mountain. Mount Sinai was all in smoke because of the Presence that had come down on it. God was in the fire, and its smoke went up like the smoke of a lime kiln. The entire mountain trembled violently. There was the sound of a ram's horn, increasing in volume to a great degree. Moses spoke, and God replied with a voice. God came down on Mount Sinai, to the peak of the mountain. He summoned Moses to the mountain peak, and Moses climbed up...Moses went down to the people and conveyed this to them." (Exodus 19)

Text of the commandments

The following is the text of the commonly accepted (by Christian and Jewish authorities) commandments as found in the book of Exodus 20:1-17, New Revised Standard Version. Because Jewish, Protestant, Orthodox, and Catholic traditions divide the commandments in different fashions, they are presented below without itemization.

Then God spoke all these words: saying: (1)"I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage:

”I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery; (2) you shall have no other gods before me. (3) You shall not make for yourself an idol, whether in the form of anything that is in heaven above, or that is on the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth. (4) You shall not bow down to them or worship them; for I the Lord your God am a jealous God, punishing children for the iniquity of parents, to the third and the fourth generation of those who reject me, (5) but showing steadfast love to the thousandth generation of those who love me and keep my commandments. (6) You shall not make wrongful use of the name of the Lord your God, for the Lord will not acquit anyone who misuses his name. (7) Remember the sabbath day, and keep it holy. (8) For six days you shall labour and do all your work. (9) But the seventh day is a sabbath to the Lord your God; you shall not do any work—you, your son or your daughter, your male or female slave, your livestock, or the alien resident in your towns. (10) For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that is in them, but rested the seventh day; therefore the Lord blessed the sabbath day and consecrated it. (11) Honour your father and your mother, so that your days may be long in the land that the Lord your God is giving you. (12) You shall not murder. (13) You shall not commit adultery. (14) You shall not steal. (15) You shall not bear false witness against your neighbour. (16) You shall not covet your neighbour’s house; you shall not covet your neighbour’s wife, or male or female slave, or ox, or donkey, or anything that belongs to your neighbour.

Exodus 20:1-17

Nature of the stone tablets

According to the Bible, God inscribed the Ten Commandments into stone: "God said to Moses, 'Come up to Me, to the mountain, and remain there. I will give you the stone tablets, the Torah and the commandment that I have written for [the people's] instruction.'" (Exodus 24:12) also referred to as "tables of testimony" (Exodus 24:12, 31:18, 32:16) or "tables of the covenant" (Deuteronomy 9 verses 9, 11, 15), which he gave to Moses.

Traditional Jewish sources (Mekhilta de Rabbi Ishmael, de-ba-Hodesh 5) discuss the placement of the commandments on two tablets. According to Rabbi Hanina ben Gamaliel, five commandments were engraved on the first tablet and five on the other, whereas the Sages contended that ten were written on each. While most Jewish and Christian depictions follow the first understanding, modern scholarship favours the latter, comparing it to treaty rite in the Ancient Near East, in the sense of tablets of covenant. Diplomatic treaties, such as that between Egyptian Pharaoh Ramses II and the Hittite King Hattusilis III, circa 1270 B.C.E, were duplicated on stone with a copy for each party, and the subordinate party would place their copy of the pact in the main temple to his god, in oath to the king (cf. Ezekiel 17:11–19). In a pact between a nation and its God, then, the Israelites placed both copies in their temple. [1]

Exodus 32:15 records that the tablets "were written on both their sides." The Talmud (tractate Shabbat 104a) explains that there were miracles involved with the carving on the tablets. One was that the carving went the full thickness of the tablets. There is a letter in the Hebrew alphabet called a samech that looks similar to the letter "O" in the English alphabet. The stone in the center part of the letter should have fallen out, as it was not connected to the rest of the tablet, but it did not; it miraculously remained in place. Secondly, the writing was miraculously legible from both the front and the back, even though logic would dictate that something carved through and through would show the writing in mirror image on the back.

Breaking and replacement of the tablets

After seeing that the Israelites had gone astray during his absence and his brother Aaron had made the Golden Calf, Moses broke the tablets (Exodus 32:19).

God subsequently commanded Moses to carve two other tablets like the first (Exodus 34:1). In Exodus 34:27–28 Moses was commanded to recreate the tablets, and God would rewrite the commandments Himself.

In Deuteronomy 4:13, 5:18, 9:10, 10:4, God himself appears as the writer. This second set, brought down from Mount Sinai by Moses (Exodus 34:29), was placed in the Ark, also known as the Ark of the Covenant (Exodus 25:16, 25:21, 40:20), hence designated as the "Ark of the Testimony" (Exodus 22:16, Numbers 4:5; compare also 1 Kings 8:9).

Other references

Other references are found to the commandments within the Bible: Reference to each of the commandments and the consequences for not following them as a part of Hebrew Law are found throughout this book. In the New Testament book of Matthew 19 and elsewhere, Jesus refers to the commandments, but condenses them into two general commands:

The greatest and first is, You shall love God with all your heart with all your soul and with all your mind. A second likewise is Love your neighbour as yourself (Ethic of reciprocity) (Matthew 22:34–40).

Variations between Exodus and Deuteronomy

A very similar, but not identical, list of commandments is found in Deuteronomy 5:1–22. One difference is the commandment of Sabbath. In Exodus it says to "Remember (Hebrew: zachor) the Sabbath day", and in Deuteronomy it says to "Safeguard (Hebrew: shamor) the Sabbath day". Other differences include the last word in the third commandment, and the ninth commandments. The Talmud (tractate Shevuot 20b) observes that the words zachor and shamor were spoken simultaneously; the fact that both could be heard was a miracle. The Maharal of Prague (in his Tifereth Yisrael chapter 43) observes that the Talmud is silent on all other textual differences, and concludes that the added words in Deuteronomy are elabourations and explanations, in keeping with the character of Deuteronomy (Mishneh Torah, "a repetition of the Torah").

Division of the commandments

The passage conventionally considered to include the commandments in chapter 20 of the book of Exodus contains more than ten imperative statements (while Jewish law sees each as representing a separate commandment), totalling 14 or 15 in all.

Nonetheless, the Bible itself assigns the count of "10". The Hebrew phrase ʻaseret had'varim - translated as the 10 words, statements or things Exodus 34:28, Deuteronomy 4:13 and Deuteronomy 10:4.

Religious groups have divided the commandments in different ways.

For instance, Catholics and Lutherans see the first six verses as part of the same command prohibiting the worship of pagan gods. Protestants (except Lutherans) separate all six verses into two different commands (one being "no other gods" and the other being "no graven images"). The initial reference to Egyptian bondage is important enough to Jews that it forms a separate commandment. Catholics and Lutherans separate the two kinds of coveting (namely, of goods and of the flesh), while Protestants (but not Lutherans) and Jews group them together.

Jewish understanding

The Nash Papyrus, a 2nd century BCE manuscript containing variations from the Masoretic Text. The order the Commandments listed here differs from that of the Hebrew Bible and Septuagint.

Significance of the decalogue

According to Jewish understandings, the Torah includes 613 commandments, of which those listed in the decalogue count for ten. Most authorities thus do not automatically ascribe to these ten commandments any greater significance in observance, or any special status, as compared to the remainder of the canon of Jewish law. Indeed, when undue emphasis was being placed on them, daily communal recitation of them was discontinued (Talmud, tractate Berachot 12a). The Jewish tradition does, however, recognize these "ten commandments" as the ideological basis for the rest of the commandments; a number of works (starting with Rabbi Saadia Gaon) have made groupings of the commandments according to their links with the Ten Commandments.

Traditional Jewish belief is that these commandments, among the 613, apply solely to the Jewish people, and that the laws incumbent on the rest of humanity are outlined in the seven Noahide Laws (several of which overlap with the Ten Commandments). In the era of the Sanhedrin, transgressing any one of these theoretically carried the death penalty; though this was rarely enforced due to a large number of stringent evidentiary requirements imposed by the oral law.

Traditional division and interpretation

1. "I am the LORD your God who brought you out of the land of Egypt, from the house of slavery. Thou shalt have no other gods before Me... .."

   This commandment is to believe in the existence of God and His influence on events in the world, and that the goal of the redemption from Egypt was to become His servants (Rashi). It prohibits belief in or worship of any additional deities.

2. "Do not make a sculpted image or any likeness of what is in the heavens above..."

   This prohibits the construction or fashioning of "idols" in the likeness of created things (beasts, fish, birds, people) and worshipping them.

3. "Thou shalt not swear falsely by the name of the LORD..."

   This commandment is to never take the name of God in a vain, pointless or insincere oath (Rashi). This includes four types of prohibited oaths: an oath affirming as true a matter one knows to be false, an oath that affirms the patently obvious, an oath denying the truth of a matter one knows to be true, and an oath to perform an act that is beyond one's capabilities.

4. "Remember [zachor] the Sabbath day and keep it holy" (the version in Deuteronomy reads shamor, "observe")

   The seventh day of the week is termed Shabbat and is holy, just as God ceased creative activity during Creation. The aspect of zachor (remember) is performed by declaring the greatness of the day (kiddush), by having three festive meals and by engaging in Torah study and pleasurable activities. The aspect of shamor is performed by abstaining from productive activity (the 39 melachot, forbidden categories of work) on the Shabbat.

5. "Thou shalt honour your father and your mother..."

   The obligation to honour one's parents is an obligation that one owes to God and fulfills this obligation through one's actions towards one's parents.

6. "Thou shalt not murder"

   Killing an innocent human being is a capital sin.

7. "Thou shalt not commit adultery."

   Adultery is defined as sexual intercourse with a married woman (Rashi).

8. "Thou shalt not steal."

   This is not understood as stealing in the conventional sense, since theft of property is forbidden elsewhere and is not a capital offense. In this context it is to be taken as "do not kidnap" (Rashi).

9. "Thou shalt not bear false witness against your neighbour"

   One must not bear false witness in a court of law or other proceeding.

10. "Thou shalt not covet your neighbour's house..."

    One is forbidden to desire and plan how one may obtain that which God has given to another. Maimonides makes a distinction in codifying the laws between the instruction given here in Exodus (You shall not covet) and that given in Deuteronomy (You shall not desire), according to which one does not violate the Exodus commandment unless there is a physical action associated with the desire, even if this is legally purchasing an envied object.

According to the Medieval Sefer ha-Chinuch, the first four statements concern the relationship between God and human beings, while the next six statements concern the relationship between human beings. Rabbinic literature holds that the Ten Statements in fact contain 14 or 15 distinct instructions.

Samaritan understanding

The Samaritan Pentateuch varies in the ten commandments passages, both in that their Deuteronomical version of the passage is much closer to that in Exodus, and in the division of the commandments differing such that a tenth commandment on the sanctity of Mount Gerizim may be included.

The Samaritan tenth commandment is even present in the Septuagint, though Origenes notes that it is not part of the Jewish text.

The text of the commandment follows:

And it shall come to pass when the Lord thy God will bring thee into the land of the Canaanites whither thou goest to take possession of it, thou shalt erect unto thee large stones, and thou shalt cover them with lime, and thou shalt write upon the stones all the words of this Law, and it shall come to pass when ye cross the Jordan, ye shall erect these stones which I command thee upon Mount Gerizim, and thou shalt build there an altar unto the Lord thy God, an altar of stones, and thou shalt not lift upon them iron, of perfect stones shalt thou build tine altar, and thou shalt bring upon it burnt offerings to the Lord thy God, and thou shalt sacrifice peace offerings, and thou shalt eat there and rejoice before the Lord thy God. That mountain is on the other side of the Jordan at the end of the road towards the going down of the sun in the land of the Canaanites who dwell in the Arabah facing Gilgal close by Elon Moreh facing Shechem.[2]

Christian understanding

Lutheran and Roman Catholic Christianity

For the official Roman Catholic understanding of the Ten Commandments, see the Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994), sections 2052-2557. It follows the division established by St. Augustine and is also the order of Lutheran confessions. The discussion below uses the text from Deuteronomy RSV:

The first three commandments govern the relationship between God and humans.

1. "I am the LORD your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage. You shall have no other gods before me. You shall not make for yourself a graven image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is on the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth; you shall not bow down to them or serve them; for I the LORD your God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children to the third and fourth generation of those who hate me, but showing steadfast love to thousands of those who love me and keep my commandments."

• The text of what Catholics recognize as the first commandment includes the commandment against the making of graven images. This is most often interpreted as the prohibition of idol worship, distinct in nature from images of saints or the crucifix. (While not all Catholics have a particularly strong devotion to icons or other religious artifacts, Catholic teaching distinguishes between veneration (dulia) -- which is paying honour to God through contemplation of objects such as paintings and statues, and adoration (latria) -- which is properly given to God alone.) (See: Communion of Saints). The Catholic version of Ten Commandments follows the Augustinian-model and was settled at a time before verses and chapters were inserted into the Bible (mid-12th century) and shortly after the Third Council of Carthage which defined the texts of the New Testament. This explains why Christian interpretations of the ten commandments divide the first few commandments differently than do Jewish or Muslim versions.

2. "You shall not create and worship idols before me."

• The Second Commandment of Orthodox Christians, Protestants except Lutherans, and Jews forbids the making of graven images. While not a separate Commandment in Roman Catholic and Lutheran lists, the wording is still included in their Bible translations. When comparing lists, the Second Commandment of Roman Catholics and Lutherans against taking the Lord's name in vain is the Third Commandment of Orthodox Christians, Protestants except Lutherans, and Jews.

3. "You shall not take the name of the LORD your God in vain; for the LORD will not hold him guiltless who takes his name in vain."

• The moral lesson here involves more than simply a prohibition of swearing; it also prohibits the misappropriation of religious language in order to commit a crime, to participate in occult practices, or blaspheming against places or people that are holy to God.

4. "Observe the sabbath day, to keep it holy, as the LORD your God commanded you. Six days you shall labour, and do all your work; but the seventh day is a sabbath to the LORD your God; in it you shall not do any work, you, or your son, or your daughter, or your manservant, or your maidservant, or your ox, or your ass, or any of your cattle, or the sojourner who is within your gates, that your manservant and your maidservant may rest as well as you. You shall remember that you were a servant in the land of Egypt, and the LORD your God brought you out thence with a mighty hand and an outstretched arm; therefore the LORD your God commanded you to keep the sabbath day."

• Most Christians do not refrain from work on Saturday. However, they do refrain from work on Sunday. Furthermore The Catholic Church states in the Catechism (2185) that, "On Sundays and other holy days of obligation, the faithful are to refrain from engaging in work or activities that hinder the worship owed to by God, the joy proper to the Lord's Day, the performance of the works of mercy, and the appropriate relaxation of mind and body." Necessary work is permitted however, and the Catechism goes on to state that, "Family needs or important social service can legitimately excuse from the obligation of Sunday rest." As well, the Bible, in Mark 2:23–28, states that, "The Sabbath was made for man, and not man for the Sabbath." See Sabbath. Some Protestant Christians, such as Seventh-day Adventists, observe the Sabbath day and hence refrain from work on Saturday. Other Protestants observe Sunday as a day of rest. The Sunday observance of the Sabbath is usually attributed to the belief that Jesus rose from the dead on a Sunday, the day after the Jewish Sabbath, which is still observed on Saturday.

The next group of commandments govern public relationships between people.

5. "Honour your father and your mother, as the LORD your God commanded you; that your days may be prolonged, and that it may go well with you, in the land which the LORD your God gives you."

• This commandment emphasizes the family as part of God's design, as well as an extended metaphor that God uses for his relationship with his creation.

6. "You shall not kill."

• Since respect for life includes an obligation to respect one's own life and the lives of people under one's protection, it is legitimate to use force -- even fatal force -- against the threats of an aggressor who cannot be stopped any other way. While Catholic teaching recognizes the right of states to execute criminals when necessary to preserve the safety of citizens, the Church argues that other methods of protecting society (incarceration, rehabilitation) are increasingly available in the modern world; thus, there are now few if any cases that really necessitate capital punishment. Catholics (along with many fundamentalist Protestants) also consider abortion sinful and a violation of this commandment.

7. "Neither shall you commit adultery."

• For Catholics, marriage is a sacrament; unlike most Catholic sacraments, which are performed by a priest, in marriage, the husband and wife convey sanctifying graces upon each other. For the Orthodox, marriage is conferred by the priest, but is still seen as a sacred bond. Adultery is the breaking of this holy bond, and is thus a sacrilege. Often overlooked is the clarification by Jesus of this commandment in the New Testament, in which it is extended to include lust.

8. "Neither shall you steal."

9. "Neither shall you bear false witness against your neighbour."

• Catholics interpret the 9th Commandment to forbid misrepresenting the truth in our relations with others. This also forbids lying.

10. "and you shall not desire your neighbour's house, his field, or his manservant, or his maidservant, his ox, or his ass, or anything that is your neighbour's."

• Only the Roman Catholic and Lutheran churches separate the commandment against coveting "your neighbour's wife" and his possessions into two separate commandments, to create the 9th and 10th commandments. For other Christians and for Jews, both are together in the 10th commandment. This separation is necessary to create 10 commandments because the commandment against making graven images (the Second Commandment of Orthodox and Protestant Christians and of Jews) is for Roman Catholics and Lutherans part of the first commandment.

Within the Catholic tradition, as in much of Judaism, the Commandments are also seen as general "subject headings" for moral theology, in addition to being specific commandments in themselves. Thus, the commandment to honour father and mother is seen as a heading for a general rule to respect legitimate authority, including the authority of the state. The commandment not to commit adultery is traditionally taken to be a heading for a general rule to be sexually pure, the specific content of the purity depending, of course, on whether one is married or not. In this way, the Ten Commandments can be seen as dividing up all of morality.

Protestant Christianity

There are many different denominations of Protestantism, and it is impossible to generalise in a way that covers them all. However, this diversity arose historically from fewer sources, the various teachings of which can be summarized, in general terms.

Lutherans, Reformed and Anglicans, and Anabaptists all taught, and their descendants still predominantly teach that, the ten commandments have both an explicitly negative content, and an implied positive content. Besides those things that ought not be done, there are things which ought not be left undone. So that, besides not transgressing the prohibitions, a faithful abiding by the commands of God includes keeping the obligations of love. The ethic contained in the Ten Commandments and indeed in all of Scripture is, "Love the Lord your God with all of your heart, and mind, and soul, and strength, and love your neighbour as yourself", and, "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you."

Lutherans, especially, influentially theorized that there is an antithesis between these two sides of the word of God, the positive and the negative. Love and gratitude is a guide to those under the Gospel, and the prohibitions are for unbelievers and profane people. This antithesis between Law and Gospel runs through every ethical command, according to Lutheran understanding.

The Anabaptists have held that the commandments of God are the content of the covenant established through Christ: faith is faithfulness, and thus, belief is essentially the same thing as obedience.

Reformed and Anglicans have taught the abiding validity of the commandments, and call it a summation of the "moral law", binding on all people. However, they emphasize the union of the believer with Christ - so that the will and power to perform the commandments does not arise from the commandment itself, but from the gift of the Holy Spirit. Apart from this grace, the commandment is only productive of condemnation, according to this family of doctrine.

Modern Evangelicalism, under the influence of dispensationalism, commonly denies that the commandments have any abiding validity as a requirement binding upon Christians; however, they contain principles which are beneficial to the believer. Dispensationalism is particularly emphatic about the dangers of legalism, and thus, in a distinctive way de-emphasises the teaching of the law (see also antinomianism). Somewhat analogously, Pentecostalism and the Charismatic movement typically emphasizes the guidance of the Holy Spirit, and the freedom of the Christian from outward commandments, sometimes in antithesis to the letter of the Law. Quakers and pietism have historically set themselves against the Law as a form of commandment binding on Christians, and have emphasized the inner guidance and liberty of the believer, so that the law is fulfilled not merely by avoiding what the Law prohibits, but by carrying out what the Spirit of God urges upon their conscience.

The non-denominational evangelical ministry of The Way of the Master, headed up by evangelist Ray Comfort and actor Kirk Cameron also deny that the commandments are to be kept in any legalist sense, but further state that their primary purpose is to serve as a "mirror" for a person to see his or her sin. [3]

For those Christians who believe that the Ten Commandments continue to be binding for Christians (see also Old Testament#Christian view of the Law, Cafeteria Christianity), their negative and positive content can be summarized as follows:

Typical Protestant view

The Lutheran Decalogue is basically the same as the Roman Catholic Decalogue. Both versions include the command against making graven images (the Second Commandment of other Protestant and Orthodox Christians and of Jews) in the First Commandment, and separate the Commandment against coveting (the Tenth Commandment of other Protestant and Orthodox Christians and of Jews) into the Ninth and Tenth Commandments. Exodus 20:

Preface: vs 1-2
Implies the obligation to keep all of the commandments of God, in gratitude because of the abundance of his mercy
Forbids ingratitude to God and denial that he is our God.

1. vs 3.
   Enjoins that God must be known and acknowledged to be the only true God, and our God; and, to worship him and to make him known as he has been made known to us
   Forbids not worshiping and glorifying the true God as God, and as our God; and forbids giving worship and glory to any other, which is due to him alone
2. vs 4-6
   Requires receiving, observing, and keeping pure and entire, all such religious worship and ordinances as God has appointed; and zeal in resisting those who would corrupt worship; because of God's ownership of us, and interest in our salvation.
   Prohibits the worshiping of God by images, or by confusion of any creature with God, or any other way not appointed in his Word.
3. vs 7
   Enjoins a holy and a reverent use of God’s names, titles, attributes, ordinances, Word, and works.
   Forbids all abuse of anything by which God makes himself known. Some Protestants, especially in the tradition of pacifism, read this Commandment as forbidding any and all oaths, including judicial oaths and oaths of allegiance to a government, noting that human weakness cannot foretell whether such oaths will in fact be vain.
4. vs 8-11
   Requires setting apart to God such set times as are appointed in his Word. Many Protestants are increasingly concerned that the values of the marketplace do not dominate entirely, and deprive people of leisure and energy needed for worship, for the creation of civilised culture. The setting of time apart from and free from the demands of commerce is one of the foundations of a decent human society. See Sabbath.
   Forbids the omission, or careless performance, of the religious duties, using the day for idleness, or for doing that which is in itself sinful; and prohibits requiring of others any such omission, or transgression, on the designated day.
5. vs 12
   The only commandment with explicitly positive content, rather than a prohibition; it connects all of the temporal blessings of God, with reverence for and obedience to authority, and especially for father and mother.
   Forbids doing anything against, or failing to give, the honour and duty which belongs to anyone, whether because they possess authority or because they are subject to authority.
6. vs 13
   Requires all lawful endeavors to preserve our own life, and the life of others.
   Forbids taking away of our own life, or the life of our neighbour, unjustly; and, anything that tends toward depriving life.
7. vs 14
   Enjoins protection of our own and our neighbour’s chastity, in heart, speech, and behavior.
   Forbids all unchaste thoughts, words, and actions.
8. vs 15
   Requires a defense of all lawful things that further the wealth and outward estate of ourselves and others
   Prohibits whatever deprives our neighbour, or ourselves, of lawfully gained wealth or outward estate.
9. vs 16
   Requires the maintaining and promoting of truth between people, and of our neighbour’s good name and our own, especially in witness-bearing.
   Forbids whatsoever is prejudicial to truth, or injurious to our own, or our neighbour’s, good name.
10. vs 17
    Enjoins contentment with our own condition, and a charitable attitude toward our neighbour and all that is his, being thankful for his sake that he has whatever is beneficial to him, as we are for those things that benefit us.
    Forbids discontent or envy, prohibits any grief over the betterment of our neighbour's estate, and all inordinate desires to obtain for ourselves, or scheming to wrest for our benefit, anything that is his.

Latter-day Saints view

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints teaches the continued practice of keeping the Ten Commandments as listed in KJV Exodus 20:2-17, including the following connotations:

• All mankind are the children of God and rightful beneficiaries of God's blessings through freely chosen obedience to the commandments.
• God should come first in our lives as the center of our worship, trust and gratitude.
• Work is a blessing. The commandment to keep the Sabbath day holy brings many attendant blessings of the fruitfulness of the earth. A whole nation or community can be blessed with fruitfulness as its people choose to keep these commandments, as promised in many passages in Deuteronomy. Work allows for growth, joy and progress through trials of faith. (Book of Mormon, 2 Nephi 2:11) Closely related blessings are available to communities that practice the law of the fast (see Isaiah 58:6-14) through using donated monies or commodities to help the poor and needy.
• Parents have a primary, divinely given obligation to teach their children the Ten Commandments in a loving, non-controlling way (Deuteronomy 6:5-7). Children should continue to honour their aging family members through attentive care, where possible.
• The mainstream LDS Church teaches that communities and governments that foster or allow the general practice of abortion are violating the spirit of the sixth commandment, and thus diminish personal peace and prosperity. The same effect applies to violation of the seventh commandment, including minimizing or ignoring the modern plagues of pornography and of pre-marital sexual relations.
• Personal, business/contractual and governmental integrity are vital to the strength of communities and nations, as implied in the eighth and ninth commandments.
• The LDS Church teaches that the blessings of freedom promised in Deuteronomy are available to whole nations as their people choose to follow the teachings of the Ten Commandments. While the separation of church and state is an important protection of the United States Constitution, "governments were instituted of God for the benefit of man; ... for the good and safety of society..., such laws...framed and held inviolate as will secure to each individual the free exercise of conscience, the right and control of property, and the protection of life." (Doctrine and Covenants 134:1,2)
• An important proclamation teaching God-given roles of parents and families relating to the Ten Commandments was announced publicly by LDS Church President Gordon B. Hinckley in September 1995, entitled The Family: A Proclamation to the World.

Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses hold that the commandments were given together with the Mosaic law and the old covenant. While they understand the Bible as saying Christians are not bound by the Ten Commandments, (Colossians 2:13–14) they recognize the importance the Bible places have on these principles for living a Christian life. (Galatians 6:2; Matthew 22:35–40) They believe that the Sabbatarian law is obsolete. (Colossians 2:16–17)

The first four commandments define the correct relationship between God and man.

• First - Jehovah exacts exclusive devotion; He tolerates no rivalry with other gods. (Ex. 20:3)
• Second - Images are never to be used in worship - all forms of idolatry are an open affront to Jehovah. (Vs.4-6)
• Third - The use of God’s name is to be dignified, never used disrespectfuly.

When the Israelites became unfaithful they, as representatives of Jehovah by bearing his name, "took it up" or "carried" it "in vain"(Vs.7)

• Fourth - The Sabbath day was reserved for reflection on spiritual things, a day of rest from work so that the Israelites could meditate on Jehovah's Laws without distraction. (Vs.8-10) In modern times, Jehovah's Witnesses are still commanded to follow this principle, though not keeping any explicit weekday holy.

• Fifth- This commandment can be seen as the linking together of the first four (defining man's proper relationship with God) and the final six, (showing the proper relationships between humans) It is the obedience children owe their parents. This is a relationship which extends beyond childhood. To respect one’s parents is to show respect for the ultimate parent – Jehovah God.(Vs.12)

• Sixth through Ninth - Murder, Adultery, Stealing and Lying are very pointed thus leaving no room for interpretation. These things are not to be practiced. (Vs.13-16)
• Tenth – This makes it clear that not only were the Israelites not to practice the things mentioned in the previous nine commands, but that they were also to not allow a desire for these things to take root in their hearts and minds. (Vs.17)

New Church (Swedenborgianism)

The New Church (or Swedenborgianism) holds that Christians are completely bound to follow the Ten Commandments. Swedenborgians believe that when Paul writes that man is justified by faith apart from the works of the law (Rom. 3:28), he is referring to the ceremonial laws given only for the Jews in the law of Moses, not to the moral and spiritual law of the Ten Commandments (see Rom. 3:31, Rom. 2:13, Rom. 2:6, 2 Cor. 5:10, Rom. 13:8-11). In addition to typical Christian interpretations of the literal meaning, Swedenborgians believe that the Ten Commandments have a spiritual meaning and a celestial meaning by means of correspondences. The interpretations of the commandments from Emanuel Swedenborg’s True Christian Religion are as follows (Swedenborg followed the Lutheran and Catholic division of the commandments):

1. You shall have no other gods before My face.

   The literal meaning is that idols must not be worshipped; no one may be loved above God, and nothing may be loved more than the things that come from God.

   The spiritual meaning is that no other God than Jesus Christ, who is Jehovah incarnate, is to be worshipped.

   The celestial meaning is that Lord Jehovah is infinite, measureless, eternal; He is omnipotent, omniscient, and omnipresent; He is love itself and wisdom itself, thus life itself; He is the source of everything.

2. You shall not take the name of Jehovah your God in vain.

   The literal meaning forbids misuse of any of God’s names in insincere or empty conversation, although it is allowed in swearing sincere oaths and should be used reverently in all worship.

   In the spiritual meaning, the name of God means all the teachings of the Word, which are not to be used insincerely or evilly.

   Taking God’s name in vain in the celestial sense means to deny the complete Divinity of the Lord Jesus Christ and to deny the holiness of the Word.

3. Remember the Sabbath day.

   As this was a Jewish religious ceremony, its literal sense does not apply to Christians as it did to Jews; but the Sabbath day remains important as a day for instruction in Divine things and rest from work, as well as love toward the neighbour.

   The Sabbath day in the spiritual sense refers to a man’s complete reformation and regeneration, since the days of creation referred to the process of reformation and regeneration and the seventh day marked its completeness.

   The celestial meaning of the Sabbath day is peace and rest coming from conjunction with the Lord.

4. Honour your father and your mother.

   This literally means obeying parents (for children) and showing gratitude to them; in a wider literal sense, it means honouring political leaders and a person’s country.

   In the spiritual sense, honouring father and mother means reverencing and loving God and the Church.

   In the celestial sense, father means the Lord Jesus Christ, and mother means all those who follow him in the world.

5. You shall not murder.

   In the literal sense, this means killing or inflicting mortal injury on a human being; in a wider sense, it means destroying a person’s reputation; and in an even wider sense, it refers to feelings of enmity, hatred, and revenge.

   In the spiritual sense, to murder means to try to kill or destroy a person’s soul, for example by turning them away from God.

   In the celestial sense, murdering means being unjustifiably angry with the Lord, hating Him, and wanting to blot out His name.

6. You shall not commit adultery.

   In the literal sense, this commandment forbids adultery, as well has having obscene desires and indulging in lascivious thoughts and talk.

   In the spiritual sense committing adultery means adulterating the good things in the Word and falsifying its truths.

   In the celestial sense committing adultery means denying the holiness of the Word and profaning it.

7. You shall not steal.

   In the literal sense this commandment forbids taking anything that does not belong to you and extends to any fraud or deceit that brings in unlawful gain.

   In the spiritual sense this commandment means depriving others of the truths they get from their faith, which is the effect of falsities and heretical beliefs.

   In the celestial sense thieves are those who strip the Lord of His Divine power and claim His merit and righteousness for themselves.

8. You shall not bear false witness against your neighbour.

   In the literal sense this means not committing perjury in court, and in a wider sense any sort of lying or hypocrisy with evil intent, as well as slandering one’s neighbours to undermine their reputation; in an even wider sense, it forbids using any sort of trickery or guile.

   In the spiritual sense bearing false witness means persuading others that false ideas are true and that true ideas are false, and that evil ways of life are good and good ways of life evil.

   In the celestial sense bearing false witness means speaking blasphemy against the Lord and the Word, thus chasing truth from the church.

9. and 10. You shall not covet.

   In the literal sense, this means that a person should not desire to take things that are not his; in a wider sense, that a person should not desire to break any of the previous commandments.

   In the spiritual sense, this commandment forbids lusts which are against the spirit.

   No celestial sense is given.

Members of the New Church believe that following the Ten Commandments and worshipping the Lord God Jesus Christ are the two essentials of salvation, since anyone who follows the commandments in his heart loves his neighbour and loves God, which is salvation.

Muslim understanding

Muslims regard Moses as one of their greatest prophets, but they reject the Biblical versions of the Ten Commandments. Islam teaches that the Biblical text used in Judaism and Christianity has been corrupted over the years, by carelessness or malice, from its divine original. Muslims believe that the Qur'an is a revelation from God continuing the revelations on which they believe the Torah and Gospels to be based, intended to restore the original Adamic and Abrahamic faith.

Despite the Ten Commandments not being explicitly mentioned in the Qur'an they are implied by the following translation of verses in the Quran (using Jewish numbering):

1. "There is no other god beside God."(47:19)
2. "My Lord, make this a peaceful land, and protect me and my children from worshiping idols." (14:35)
3. "Do not subject God's name to your casual swearing, that you may appear righteous, pious, or to attain credibility among the people." (2:224)
4. "O you who believe, when the Congregational Prayer (Salat Al-Jumu`ah) is announced on Friday, you shall hasten to the commemoration of GOD, and drop all business." (62:9)
   The Sabbath was relinquished with the revelation of the Quran. Muslims are told in the Quran that the Sabbath was only decreed for the Jews. (16:124) God, however, ordered Muslims to make every effort and drop all businesses to attend the congregational (Friday) prayer. The Submitters may tend to their business during the rest of the day.
5. "....and your parents shall be honoured. As long as one or both of them live, you shall never say to them, "Uff" (the slightest gesture of annoyance), nor shall you shout at them; you shall treat them amicably." (17:23)
6. "....anyone who murders any person who had not committed murder or horrendous crimes, it shall be as if he murdered all the people." (5:32)
7. "You shall not commit adultery; it is a gross sin, and an evil behavior." (17:32)
8. "The thief, male or female, you shall mark their hands as a punishment for their crime, and to serve as an example from God. God is Almighty, Most Wise." (5:38 - 39)
9. "Do not withhold any testimony by concealing what you had witnessed. Anyone who withholds a testimony is sinful at heart." (2:283)
10. "And do not covet what we bestowed upon any other people. Such are temporary ornaments of this life, whereby we put them to the test. What your Lord provides for you is far better, and everlasting." (20:131)

Views of other faiths

While other faiths do not generally recognise the Ten Commandments in their unity, many of them (Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, etc.) have comparable laws or principles [4].

Controversies

Sabbath day

See main articles: Shabbat, Sabbath

Most Christians believe that Sunday is a special day of worship and rest, every week commemorating the Resurrection of Jesus on the first day of the week on the Jewish calendar. Most Christian traditions teach that there is an analogy between the obligation of the Christian day of worship and the Sabbath-day ordinance, but that they are not literally identical - for a believer in Christ the Sabbath ordinance has not so much been removed as superseded, because God's very work of creation has been superseded by a "new creation" (2 Corinthians 5:17), according to this Christian view. For this reason, most teach that the obligation to keep the Sabbath is not the same for Christians as in Judaism, and for support they point to examples in the New Testament, and other writings surviving from the first few centuries. Some conservative Christians, most of them within the Reformed tradition, are "sabbatarians", believing the first day of the week or Lord's Day to be the new covenant Sabbath (the 4th commandment never having been revoked and Sabbath-keeping being in any case a creation ordinance).

Still others believe that the Sabbath remains as a day of rest on the Saturday, reserving Sunday as a day of worship. In reference to Acts 20:7, the disciples came together on the first day of the week (Sunday) to break bread and to hear the preaching of the apostle Paul. This is not the first occurrence of Christians assembling on a Sunday; Jesus appeared to the Christians on the "first day of the week" while they were in hiding. One can maintain this argument in that Jesus himself maintained the Sabbath, although not within the restrictions that were mandated by Jewish traditions; the Pharisees often tried Jesus by asking him if certain tasks were acceptable according to the Law (see: Luke 14:5). This would seem to indicate that while the Sabbath was still of importance to the Jews, Sunday was a separate day for worship and teaching from Scriptures.

The Seventh-day Adventists disagree with the common Christian view. They argue that the custom of meeting for worship on Sunday originated in paganism, specifically Sol Invictus and Mithraism (in which sun-god worship took place on sunday) and constitutes an explicit rejection of the commandment to keep the seventh day holy. Instead, they keep Saturday as the Sabbath as a memorial to God's work of creation (Genesis 2:1–3, Exodus 20:8–11, Exodus 16:23,29–30) believing that none of the ten commandments can ever be destroyed (Matthew 5:17–19, Exodus 31:16). Seventh-day sabbatarians claim that the seventh day Sabbath was kept by the majority of Christian groups until the 2nd and 3rd century, by most until the 4th and 5th century, and a few thereafter, but because of opposition to Judaism after the Jewish-Roman wars, the original custom was gradually replaced by Sunday as the day of worship. The history of these changes are certainly not altogether lost regardless of any belief in a suppression of the facts by a conspiracy of the pagans of the Roman Empire and the clergy of the Catholic Church. See Great Apostasy.

Jews had come to be loathed in the Roman Empire after the Jewish-Roman wars, and this lead to the criminalization of the Jewish Sabbath. The sheer hatred of Jews is quite apparent in the Council of Laodicea (4th Century AD) where Canon 37-38 states: "It is not lawful to receive portions sent from the feasts of Jews or heretics, nor to feast together with them." and "It is not lawful to receive unleavened bread from the Jews, nor to be partakers of their impiety." [5] In keeping with this rejection of the Jews, this Roman council also criminalized the Jewish Sabbath as can be seen in Canon 29 of the Council Laodicea: "Christians must not judaize by resting on the Sabbath, but must work on that day, rather honouring the Lord's Day; and, if they can, resting then as Christians. But if any shall be found to be judaizers, let them be anathema [excommunicated] from Christ." [6]

You shall not steal

Significant voices of academic theologians (such as German Old Testament scholar A. Alt: Das Verbot des Diebstahls im Dekalog (1953)) suggest that commandment "you shall not steal" was originally intended against stealing people - against abductions and slavery, in agreement with the Jewish interpretation of the statement as "you shall not kidnap". With this understanding the second half of the ten commandments proceeds from protection of life, through protection of heredity, to protection of freedom, protection of law, and finally protection of property. This suggestion has not gained wider acceptance.

Idolatry

See main articles: Idolatry, Idolatry in Judaism, Idolatry in Christianity, Idolatry in Islam

Christianity holds that the essential element of the commandment not to make "any graven image, or any likeness of any thing that is in heaven above" is "and bow down and worship it". Thus, they hold that one may build and use "likenesses", as long as the object is not worshipped. As a result, many Christian buildings and services feature images, some feature statues, and in some Orthodox services, icons are venerated. For most Christians, this practice is understood as fulfilling the observance of this commandment, as the images are not being worshipped.

Eastern Orthodoxy teaches that the incarnation of God as a human, Jesus, makes it permissible and necessary to venerate icons.

For Jews and Muslims (and some Protestants as well), veneration seems to violate this commandment. Jews and Muslims read this commandment as prohibiting the use of idols and images in any way. Some Protestants will picture Jesus in his human form, while refusing to make any image of God or Jesus in Heaven.

Very few Christians oppose the making of any images at all, but some groups have been critical of the use others make of images in worship. (See iconoclasm.) In particular, the Orthodox have criticized the Roman Catholic use of decorative statues, Roman Catholics have criticized the Orthodox veneration of icons, and some Protestant groups have criticized the use of stained-glass windows by many other denominations. Jehovah's Witnesses criticize the use of all of the above, as well as the use of the cross. Amish people forbid any sort of graven image, such as photos.

A controversial Ten Commandments display at the Texas State Capitol in Austin.

Public monuments and controversy in the USA

See also: Roy Moore, Van Orden v. Perry, Separation of church and state in the United States

There is an ongoing dispute in the United States concerning the posting of the Ten Commandments on public property. Certain conservative religious groups, alarmed by the banning of officially-sanctioned prayer from public schools by the U.S. Supreme Court, have taken this as a threat to the expression of religion in public life. As a result they have successfully lobbied many state and local governments to display the ten commandments in public buildings. As seen above, any attempt to post the Decalogue on a public building necessarily takes a sectarian stance; Protestants and Roman Catholics number the commandments differently. Hundreds of these monuments – including some of those causing dispute – were originally placed by director Cecil B. DeMille as a publicity stunt to promote his 1956 film The Ten Commandments.[7]

Secularists and some liberals oppose the posting of the Ten Commandments on public property, arguing that it violates the establishment clause of the First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States. .

In contrast, many Conservative or religious groups claim that the commandments are not necessarily religious but represent the moral and legal foundation of society, and are appropriate to be displayed as a historical source of present day legal codes.

Secularist groups counter that several of the commandments are explicitly religious and that statements of monotheism like "Thou shalt have no other gods before me" are unacceptable to many religious viewpoints, such as atheists or followers of polytheistic religions.

In addition, it has been argued if the Commandments are posted, it would require that members of other religions be allowed to post the particular tenets of their religions as well. For example, an organization by the name of Summum has won court cases against municipalities in Utah for refusing to allow the group to erect a monument of Summum aphorisms next to the Ten Commandments. The cases were won on the grounds that Summum's right to freedom of speech was denied and the governments had engaged in discrimination. Instead of allowing Summum to erect its monument, the local governments chose to remove their Ten Commandments.

Some religious Jews oppose the posting of the Ten Commandments in public schools, as they feel it is wrong for public schools to teach their children Judaism. The argument is that if a Jewish parent wishes to teach their child to be a Jew (as most do), then this education should come from practicing Jews, and not from non-Jews. This position is based on the demographic fact that the vast majority of public school teachers in the United States are not Jews; the same is true for the students. This same reasoning and position is also held by many believers in other religions. Many Christians have some concerns about this as well; for example, can Catholic parents count on Protestant or Orthodox Christian teachers to tell their children their particular understanding of the commandments? Differences in the interpretation and translation of these commandments, as noted above, can sometimes be significant.

Organizations such as the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) have launched lawsuits challenging the posting of the ten commandments in public buildings. Opponents of these displays include a number of religious groups, including some Christian denominations, both because they don't want government to be issuing religious doctrine, and because they feel strongly that the commandments are inherently religious. Many commentators see this issue as part of a wider kulturkampf (culture struggle) between liberal and conservative elements in American society. In response to the perceived attacks on traditional society other legal organizations, such as Liberty Counsel have risen to defend the traditional interpretation.

Historical origin

Many historians have argued that the Ten Commandments of Moses have a basis in ancient Egyptian beliefs and texts. Chapter 125 of the Papyrus of Ani and several other sets of papyrus scrolls, often refered to as The Egyptian Book of the Dead, contain rules which Egyptians had to follow in order to get into the afterlife, including "not have I stolen", "not have I defiled the wife of man", "not have I killed", "not have I cursed god", "not have I falsely accused", and several other phrases which bear striking similarities to the Ten Commandments. The earliest of the Egyptian papyrus texts containing the rules for the afterlife dates to approximately 100 to 400 years before the estimated time of the Exodus, though one chapter of the Book of the Dead was found carved on the inside of the sarcophagus of Menthu-hetep who ruled around 2500 BCE. More interesting is that this carving cites, as its source, an original text which was written in 4266 BCE. during the reign of Hesep-ti.

The Ritual decalogue

Main article: Ritual Decalogue

The term "Ten Commandments" without a modifier generally applies to the lists mentioned in Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5 as "written on the tablets of stone". However, there is a continuous narrative starting in Exodus 31:28 (where the stones are created), Exodus 32:19 (where the tablets are broken) and Exodus 34, which lists a very different set of commandments, sometimes referred to as the "Ritual Decalogue". Later sources, starting with Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and later the proponents of the documentary hypothesis, note that Exodus 34:28 seems to refer to these ten commandments rather than the traditional ones. These commentators have theorised that the commandments in Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5 represent a "later" set of Ten Commandments, and that the ten listed in Exodus 34 were the "original" Ten Commandments, now known as the Ritual Decalogue (as opposed to the better-known "Ethical Decalogue"). The differences between the two "Decagogues" highlight the development of sacred texts over vast amounts of time and from differing narrative traditions by incorporating two differing sets of ten commandments.

Further reading

• Mendenhall, George E. (2001). Ancient Israel's Faith and History: An Introduction To the Bible In Context. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0664223133.
• Friedman, Richard Elliott (1987). Who Wrote the Bible?. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0671631616.
• Mendenhall, George E. (1973). The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0801812674.
• Kaufmann, Yehezkel (1960). The Religion of Israel, From Its Beginnings To the Babylonian Exile. trans. Moshe Greenberg. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Freedman, David Noel (2000). The Nine Commandments. Uncovering a Hidden Pattern of Crime and Punishment in the Hebrew Bible. Doubleday. ISBN 0385499868.
• Budge, E. A. Wallis (1967). The Egyptian Book of the Dead. Dover Publications. ISBN 048621866X.
• Kuntz, Paul Grimley (2004). The Ten Commandments in History: Mosaic Paradigms for a Well-Ordered Society. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, Emory University Studies in Law and Religion. ISBN 0802826601.
• Zarlengo, Michael. Pray Like This: God's Secret to Answered Prayer. Dallas, Texas: Michael Zarlengo Publishing, 2005.

External links

• The Ten Commandments: Ex. 20 version (text, mp3), Deut. 5 version (text, mp3) in The Hebrew Bible in English by Jewish Publication Society, 1917 ed.
• Jewish Encyclopedia: Decalogue
• Catechism of the Catholic Church
• Decalogue in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica
• The Ten Commandments from the 1908 Catholic Encyclopedia