Muhammad: Difference between revisions
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===The Battle of Uhud=== |
===The Battle of Uhud=== |
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On [[March 21]], [[625]] [[Abu Sufyan]], hoping for revenge, entered Medina with 3,000 men. On the morning of [[March 23]] fighting began. The battle produced no obvious winner or loser, though the Meccans claimed victory. For two years after the [[Battle of Uhud]] both sides prepared for a decisive encounter. |
On [[March 21]], [[625]] [[Abu Sufyan]], hoping for revenge, entered Medina with 3,000 men. On the morning of [[March 23, 625]] fighting began. The battle produced no obvious winner or loser, though the Meccans claimed victory. For two years after the [[Battle of Uhud]] both sides prepared for a decisive encounter. |
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===The Battle of the Trench (''Ghazwa-e-Khandaq'') === |
===The Battle of the Trench (''Ghazwa-e-Khandaq'') === |
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Revision as of 08:17, 27 October 2004
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Muhammad (Arabic محمد, also transliterated Mohammad, Mohammed, and formerly Mahomet, following Latin spelling) was the founder of Islam, and is revered by Muslims as the final prophet of God. According to his traditional Muslim biographies (called sirah in Arabic), he was born circa 570 in Mecca (or "Makkah") and died June 8, 632 in Medina (Madinah). His full name was Abu al-Qasim Muhammad Ibn Abd Allah Ibn Abd al-Muttalib Ibn Hashim (Ibn meaning "son of" and Abu meaning "father of"). Muslims consider Muhammad the last prophet and messenger sent by Allah (God) to the whole of humanity (an inclusiveness they may feel was lacking in earlier prophets). He also unified Arabia, which enabled the Arab conquests which established the later Islamic empires.
Muslim culture holds Muhammad in great reverence. After mentioning or writing his name, or that of any other prophet such as Jesus or Moses, a Muslim will often add "peace be upon him" or sallalahu aleyhi wasallam (صلى الله عليه و سلم: alternatively abbreviated as "PBUH" or as "SAW"). Different groups of Muslims have differing usages in this regard, so for example Shia Muslims only use the phrase for Muhammad himself and not for other prophets, and add a sub-phrase to it, making it sallalahu alayhi wa ahlihi wasallam generalizing the blessing to "him and his family".
Genealogy
According to tradition, Muhammad traced his genealogy back as far as Adnan, the traditional ancestor of the northern Arabs, as follows:
Muhammad ibn Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Muttalib (Shaiba) ibn Hashim (Amr) ibn Abd Munaf (al-Mughira) ibn Qusai (Zaid) ibn Kilab ibn Murra ibn Ka`b ibn Lu'ay ibn Ghalib ibn Fahr (Quraish) ibn Malik ibn an-Nadr (Qais) ibn Kinana ibn Khuzaiman ibn Mudrikah (Amir) ibn Ilyas ibn Mudar ibn Nizar ibn Ma'ad ibn Adnan. (ibn = "son of" in Arabic; alternate names of people with two names are given in brackets.)
Later Arab genealogists attempted to extend this further, tracing Adnan's descent back to Ishmael, and Ishmael's back all the way to Adam; however, that is usually considered unconvincing.
Childhood
Born (possibly on April 20, 570) after his father Abd Allah had died, Muhammad came into the equivalent of a middle-class family. He first came under the care of his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, a former leader of the prestigious Hashim clan (which formed part of the tribe of Quraysh). Because the climate of Mecca had a reputation for unhealthiness, Muhammad's family gave him as an infant to a wet nurse Haleemah from a nomadic tribe, and he spent some time in the desert. (This practice occurred commonly among the Meccan middle and upper classes.) At the age of six Muhammad lost his mother Amina, and at the age of eight his grandfather Abd al-Muttalib. Muhammad now came under care of his uncle Abu Talib, the new leader of the Hashim clan of the Quraysh tribe - the most powerful in Mecca.
Mecca comprised a desert city-state whose main distinction lay in the Ka'aba, reputedly built by Abraham, the traditional forefather of the Arabs and Jews. Most of Mecca's inhabitants worshipped idols. Though the city had no natural resources of its own, it functioned as a commercial center, visited by many foreign traders. By all accounts Muhammad played a very active role in the civic life of his city. His uncle Zubair founded the order of chivalry known as the Hilf al-fudul, which assisted the oppressed of the city, local inhabitants and foreign visitors. Muhammad participated as an enthusiastic member.
Muhammad assisted in resolving disputes, and became known as Al-Ameen ("the trustworthy") because of his spotless reputation in all his dealings. Most notably when the Ka'aba became damaged in a flood, and the Meccan leaders all wanted the honour of fixing the rebuilt sacred Black Stone in place, Muhammad, as the judge chosen to solve the problem, proposed spreading a white sheet on the ground, placing the Black Stone in the middle, and asking the tribal leaders to carry it to its site by holding the corners of the sheet. Muhammad himself then placed the stone in its place.
As a teenager Muhammad began accompanying his uncle on trading journeys to Syria. He thus became well-travelled and familiar with many foreign ways.
Middle years
Muhammad's employer was Khadijah, a rich widow then 40 years old. The young 25-year old Muhammad so impressed Khadijah that she offered him marriage about 595. The marriage proved an important turning point in Muhammad's life. By Arab custom minors did not inherit, so Muhammad had received no inheritance from either his father or his grandfather, but by his marriage he obtained a large fortune. The sira records that Khadijah bore Muhammad five children, one son and four daughters. Some historians argue that some of the daughters were by her second husband, whereas others insist that all were her daughters by Muhammad. All five children were born before Muhammad started preaching about Islam. His son Qasim died at the age of two. Muhammad was nicknamed Abul Qasim, meaning the father of Qasim. The four daughters were Zainab, Ruqayyah, Umm Kulthum, and Fatimah. The mother of his second son, Ibrahim, was Maria al-Qibtiyya, a Coptic Christian slave girl he freed. Muhammad married her in 627. Ibrahim died when he was ten months old. On the day of Ibrahim's death, there was an eclipse of the sun. When some people began to attribute it to his son's death, he said: "The sun and the moon do not eclipse because of the death of someone from the people but they are two signs amongst the signs of God. When you see them stand up and pray. "
Late years
Muhammad married approximately ten more women in his later years. Several of these women were widows who would have been left deserted and poverty stricken had they not been married to Muhammad.
One of the most prominent of his wives was Aisha, (عائشة). Aisha was reportedly nine years old at the time the marriage was consummated. Some Muslims question the authenticity of hadith relating to the age of Aisha.* Aisha became a chief hadith orator and arguably one of most important women in early Islamic history.
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Founding of Islam
Muhammad had a reflective turn of mind and routinely spent nights in a cave near Mecca in meditation and thought. Around the year 610, while meditating, Muhammad reportedly had a vision of the angel Gabriel and heard a voice saying to him in rough translation "Read in the name of your Lord the Creator. He created man from something which clings. Read and your Lord is the Most Honored. He taught man with the pen; taught him all that he knew not." (From this time until his death, Muhammad reportedly received frequent revelations. Sometimes while receiving these messages, traditions note, Muhammad would sweat and enter a trance state.) This vision of Gabriel disturbed Muhammad, but his wife Khadijah reassured him. Around 613 CE Muhammad began preaching in public. By proclaiming his message publicly Muhammad gained followers, including the sons and brothers of the richest men in Mecca. The religion he preached became known as Islam (submission to the Will of God). Both the Qur'an and Muhammad's sayings indicate that Muhammad from an early stage viewed Islam as a universal religion and not merely restricted to the Arab community.
As the ranks of his followers swelled, he became a threat to the local tribes, especially the Quraysh, his own tribe, which had the responsibility of looking after the Kaba, which at this time housed the several thousand idols that Arabs at that time worshipped as gods.
Rejection
As Muhammad preached against these polytheistic doctrines, he became deeply unpopular with the rulers, and his followers suffered from repeated attacks to person and property. Tradition holds that some Meccans launched vigorous and brutal attempts to persecute the new Muslims: forcing them to lie on burning sand, placing huge boulders on their chests, and pouring red-hot iron over them. Many died, but none renounced their faith. This persecution did not initially target Muhammad himself: his family simply had too much influence. This environment became intolerable, and Muhammad advised some of his followers to go to Abyssinia.
The Meccans tried to tempt Muhammad to give up his mission by offering him political power. As Muhammad's following grew, opponents made attempts to get him to disband or modify his religion. They offered him a large share in trade, and marriage with some of wealthiest families, but he rejected all such offers. Meccans ultimately demanded that Abu Talib hand over his nephew for execution. When he refused, the opposition brought commercial pressure against Muhammad's tribe and his supporters. Both Khadijah and Muhammad's uncle Abu Talib died in 619; it was known as "the year of mourning." Until now Khadijah was his only wife. After the death of Abu Talib, Muhammad's own clan withdrew their protection of him. Persecution grew, and Muhammad sought refuge in the neighboring city of Taif, where he was met with great hostility and barely escaped with his life. He suffered abuse, stoning, and pelting with thorns and rubbish. However, no attempt on his life was successful.
Hijrah
In 622, after increased persecution of his followers and death threats, Muhammad and his Meccan followers left Mecca for Medina, where he had gained many converts. By breaking the link with his own tribe Muhammad demonstrated that tribal and family loyalties were insignificant compared to the bonds of Islam. This Hijrah or emigration (traditionally translated into English as "flight") marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. The Muslim calendar counts dates from the Hijra, which is why Muslim dates have the suffix A.H. (After Hijra). People in Medina apparently hoped that Muhammad would unite them and prevent incidents such as the 618 civil war in which many had lost their lives. A document known as the Constitution of Medina (circa 622-623) was drafted by Muhammad. This document depicts the beginnings of the Islamic State within the context of Arab and Jewish tribal structures. Scholars are not quite certain about the precise date of the document. They seem to be agreed that it was not very long after the hijra; though parts of it are believed to have originated at different times and put together.
Medina
Meccans confiscated all the property that Muslims left behind. Muhammad gave permision to his followers to rush out and ambush the Meccan caravans to make up for the property and wealth that they were forced to give up in Mecca. He tried to win the neighboring tribes and signed treaties of alliance and mutual help. In March of 624, in one of the raids, Muhammad led about 300 men in a military expedition on a Meccan merchant caravan led by Abu Sufyan, the head of the Umayyah clan1. In response Meccans mustered a large force to defend the caravan. The carvan managed to escape, but Abu Jahl (the head of the Makhzum clan), who had previously opposed Muhammad and organized a boycott against Muhammad's Hashim clan, wanted to teach Muhammad a lesson.
The Battle of Badr
On March 15, 624 near a place called Badr, the two forces clashed. Though outnumbered 800 to 300 in the battle, the Muslims met with success, killing at least 45 Meccans, including Abu Jahl, and taking 70 prisoners for ransom; whereas only 14 Muslims died. One of the prisoners taken was Al Nadr Ibn al Harith, who had previously insulted him. Muhammad ordered Ali ibn Abi Talib to strike off Nadr's head in his presence. Besides Al Nadr, he ordered that Uqbah bin Abi Muait should be killed. Both these men had persecuted the Muslims in Mecca, and harboured deep hatred towards Muhammad. Before being killed Al Nadr cried "O Prophet, who will look after my children if I should die?" Muhammad said "Hellfire." "Did ‘Uqbah not remember the day when he had thrown the entrails of a sheep onto the head of the Prophet while he was prostrating himself in prayer, and Fatimah had come and washed it off him?" Uqbah had also choked Muhammad in Mecca with his cloak before Abu Bakr intervened and released Muhammad.
Prisoners of war was a new phenomenon for Muslims at that time. Muhammad consulted Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattab as to what he should do with the prisoners. Umar advised killing them, saying, "They are disbelievers." Abu Bakr suggested that he should ransom them, explaining: "They are after all our relatives, and this money would give us strength against the disbelievers, moreover, God could guide them to Islam." Muhammad preferred Abu Bakr’s suggestion. It was also agreed that if a prisoner could teach some children of Medinah to read and write, he would be freed.
To the Muslims, the victory in Badr appeared as a divine vindication of Muhammad's prophethood, and he and all the Muslims rejoiced greatly. Following this victory, the victors expelled the local Jewish clan, the banu Quainuqa, which had a few minor skirmishes before the next major battle in Uhud. Virtually all the remaining Medinans converted and Muhammad became de facto ruler of the city.
Several important marriage alliances also occurred. Of Muhammad's daughters, Fatima married Ali (later fourth caliph) and Umm Kulthum married Uthman (the third caliph). Muhammad himself, already married to Aisha daughter of Abu Bakr (first caliph) now also married Hafsah, daughter of Umar (second caliph).
The Battle of Uhud
On March 21, 625 Abu Sufyan, hoping for revenge, entered Medina with 3,000 men. On the morning of March 23, 625 fighting began. The battle produced no obvious winner or loser, though the Meccans claimed victory. For two years after the Battle of Uhud both sides prepared for a decisive encounter.
The Battle of the Trench (Ghazwa-e-Khandaq)
In April 627 Abu Sufyan led a great confederacy of 10,000 men against Medina. The Jews of Medina had agreed in the Medina Charter to participate in the protection of Medina; however, the Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza did not participate in the fighting. Instead, they made an agreement with Abu Sufyan to attack the Muslims from the rear after he had entered the city. Some people among the Muslims also had made such an agreement under the leadership of Abd Allah ibn Ubayy: later accounts refer to them as "those that profess beliefs and opinions that one does not hold" (or "one who pretends to be pious", munafiqun).
Between the strong forces of Abu Sufyan and the forces of Banu Qurayza - which would consist of all their men of fighting age - and the forces of the munafiqun the Muslims would have faced a massacre if Abu Sufyan had triumphed. Islam might have ceased to exist.
To the traitors inside Medina it must have come as a surprise when the 10,000-strong force of Abu Sufyan failed to cross a trench dug around Medina by order of Muhammad, as the Persian scribe Salman e-Farsi had suggested to him. After the retreat of Abu Sufyan and his forces, the Muslims directed their attention towards the groups that had committed treason to the Charter of Medina. The munafiqun quickly crumbled, and their leader Abd Allah ibn Ubayy pledged allegiance to Muhammad. The Muslims then besieged the Banu Qurayza, who had plotted against them. They had the opportunity of choosing Muhammad as an arbitrator, but instead the Banu Qurayza chose Saad ibn Muadh, the leader of their former allies, the Aus.
Saad had suffered a deadly wound in the battle against Abu Sufyan's forces and he ordered the execution of the active forces of the tribe, which would consist of all their grown men. He permitted the non-combatant women and children to live as enslaved captives, as was the tradition of the time. Later commentators have claimed that the punishment of the Banu Qurayza was according to the dictates of the Hebrew Bible on warfare; however, the original sirah sources do not mention this.
By 627 CE Muhammad had united Medina under Islam with protected privileges for the Jews and Christians who lived there. Word of the new religion spread. The Bedouin, after a period of battles and negotiations, became allied with Muhammad and accepted his religion. Also, after much contact with the town and with Muslims, some gradually converted. At this stage the reported revelations that had visited Muhammad had almost reached completion. He returned to Mecca and to reclaim the Kaaba.
Mecca
Muhammad put economic pressure on the citizens of Mecca; but aimed primarily to gain their willing adherence to Islam. In March 628 he set out to perform a pilgrimage in Mecca, with 1,600 men accompanying him. The Meccans however halted Muhammad on the edge of their territory at al-Hudaybiyah. After some days the Meccans made a treaty with Muhammad. With negotiation and assent of the elders of the Quraysh he made an unarmed pilgrimage to the Kaaba. Hostilities would cease and the Muslims would have permission to make a pilgrimage to Mecca in the following year. Muhammad's marriage to Habiba, daughter of Abu Sufyan (Muhammad's former enemy) further cemented the treaty.
After a period, though, the agreement broke down, and war broke out. In November 629, however, allies of the Meccans attacked an ally of Muhammad, leading Muhammad to denounce the treaty of al-Hudaybiyah. After secret planning, Muhammad marched on Mecca in January 630 with 10,000 men. But no bloodshed occurred. Abu Sufyan and other leading Meccans formally submitted. Muhammad promised a general amnesty (with some people specifically excluded). When he entered Mecca, 8 years after having to flee, virtually no resistance occurred. Though he did not insist on their becoming Muslims, most Meccans converted. In Mecca, Muhammad destroyed the idols in the Kaaba and various small shrines.
Unification of Arabia
After the hijrah Muhammad began to establish alliances with nomadic tribes. At first these probably consisted of non-aggression pacts, but as his strength grew he insisted that the prospective allied tribe should become Muslim. While in Mecca, Muhammad received word of a large concentration of hostile tribes and he set out to confront them. A battle took place at Hunayn in which the enemy was defeated. Some now viewed Muhammad as the strongest man in Arabia, and most tribes sent delegations to Medina seeking alliance. Before his death, rebellions occurred in one or two parts of Arabia but the Islamic state had sufficient strength to deal with this.
Muhammad went to Medina (at that time known as "Yathrib") where he was invited to become arbiter between the two rival tribes of Medina (the Aws and Khasraj). He set up a welfare state, collected taxes for the needy, organized town defences against numerous raiding parties from Mecca and beyond, and entered numerous trade agreements. Muhammad built mosques, and established a religious culture based on respect for other religions and their freedom to practice (the town also housed a number of Christians and Jews). Muhammad allegedly drew up the first constitution.
Passing away and afterwards
Shortly prior to his death Muhammad delivered a famous final admonition to his followers known as the Prophet Muhammad's Final Sermon. His death in June 632 at Medina, at the age of 63, provoked a major crisis among his followers. Umar was in such a state of despair that he threatened to decapitate anyone who said that Muhammad was indeed dead. Abu Bakr, who became the first caliph, calmed Umar and others, putting the death of Muhammad into perspective by saying, "If you worship Muhammad, know that he is dead; if you worship God, then know that He is everlasting and will never die." The dispute over succession eventually led to the division of Islam between the Shia and Sunni sects. The Shia believe that the prophet introduced Ali ibn Abu Talib as his successor, in a public sermon in his last haj in a place called Ghadir Khom, while the Sunni dispute this.
His effect on the course of history
Muhammad's basic message emphasised belief in one God, respect for a certain kind of morality above and beyond tribal links, and prayer. Islamic history records Muhammad as illiterate, though some scholars argue that Muhammad probably received some form of education, and point to his successful career as a merchant. When he grew up, he traveled with many caravans as an administrator, with the task of ensuring that the caravan arrived safely and with all goods intact. He did this throughout most of his working life.
The Qur'an is held by some scholars (and by Muslims) to have taken written form during Muhammad's lifetime. Some other scholars, employing source criticism, contest this belief. The Qur'an itself claims that Muhammad recited the entire Qur'an during his farewell pilgrimage to Mecca in 632, implying that it already had an established order if not actually redacted onto parchment/paper.
In politics, Muhammad was founder of an Islamic state which his successors would extend to encompass areas from the Atlantic to the Indus River. Some non-Muslims have criticized the methods used to establish this state, sometimes alleging that some of Muhammad's acts were war crimes by modern standards. Muslims would strongly contest this claim. It is also notable that the Muslim methods for expanding empires were vastly less brutal than those in use by contemporary civilizations such as the Mongols.
The many major intellectual advances which would be made by Muslims in the following centuries are often credited to the influence of the creed he spread, and in particular to his reported injunctions to seek knowledge "from the cradle to the grave" and "even as far as China". The effort to understand his life better was a major factor in the development in the Muslim world of a science of history, and of isnad and sunnah. This led ultimately to the legal practice of fiqh.
Although he exercised and exercises an influence both political and historical, the most lasting legacy of Muhammad arguably remains his role as the prophet of Islam. He himself is said to have carefully separated his role as prophet from that as a political leader, and Muslims make a clear distinction between the Qur'an and his sayings (Ahadith) or actions (sira). His failings he credited to himself, and his achievements to Allah. He consistently discouraged anyone from seeing him as divine. A hadith attributed to Muhammad himself has him saying:
- "When a person dies, his deeds come to an end, except in respect of three matters which he leaves behind: a continuing charity, knowledge from which benefit could be derived and righteous offspring who pray for him".
In summary, Muhammad established the religion of Islam, practiced by circa one billion people today, and the first Islamic state, whose successors, whether unified or fractious, have had a major historical impact. For this reason, many have seen him as one of the most influential people in history.
Important figures around Muhammad
See also list of Muslims
- His wives
- His Companions
Notes
1 The Meccans had pledged to invest all the profits from this caravan in arms and armour, and in raising an army to attack the muslims in Medina.
Reference:
- A Restatement of the History of Islam and Muslims by Sayed Ali Asgher Razwy
- The Life of Muhammad The Prophet by Syed Saeed Akhtar Rizvi
See also
- for Muhammad as viewed by the Muslims - see Islam especially sira
- for Muhammad's teachings - see Islam especially hadith
- list of Islamic terms in Arabic reflects Muhammad's overall influence
External links
- Al-Haramain Foundation, Biography of the Prophet Muhammad, Riyadh.
- University of Southern California's About the Prophet Muhammad
- Life of prophet Muhammad : The story of the Prophet Muhammad from his birth to his death
- Swords of the Prophet Muhammad
References
- Ibn Warraq, The Quest for the Historical Muhammad, Prometheus Books, March 2000, hardback, 554 pages, ISBN 1573927872
- Martin Lings, Muhammad: His Life Based on Earliest Sources, Inner Traditions International, Limited, 1987, paperback, 368 pages, ISBN 0892811706
- Karen Armstrong, Muhammad, ISBN 1842126083
- Muhammad Husayn Haykal, The Life of Muhammad, Islamic Book Service, 1995, paperback, ISBN 1577311957, translation of an Arabic original
- Michael H. Hart, The 100, Carol Publishing Group, July 1992, paperback, 576 pages, ISBN 0806513500