High school subcultures

Main articles: Youth culture and High school

A high school subculture is a group of preteen or adolescent students in a secondary education setting — junior high school, high school — which acts as a subculture. Group members share a distinct set of behaviors, beliefs or interests which differentiates them from their peers and/or the dominant culture.

Introduction

According to subculture theorists such as Dick Hebdige, members of a subculture often signal their membership by making distinctive and symbolic tangible choices in, for example, clothing or hairstyle. However, untangible elements, such as common interests, can also be an important factor. Middle and high school subcultures which show a systematic opposition to the dominant culture are often seen as countercultures in their schools.

Adolescent subcultures — sometimes called cliques — frequently identify with a larger subculture in the out-of-school world, with which they may associate easily or have traditional animosities.

Stereotypical behavior

Stereotypical behaviors in high school subcultures may include:

• Associating socially with other members of the same group
• Eating meals together
• Wearing similar clothes (where uniforms do not exist)
• Using language differently; often including slang and special group 'jargon'
• Participating together in a specific official extracurricular activity

Exclusivity

Being a member of one subculture does not always prevent someone from holding membership in another subculture. For instance, a person may be in band and chorus and be a 'jock' as well.

However, many groups are consciously exclusive. For example, the 'In-crowd' or 'popular' people would not knowingly have a member who also was in the 'rejects' subculture, and vice versa. These groups typically have high amounts of mutual distrust — often due to social ostracizing, which can take such forms as meanness, name-calling, or stereotyping.

Movement from one mutually-exclusive subculture to another is possible but not necessarily easy or quick. Students who do this invite much examination and discussion, including potential ridicule. They may be labeled as 'poseurs' or 'social climbers' if they behave differently to gain acceptance by a different group. Drastic behavior change is more likely to be noted and discussed.

Psychological development

Main articles: Youth development and Erikson's stages of psychosocial development

Youth, adolescence, is a time of identity formation. Most psychological theories of human development draw from Sigmund Freud’s theory of psychosexual development, Carl Jung’s archetypes, and in particular, Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development.

Changing behavior is seen during each developmental stage. Children's behavior changes as a result of factors like biological growth, psychological growth, and changes in their social environment. Children entering adulthood face many conscious and unconscious decisions. Joining a clique is a way to explore what life would be like with a personality that included the values and common decisions of that subculture. Frequently, students join a specific subculture without examining why they are there: they are simply going along with what other people expect of them. Erickson considers this behavior to be typical of early adolescence.

Politics and success in adult life

Main articles: Student activism and Youth activism

Many works of fiction highlight how people in a specific high school subculture 'succeed' in life after high school.

One can look at the lives of prominent, successful individuals to decide whether, perhaps, their subculture membership was in any way distinctive or predictive. Some politically successful people (for example, President Bill Clinton) showed an ability in high school to cross subculture boundaries, to make friends with people who have vastly different interest areas.

It is possible for a person to change their life entirely after graduation. It typically does not happen. Most members of a science club 'geek' subculture go on to develop technical interests and knowledge in their adult lives. Likewise, most 'in-crowd' people (who can be viewed as understanding social dynamics on a more intuitive level) go on to professions in sales, marketing, and personnel management (NOTE: anecdotal evidence, firm studies are not in evidence).

Labels and groups

This is a list of common terms some people use to describe middle or high school subcultures (or what some consider subcultures). None of these terms is standard, and persons, especially those labeled with them, will often not accept the term. Many terms may be considered insults. The following terms are largely (but not exclusively) U.K and U.S centric. In some religions, it is considered a sin to stereotype people, especially the Catholic Church. Ironically many people that were made to go to Catholic schools by their parents were witness to or victims of brutal persecution for being different.

• Advanced Placement students. Are interested mainly in schoolwork and grades, and are often particularly interested in literature, history, politics, mathematics and science. Often overlap with nerds, geeks, choir, band geeks, orchestra dorks and debaters.
• Airheads: Girls who wear the extremely expensive designer clothes, and the ones who are up to the minute with the latest fashions. Usually not so bright socially or intellectually. Overlaps sometimes with the preps.
• Alternative: students bent on avoiding the mainstream. Associated in the 1990s with alternative music. Frequently overlaps with druggies, goths, individuals and artsy. ^[1]
• Artsy students: those interested in photography, drawing, fashion, music etc. Frequently overlaps with theatre groups. ^[2]
• Animal Lovers - these students, usually girls but some boys are usually interested in all sort of animals, especially dogs with boys, and horses with girls. These people generally don't like other people and may be considered outcasts and/or rejects.
• Art Rock students: listen to Art Rock and Progressive Rock. Like a cool, socially adept version of geek.
• A/V Club: Students into television, film and radio production. Consisting of both male and female, these students can be found at the local station within the school.
• AZN: Asians who bleach their hair, act ghetto, and can be found playing DDR in arcades. They often interact with the Ghetto subculture.
• Band geeks, Bandies or Bandos: students taking marching band, concert band, pep band and/or other musical instruments that are considered being in the band genre.^[3] Similar parody to Orchestra Dork. Overlaps with orchestra dork, nerd, geek, artsy, individualist, rocker, and possibly emo.
• Bohemians: Students who believe in individual freedom and nonconformity. Sometimes will overlap with artsy students, geeks, individualists, nerds, alternative students, and most notably hippies. The term has been in use since at least the 1950s. ^[4]
• Bully: Students who torment others through verbal harassment, physical assault, or other more subtle methods of coercion.
• Blonde - students with blonde hair. They are sometimes referred as popular people or airheads, in site of the myth of the "dumb blonde".
• Bros - Students with Famous Stars and Straps, Skin, Hurley T-shirts, Dickies shorts, and skate shoes. They are obsessed with Dirtbiking and Motocross. Bros always call each other Bros, hence the name. Often overlaps with punk, skater, guys, gear head, and rogue.
• Brikko: Somebody trying to pretend something different from her/his self in order to hide who s/he is. Japanese origin. It is also used as a postfix like a pretty-brikko. In many cases, it's her/his own expectation that s/he is likely to be accepted that way by other people around her/him, but her/his intention itself is weaker than wannabe.
• Cheerleaders: female students who are part of the cheerleading squad. Often overlaps with the in-crowd, female jocks, blondes and wannabe-preppies. A stereotypical cheerleader is viewed as being dumb. Many "Queen-Bees" have come from this group.^[5]. When there is no cheerleading squad, these people are usually in other girl-oriented sports such as the girls' track team, tennis, volleyball, and especially dance team.
• Chav - More popular in the UK than in the US, these people are usually seen wearing tracksuits, lots of bling. They usually do the same things that the ghetto subculture does in America.
• Choir: Chorus students, usually filled with girls, much to the interest of the minority of male choristers.
• Church people - people who go to church and are involved with youth groups and other activities. These people tend to avoid sin, get good grades, avoid stereotypes, and be nice to other people. Most likely enemies with goth, gangsta', emo, rogues, druggie, skater, and bully.
• Crombies: An in-crowd jock. Name believed to be derived from the clothing chain, Abercrombie and Fitch (a popular retail store amongst middle class and upper class teens in the United States) to jocks and "jockettes" (see "Cheerleaders"). White baseball caps and upturned collars are a common identifying feature. Often overlaps with wannabe preppies. ^[6]
• Debaters: students taking debate and sometimes forensics.^[7]
• Druggies: stoners, burnouts, pot-heads, crackheads, dope heads, skids, junkies, chronics: students who take illicit drugs, especially marijuana.^[8] Sometimes overlaps with gangsta.
• Emo: students who listen to emo music and/or partake in the emo subculture (dyed long hair, tight sweaters and jeans, horn-rimmed glasses); some who are simply highly emotional in character may also be labeled as emo. Frequently overlaps with alternatives, artsies, goths, nerds, and punks. Most people identified as emo are not and are most likely scene kids.
• Gamers: play and are sometimes obsessed with video games and other technology, such as computers. Stereotypically they are seen as people who never leave their rooms and never go outside. Often overlap with geeks and nerds, and more recently, hip hoppers, mostly due to the existence of games based on the hip hop culture and the Grand Theft Auto series .
• Gangsta: may or may not actually engage in street gang activities, depending on the city. In cities with little or no actual gang activity, a subculture identifying with the gangster subculture (through e.g. slang, clothing, and music) often nonetheless develops, most likely through positive depictions of gangsters as cool outlaws in the media. Frequently overlaps with druggies and bully. May be 'wiggar' or 'Hard-Knock'
• Gear Heads: are those who obsessively love cars, trucks, motorcycles, or anything that has to do with motors. This person is a motor vehicle or cycle enthusiast; also, an enthusiast for working on motor vehicles; a mechanic in the making. This group is almost exclusively male although females are readily accepted so long as they are really into motor vehicles. Also known as motorheads and car nuts. These people are generally very friendly.
• Geeks - A geek is a version of nerd. Sometimes plays RPG games online and generally hangs out and socializes with nerds. A "geek" can also be defined as someone who is obsessively knowledgable about a certain type of game, fandom, etc.
• Ghetto - White people who tend to act like black people. Some of them really live in the ghetto, but most of them are wannabe gangsta's.
• Goths: Usually listen to music of the gothic rock genre. Typically characterized by dark clothing, outlandish hair and clothing styles, many piercings, and 'dark' interests/worldview, frequently overlaps with alternative. ^{[9] [10]}
• Guys: Male, and a rare occasional female or tomboy, teenagers who are interested in the "guy" topics, such as guns, computers, hunting, fishing, weight lifting, the martial arts, and cars/trucks. Overlaps with hackers, gear heads, rednecks, nerds, and gamers.
• Hackers: Sometimes called computer geeks, these people take pride with computers and other modern technologies. Can usually overlap with geeks, nerds, gamers, artsy, and occasionally gangstas, rejects and outcasts.
• Hermits: Lacking membership in any group but also not actively or even passively ostracized by the general student body, Pseudo-Rejects who socialize among themselves.
• Hip Hoppers: Students who listen to hip-hop and other forms of such rap music. These often dress like those as seen in hip-hop music videos and are sometimes highly inspired by music channels like MTV or BET. Overlaps with the gangsta subculture.
• Hippies: Identify with the hippie subculture. Frequently overlaps with bohemians, Indie kids, Artsy students and Stoners. (Also includes neo-hippies.)
• In-crowd, popular, or the beautiful people: students who pride themselves on being very popular with other students and who view their group as socially advanced and exclusive. Often overlaps with jocks, airheads, plastics, and wannabe-preppies.
• Indie kids: listeners to independent rock music. Often clothed in retro or thrift-store clothing, fans of obscure film and music, etc. See also hipster. Often confused with individualists because of the word, but they could be.
• Individualists - people who feel secure with themselves and they rarely follow trends seriously. They are usually seen doing their own thing and they may or may not have friends. These people like to wear clothes they feel comfortable in and they like to listen to their kind of music. Usually overlaps with loner, artsy, goth, indie, emo, alternative, rockers, punk, joe smoe, theatre geek band geek, nerd, church people, and sometimes redneck.
• Jocks: students with interests in participatory athletics; traditional enemy of nerds, geeks, moshers, individualists, loners, artsy, theatre geeks, band geeks (except for the ones supporting the team during pep fests) and nowadays homosexuals. They are traditionally male, but as the 21st century progresses, female jocks have come out of the woodwork. Many female athletes have older brothers, which demonstrates the importance of sibling influence.
• Joe Smoe- Students who do not really stand out for any particular reason. They aren't part of the clique system but not completely outcasts either. They go with the flow of things. Can be confused with loners or individuals. These people could also be considered "mixed bag" or "ordinary average guy." These people usually like listening to pop or rock music and may watch TV shows such as The OC and The Hills.
• Loners - Usually introverts, but some may be complete extroverts, these people have little or no friends. They like to hang out with themselves or with their few friends, and may be seen eating lunch or on the street alone. Some may be highly intelligent and have lots of interests, but may be considered stupid by the general student body . Usually overlaps with goth', emo, gamer, band geek, nerd, and artsy. Like animal lovers and rogues, these people may not like other people, or have misanthropic tendencies.
• Mallgoths or Psuedo-Goths: These people are often confused for (and believe they are) goths. They listen to alternative rock and heavy metal, they are typically dressed in dark, punkish clothing and wear excessive accessories on their arms and wrists. Overlaps with goths, scene kids, emo, artsy, metalheads, loners and alternatives.
• Metalheads: Students who listen to heavy metal music, often with long hair and wearing band t-shirts and jeans. Are occasionally mistaken as goths or punks.^[11]
• Moshers - people who go to rock concerts and mosh in the mosh pit. Overlaps with punk, rockers, bully, goth, emo, rogue, scene kids, metal heads, band geek.
• MySpacers - These people are constantly on MySpace and they tend to talk about that in their conversations. Overlaps frequently with scene kids, emo, loner, individual, artsy, ghetto, chav, and A/V Club.
• Nerds or geeks: students with interests in math, sciences, computers, and basically specific areas of knowledge; Recently there has been a new developing clique of those interested in accounting, and the stock market; traditional target of jock bullying and by definition more intelligent than the majority of the student body.
• Orchestra fellows: students who participate in orchestra. Frequently overlap with band geeks. Also known as Orch-dorks^[12]
• Oreo Cookie (slang) A derogatory term used to denote a black who does not adopt stereotypical black mannerisms.
• Otaku: Rarely Asian, love manga and/or anime. Most write or draw characters or stories in Anime style.
• Outcast: Rejects, usually by choice, but not always the case. The outcast is a person who does not fit into any specific clique, and as such, at times faces physical and psychological aggression from clique members.
• Plastics: or Barbie/Ken Dolls. An in-crowd subset whose members use clothes, cars, and sometimes surgery to appear as perfect as possible. Usually overlaps with preps, cheerleaders, queen bees, blonde, and airhead.
• Wannabe Preppies or Preps: those identifying with the upper classes and preparatory school subcultures, although they do not at all belong to that subculture. Stereotyped as clean-cut and wearing fashionable, expensive clothing inspired by that of preparatory schools. Frequently overlaps with jocks and the in-crowd. ^[13]
• Posers - people who act like somebody they are not and they tend to try extremely hard to fit into a certain subculture, sometimes to very annoying levels. Many people reject these kind of people and they tend to be loners because of that. Usually overlaps with crombies, preppy wannabes, loners, ghetto, and punk.
• Punks: identifying with the punk rock subculture. Frequently overlaps with rejects or alternative.^[14]
• Queen bees: The queen bee is the clique's leader. Characteristics often associated to her are a pleasant appearance, charisma, skill in manipulation and monetary power. The queen bee has substantial influence and power over the clique, and is usually envied and looked upon as a role model by clique members and at times by outsiders to the clique. Her actions are closely followed and imitated, even though they may not be of a positive nature.
• Racially-identified groups. Foreign exchange students from a common area, language clubs, members of large or tight-knit ethnic groups, etc.
• Rainbow Club: Or members of a Gay-Straight Alliance Gays and lesbians who are out of the closet and in relationships with each other. Often times there is a majority of young heterosexual women in these clubs, usually the best friends "Graces (after Will and Grace)", "Fruit Flies", or "Fag Hags", of young gay men. Some hetrosexual youth claim to be bisexual in order to gain acceptance into this group.
• Ravers: students who regularly attend raves, a kind of all-night dance party, most often with hard drugs, especially ecstasy.^[15]. This subculture is more popular in Europe than it is in America.
• Rednecks: Students who often listen to country music, have a love of cars and especially pick-up trucks, talk with explicit slang, and are sometimes seen as racists. Often times they are young men who are lax, are interested in the military, have peach fuzz,and wear white tank tops. ^[16]
• Rejects: socially ostracized students.^[17]
• Revolutionaries: students with radical leftist politics. Che Guevara is the a common icon among these youth.^[18]
• Robotrons: students who are considered outcasts or rejects because of the robot costumes they wear to school everyday.
• Rockers - students who are members of a local garage band or ones who play rock instruments. Overlaps with punk and band geek.
• Rogues - students who usually break the school rules, are in detention most of the time, and they might be part of gangs. Often overlaps with scene kids, goth, gangsta', ghetto, emo, bully, punk, skater, and anything that is considered in the stereotype of "rogue" behavior. Most rogues could be seen on MySpace.
• Scene Kids: (See emo kids) Scene kids are identified by their skin tight jeans and long, oftenly coloured (mostly brown, black or blonde) hair. They embrace a mixture of both emo and hardcore fashion tendercies and listening to local MTV-influenced pop-punk bands. They often talk to each other on Myspace.
• Script Kiddies: Generally wants to be a hacker, but lacks the intellect and/or skills to cuase mayhem on their own, and resort to downloading various wares developed by more skilled programmers. These programs give them a false sense of power, when really they are probably just getting themselves hacked.
• Ska Geeks: kids who like to listen to *ska music, often wear Vans or Converse, sometimes known to be weird or "eccentric", but love what they do. Sometimes overlaps with *Rejects and Punks.
• Skaters: students who are obsessed with skateboarding or other extreme sports. Often overlaps with punks and druggies.
• Slackers: Students who essentially remain detached from their academic work, and show no interest in it. Slackers primarily look out for themselves and show no interest in excelling in high school academics or activities. May overlap with druggies, rejects, stoners, etc.
• Sluts: Female or male students who are extremely promiscous. They give into their overpowering biological urges without caring about other peoples opinions. Overlaps with gear heads and cheerleaders.
• Soccer (Football) Casuals: students who play or are crazy about soccer. They are usually seen wearing expensive gear eg. lacoste or the jerseys of their favourite team and sometimes going home early in order to watch the soccer match on TV. Sometimes they would get rowdy whenever their favourite team loses or when someone disses about soccer.Many of them belong to a casual team and get in fights with opposing teams supporters, They are more likely to be common in UK.
• Special Education/Sped: Students who go to the learning center, or have some sort of reading or social skills disorders such as Autism and Dyslexia. Also known as the retards, and the "short bussers". ^[19]
• Student Government participants: students who participate in areas like Debate club or any other social studies club in their school. Often seen to be highly ambitious and concerned with improving their resumes.
• Stoners- Similar to druggies, though the word is often associated primarily with the use of marijuana, and with the culture that surrounds this drug use. May overlap with druggies, rejects, and slackers.
• Theater kids, Drama geeks, Thespians: Students who frequently participate in theatrical productions. Often overlaps with artsy, emo, and sometimes prep if you think Hilary Duff. These are also students who participate in their high school musical and may include snotty or big ego-ed Juilliard hopefuls, the sons of daughters of show mothers, and young men who like Broadway musicals. The theatre kids stereotype was
• Teenage mothers: Pregnant teenagers. Frequently seen as outcasts by other school groups. Another stereotype is that they have really bad fathers/boyfriends. The teenage father is considered to be a spin-off of this group. ^[20]
• Thug - Basically the bad apples in the school. They are usually known for teasing students, stealing, and using explicit swear words. Also known as bully. May overlap with "gangsta" culture.
• Tomboys: Females who are considered boyish or masculine in behavior or manner. They can be attractive or even very attractive, but they usually just hang around with and act like guys. Because most males like them, most other females don't like them. In some cases, labled as "dykes", "lesbos", or lesbians, often by other females or males who feel threatened by their presence.
• Track jacket jews: Jewish students who wear track jackets to advertise the fact that they don't live up to bad stereotypes.
• Wapanese- Another non-Japanese group who love Japanese fashion and trends besides anime and manga. They usually overlap with individuals, otakus and AZNs, they are more likely to be common in Singapore and outside Japan than in the US.
• Wigger: A wigger is usually someone who acts like a gangster, but has no, or very little connection to anti-social activities. Can overlap with Druggies and Rappers.

Note that many of the subcultures may also have a subsubcultures. Examples include choir students who are taking madrigal chorus and their friends.

Within each group may be several different strands, depending on the size of the group; for example, at a large school, within the set of 'jocks', there may be individual sub-subcultures of those who are cross country runners, football players, volleyball players, tennis players, swimmers, etc.

Defunct labels

Some high school subcultures have declined and died out due to changing times, although still may be found in very minute numbers.

• Greaser. 1950s-late 1970s. Macho car/motorcycle repair subculture, stereotyped in the Grease movies. However, some small groups of similar-looking kids (see the "Motorheads" in the movie Disturbing Behavior) can be seen today in some high schools. The Greaser look continues to be highly visible in the rockabilly music scene. A resurgence in Orange County, CA and surrounding areas beginning in the 1990s, was significant enough to influence fashion trends in other local high-school subcultures. At the time, negative press alleged violence by some groups within this subculture.
• Mod. 1950s & 1960s. The polar opposite to the Greasers: dandyish in dress.
• Rebel (lifestyle). 1990s subculture of the Urban (Los Angeles in particular) Raver/Clubber population, especially the Gay segment of it, characterized by outfits reminiscent of the Greaser subculture, adapted to the Hollywood House music Nightclub style.
• New Wave. 1980s.
• Grunger. 1990s. A type of slacker in the early 90's, influenced by the Grunge music pioneered in Seattle by such bands as Nirvana.
• Hippy. 1960s-1970s. A group of independent, revolutionary, experimental youths at their height during the Vietnam War. They are still around, but may be categorized as junkies or druggies as result of declining numbers and many negative media portrayals. Today there is also the neo-hippie movement, which some see as a continuation of the hippie movement, while others see it as a totally different subculture.

Movies and TV Shows

Famous movies and TV shows have been made highlighting the differences between and among high school subcultures.

Movies:

• 10 Things I Hate about You
• American Pie films
• The Breakfast Club
• Can't Hardly Wait
• Carrie
• Clueless
• Dazed and Confused
• Disturbing Behavior
• Cruel Intentions films
• The Faculty
• Ferris Bueller's Day Off
• Grease films
• Heathers
• Hangman's Curse
• Mean Girls

• High School Musical
• Mighty Ducks
• Napoleon Dynamite
• Never Been Kissed
• Not Another Teen Movie
• Odd Girl Out
• The Outsiders
• Quadrophenia
• Revenge of the Nerds films
• Romy & Michelle's High School Reunion
• She's All That
• Sixteen Candles
• Soul Plane
• Thirteen
• Welcome to the dollhouse
• Weird Science
• Hackers

TV Shows:

• 6teen
• Beverly Hills 90210
• Boston Public
• Chmorguphast Croboys
• Dawson's Creek
• Degrassi
• Freaks and Geeks
• Lizzie McGuire
• My Coolest Years
• Malcolm in the Middle
• Parker Lewis Can't Lose
• Popular
• South of Nowhere
• The Wonder Years
• Veronica Mars

Notes and references

1. ^ Pamela Perry. Shades of White: White Kids and Racial Identities in High School. Duke University Press: 2002 (4th Printing), pg.171.
2. ^ Association for Social Anthropology. Fieldwork and Families. University of Hawaii Press: 1998, pg. 121.
3. ^ "Many high schools have a band or an orchestra, or some sort of music program. Teens involved in these activities ('bandies', 'band geeks', or 'band-aids'), are labeled in an entirely different way than teens who start their own band." Aisha Muharrar. More Than a Label: Why What You Wear or Who You're With Doesn't Define Who You Are. Free Spirit Publishing: 2002, pg. 36.
4. ^ Sherry B Ortner. New Jersey Dreaming: Capital, Culture, and the Class of '58. Duke University Press: 2003, pg 131.
5. ^ "Athletes, cheerleaders and high academic achievers were more popular than their peers". Judith Blau, editor. The Blackwell Companion to Sociology. Blackwell Publishing: 2001, pg. 367.
6. ^ "They wear Abercrombie all the time and want to be all nice and look like they are 30", Mercer L. Sullivan and Rob T. Guerette, "The Copycat Factor: Mental illness, Guns, and the Shooting Incident at Heritage High School, Rockdale County, Georgia" in Mark H Moore, Carol V Petrie, Anthony A Braga, Brenda L McLaughlin editors, Deadly Lessons: Understanding Lethal School Violence, National Academies Press: 2002, pg. 36.
7. ^ "Stories, rituals, customs, beliefs, and jargon link debaters...Students, by virtue of the boundaries of their culture, participate in a distinct universe of discourse". Gary Alan Fine. Gifted Tongues: High School Debate and Adolescent Culture (Princeton Studies in Cultural Sociology). Princeton University Press: 2001, pg. 185.
8. ^ "I'm very comfortable in the nerd subculture, because I was a girl nerd in high school...there was a very serious discussion about whether we could allow a jock into our circle. We were basically the kids who didn't go to the Junior Prom. We were the nerds.". Claudia Henrion. Women in Mathematics. Indiana University Press: 1997, pp. 184-185.
9. ^ "She and a friend bought black mesh sports jerseys -- something like the football team's -- and added "ORCH DORKS" in white letters on the front, their last names on the back and their instrument on the sleeves...'We used to not be able to stand the fact that we were in orchestra...Finally, we realized that's where all our friends are and that's where we have the most fun...So why not just say we're dorks?," "Dorks wear unhipness on sleeve", Washington Times, July 26, 2005. [21].
10. ^ "I saw clean-cut boys who wore pressed khaki pants and polo shirts and girls wearing nice slacks, modest blouses, or pull-over sweaters. Adam told me they were 'preppies' who were 'middle-class types'." Annette B. Hemmings, Coming of Age in U.S. High Schools: Economic, Kinship, Religious, and Political Crosscurrents (Sociocultural, Political, and Historical Studies in Education), Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: 2004, pg. 20.
11. ^ "The rave, tchno, and ambient club scenes are complex social spaces, part extension of high school, part fantasy spaceship...It has long been a staple of subcultural theory that cultural formations like rave offer "magical" solutions to problems collectively experienced by youth. Subcultural theory views this solution as a response on the part of the subcultural group to the fragmentation or loss of status of a parent culture." Andrew Rose & Tricia Rose, editors. Microphone Fiends: Youth Music and Youth Culture. Routledge, London: 1994, pg. 8.
12. ^ "The tough, older kids in the back of the school bus taunted me, threatened me, and threw rotten lunch meat at me...This was in part what precipitated my rejection of social norms...My peers, the other punks in my high school, understood this...with ease and simplicity they adopted me as one of their own, just another rebel in the ranks of the high school rejects." Lauraine Leblanc. Pretty in Punk: Girls' Gender Resistance in a Boys' Subculture. Rutgers University Press: 1999, pg. 4.
13. ^ "Public resentiment was directed against high school kids...in what is romanticised as the '68 movement' (or still hated and held responsible for the German disease) new expressions of intellectual, academic and political criticism became associated with Hippie style and Third World revolutionary symbolism (Che Guevera)". Joachim Kersten, "German Youth Subcultures: History, Typology and Gender Orientations" in Keyleen Hazlehurst, Cameron Hazlehurst, editors. Gangs and Youth Subcultures: International Explorations. Transaction Publishers, 1998. pg. 70.
14. ^ "Carli and I were talking about skaters and their unkempt style. She said, 'A skater's not a skater if he's not dirty cause then he's pretty'...I interpreted her to mean that if skaters were pretty, they would be buying into normative, mainstream behaviors and expectations." Pamela Perry. Shades of White: White Kids and Racial Identities in High School. Duke University Press: 2002 (4th Printing), pg.31.
15. ^ Judith Musick. Young, Poor, and Pregnant: The Psychology of Teenage Motherhood. Yale University Press; Reprint edition: 1995.
16. ^ "At Ridgewood High, 'Druggies' and 'dirties' wore shirts with pictures of marijuana and other contraband and they pierced their ears, noses, lips, and other body parts with gold rings and studs."Annette B. Hemmings, Coming of Age in U.S. High Schools: Economic, Kinship, Religious, and Political Crosscurrents (Sociocultural, Political, and Historical Studies in Education), Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: 2004, pg. 73.
17. ^ "Goths: youth who wear black clothing, listen to dark music, and otherwise separate themselves from conventional high school groups and activities. Suspicion was cast on goths in the wake of the Columbine massacre." Mark Davis. The Concise Dictionary of Crime and Justice. Sage Publications Inc: 2002, pp. 118-119.
18. ^ "Those who think of themselves as 'Goths' may wear black trench coats, paint their fingernails black, and listen to countercultural musicians." Diana Kendall. Sociology In Our Times: The Essentials. Thomson Wadsworth: 2005 (fifth edition), pp. 176-177.
19. ^ "Sick of being rejected by the preppies, I figured I'd try the metalheads...That didn't quite work out- the metalheads in my high school, I suspect, could still catch the whiff of geekiness on me." Lauraine Leblanc. Pretty in Punk: Girls' Gender Resistance in a Boys' Subculture. Rutgers University Press: 1999, pg. 65.
20. ^ "Rednecks were identified as those who like to hunt and fish and listen to country music. Sometimes redneck also means lower class, but other times it does not. Some rednecks come from affluent families and drive new pickup trucks with Confederate flags hanging from the back." Mercer L. Sullivan and Rob T. Guerette, "The Copycat Factor: Mental illness, Guns, and the Shooting Incident at Heritage High School, Rockdale County, Georgia" in Mark H Moore, Carol V Petrie, Anthony A Braga, Brenda L McLaughlin editors, Deadly Lessons: Understanding Lethal School Violence, National Academies Press: 2002, pg. 36.

See also

• List of subcultures

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