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===Physical properties===
===Physical properties===
[[File:An acrylic cube specially prepared for element collectors containing a sample of pure silicon tellurium.JPG|thumb|left|An acrylic cube specially prepared for element collectors containing a sample of pure silicon tellurium]]
Tellurium has two allotropes, crystalline and amorphous. When [[crystal]]line, tellurium is silvery-white and when it is in pure state it has a metallic luster. It is a brittle and easily pulverized metalloid. Amorphous tellurium is a black-brown powder prepared by precipitating it from a solution of [[tellurous acid]] or [[telluric acid]] (Te(OH)<sub>6</sub>).<ref name="lan"/> Tellurium is a [[semiconductor]] that shows a greater electrical conductivity in certain directions which depends on [[atom]]ic alignment; the conductivity increases slightly when exposed to light ([[photoconductivity]]).<ref>{{Cite book|url =http://books.google.com/?id=Ty5Ymlg_Mh0C&pg=PA89|pages = 89–91|isbn = 978-0-8493-8912-2|chapter = Tellurium|publisher = CRC Press| title = Semiconductor materials|first = Lev Isaakovich|last = Berger|date =1997}}</ref> When in its molten state, tellurium is corrosive to copper, [[iron]] and [[stainless steel]]. Of the [[chalcogen]]s, tellurium has the highest melting and boiling points, at {{convert|722.66|K|°F}} and {{convert|1261|K|°F}}, respectively.<ref>http://www.ptable.com/#Property/State</ref>
Tellurium has two allotropes, crystalline and amorphous. When [[crystal]]line, tellurium is silvery-white and when it is in pure state it has a metallic luster. It is a brittle and easily pulverized metalloid. Amorphous tellurium is a black-brown powder prepared by precipitating it from a solution of [[tellurous acid]] or [[telluric acid]] (Te(OH)<sub>6</sub>).<ref name="lan"/> Tellurium is a [[semiconductor]] that shows a greater electrical conductivity in certain directions which depends on [[atom]]ic alignment; the conductivity increases slightly when exposed to light ([[photoconductivity]]).<ref>{{Cite book|url =http://books.google.com/?id=Ty5Ymlg_Mh0C&pg=PA89|pages = 89–91|isbn = 978-0-8493-8912-2|chapter = Tellurium|publisher = CRC Press| title = Semiconductor materials|first = Lev Isaakovich|last = Berger|date =1997}}</ref> When in its molten state, tellurium is corrosive to copper, [[iron]] and [[stainless steel]]. Of the [[chalcogen]]s, tellurium has the highest melting and boiling points, at {{convert|722.66|K|°F}} and {{convert|1261|K|°F}}, respectively.<ref>http://www.ptable.com/#Property/State</ref>


Revision as of 19:25, 9 February 2016

For the astronomical device, see tellurion.
Tellurium, 52Te
Tellurium
Pronunciation/tɛˈljʊəriəm/ ​(te-LURE-ee-əm)
Appearancesilvery lustrous gray (crystalline),
brown-black powder (amorphous)
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Te)
Tellurium in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
Se
↑
Te
↓
Po
antimony ← tellurium → iodine
Atomic number (Z)52
Groupgroup 16 (chalcogens)
Periodperiod 5
Block  p-block
Electron configuration[Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p4
Electrons per shell2, 8, 18, 18, 6
Physical properties
Phase at STPsolid
Melting point722.66 K ​(449.51 °C, ​841.12 °F)
Boiling point1261 K ​(988 °C, ​1810 °F)
Density (at 20° C)6.237 g/cm3[3]
when liquid (at m.p.)5.70 g/cm3
Heat of fusion17.49 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization114.1 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity25.73 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K)   (775) (888) 1042 1266
Atomic properties
Oxidation statescommon: −2, +2, +4, +6
−1,? 0,? +1,? +3,? +5[4]
ElectronegativityPauling scale: 2.1
Ionization energies
  • 1st: 869.3 kJ/mol
  • 2nd: 1790 kJ/mol
  • 3rd: 2698 kJ/mol
Atomic radiusempirical: 140 pm
Covalent radius138±4 pm
Van der Waals radius206 pm
Color lines in a spectral range
Spectral lines of tellurium
Other properties
Natural occurrenceprimordial
Crystal structure ​hexagonal[5] (hP3)
Lattice constants
Hexagonal crystal structure for tellurium
a = 445.59 pm
c = 592.75 pm (at 20 °C)[3]
Thermal expansion19.0×10−6/K (at 20 °C)[a]
Thermal conductivity1.97–3.38 W/(m⋅K)
Magnetic orderingdiamagnetic[6]
Molar magnetic susceptibility−39.5×10−6 cm3/mol (298 K)[7]
Young's modulus43 GPa
Shear modulus16 GPa
Bulk modulus65 GPa
Speed of sound thin rod2610 m/s (at 20 °C)
Mohs hardness2.25
Brinell hardness180–270 MPa
CAS Number13494-80-9
History
Namingafter Roman Tellus, deity of the Earth
DiscoveryFranz-Joseph Müller von Reichenstein (1782)
First isolationMartin Heinrich Klaproth
Isotopes of tellurium
Main isotopes[8] Decay
abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
120Te 0.09% stable
121Te synth 16.78 d ε 121Sb
122Te 2.55% stable
123Te 0.89% stable[9]
124Te 4.74% stable
125Te 7.07% stable
126Te 18.8% stable
127Te synth 9.35 h β− 127I
128Te 31.7% 2.2×1024 y β−β− 128Xe
129Te synth 69.6 min β− 129I
130Te 34.1% 7.91×1020 y β−β− 130Xe
 Category: Tellurium
| references

Tellurium is a chemical element with symbol Te and atomic number 52. It is a brittle, mildly toxic, rare, silver-white metalloid. Tellurium is chemically related to selenium and sulfur. It is occasionally found in native form, as elemental crystals. Tellurium is far more common in the universe as a whole than it is on Earth. Its extreme rarity in the Earth's crust, comparable to that of platinum, is partly due to its high atomic number, but also due to its formation of a volatile hydride which caused the element to be lost to space as a gas during the hot nebular formation of the planet.

Tellurium was discovered in the Habsburg Empire, in 1782 by Franz-Joseph Müller von Reichenstein in a mineral containing tellurium and gold. Martin Heinrich Klaproth named the new element in 1798 after the Latin word for "earth", tellus. Gold telluride minerals are the most notable natural gold compounds. However, they are not a commercially significant source of tellurium itself, which is normally extracted as a by-product of copper and lead production.

Commercially, the primary use of tellurium is in alloys, foremost in steel and copper to improve machinability. Applications in CdTe solar panels and as a semiconductor material also consume a considerable fraction of tellurium production.

Tellurium has no biological function, although fungi can incorporate it in place of sulfur and selenium into amino acids such as tellurocysteine and telluromethionine.[10] In humans, tellurium is partly metabolized into dimethyl telluride, (CH3)2Te, a gas with a garlic-like odor which is exhaled in the breath of victims of tellurium toxicity or exposure.

Characteristics

Physical properties

An acrylic cube specially prepared for element collectors containing a sample of pure silicon tellurium

Tellurium has two allotropes, crystalline and amorphous. When crystalline, tellurium is silvery-white and when it is in pure state it has a metallic luster. It is a brittle and easily pulverized metalloid. Amorphous tellurium is a black-brown powder prepared by precipitating it from a solution of tellurous acid or telluric acid (Te(OH)6).[11] Tellurium is a semiconductor that shows a greater electrical conductivity in certain directions which depends on atomic alignment; the conductivity increases slightly when exposed to light (photoconductivity).[12] When in its molten state, tellurium is corrosive to copper, iron and stainless steel. Of the chalcogens, tellurium has the highest melting and boiling points, at 722.66 K (841.12 °F) and 1,261 K (1,810 °F), respectively.[13]

Chemical properties

Tellurium adopts a polymeric structure, consisting of zig-zag chains of Te atoms. This gray material resists oxidation by air and is nonvolatile.

Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of tellurium

Naturally occurring tellurium has eight isotopes. Five of those isotopes, 122Te, 123Te, 124Te, 125Te and 126Te, are stable. The other three, 120Te, 128Te and 130Te, have been observed to be radioactive.[14][15][16] The stable isotopes make up only 33.2% of the naturally occurring tellurium; this is possibly due to the long half-lives of the unstable isotopes. They are in the range from 1013 to 2.2 × 1024 years (for 128Te). This makes 128Te the isotope with the longest half life among all radionuclides,[17] which is approximately 160 trillion (1012) times the age of the known universe.

There are 38 known nuclear isomers of tellurium with atomic masses that range from 105 to 142. Tellurium is among the lightest elements known to undergo alpha decay, with isotopes 106Te to 110Te being able to undergo this mode of decay.[14] The atomic mass of tellurium (127.60 g·mol−1) exceeds that of the following element iodine (126.90 g·mol−1).[18]

Occurrence

See also: Telluride mineral
A dark mass, approximately 2 millimetres in diameter, on a rose-coloured crystal substrate
Tellurium on quartz (Moctezuma, Sonora, Mexico)
Native tellurium crystal on sylvanite (Vatukoula, Viti Levu, Fiji). Picture width 2 mm.

With an abundance in the Earth's crust comparable to that of platinum, tellurium is one of the rarest stable solid elements in the Earth's crust. Its abundance is about 1 µg/kg.[19] In comparison, even the rarest of the lanthanides have crustal abundances of 500 µg/kg (see Abundance of the chemical elements).[20]

The extreme rarity of tellurium in the Earth's crust is not a reflection of its cosmic abundance, which is in fact greater than that of rubidium, even though rubidium is ten thousand times more abundant in the Earth's crust. The extraordinarily low abundance of tellurium on Earth is rather thought to be due to conditions in the Earth's formation, when the stable form of certain elements, in the absence of oxygen and water, was controlled by the reductive power of free hydrogen. Under this scenario, certain elements such as tellurium which form volatile hydrides were severely depleted during the formation of the Earth's crust, through evaporation of these hydrides. Tellurium and selenium are the heavy elements most depleted in the Earth's crust by this process.[citation needed]

Tellurium is sometimes found in its native (i.e., elemental) form, but is more often found as the tellurides of gold such as calaverite and krennerite (two different polymorphs of AuTe2), petzite, Ag3AuTe2, and sylvanite, AgAuTe4. The city of Telluride, Colorado was named in hope of a strike of gold telluride (which never materialized, though gold metal ore was found). Gold itself is usually found uncombined, but when found naturally as a chemical compound, it is most often combined with tellurium.

Although tellurium is found with gold more often than in uncombined form, it is found even more often combined with elements other than gold, as tellurides of more common metals (e.g. melonite, NiTe2). Natural tellurite and tellurate minerals also occur, formed by oxidation of tellurides near the Earth's surface. In contrast to selenium, tellurium is not in general able to replace sulfur in its minerals, due to the large difference in ion radius of sulfur and tellurium. In consequence, many common sulfide minerals contain considerable amounts of selenium, but only traces of tellurium.[21]

In the gold rush of 1893, diggers in Kalgoorlie discarded a pyritic material which got in their way as they searched for pure gold. The Kalgoorlie waste was thus used to fill in potholes or as part of sidewalks. Three years passed before it was realized that this waste was calaverite, a telluride of gold that had not been recognized. This led to a second gold rush in 1896 which included mining the streets.[22]

History

Oval black and white engraving of a man looking left with a scarf and a coat with large buttons.
Klaproth named the new element and credited von Reichenstein with its discovery

Tellurium (Latin tellus meaning "earth") was discovered in the 18th century in a gold ore from the mines in Zlatna, near today's city of Alba Iulia, Romania. This ore was known as "Faczebajer weißes blättriges Golderz" (white leafy gold ore from Faczebaja, German name of Facebánya, now Fața Băii in Alba County) or antimonalischer Goldkies (antimonic gold pyrite), and, according to Anton von Rupprecht, was Spießglaskönig (argent molybdique), containing native antimony.[23][24] In 1782 Franz-Joseph Müller von Reichenstein, who was then serving as the Austrian chief inspector of mines in Transylvania, concluded that the ore did not contain antimony, but that it was bismuth sulfide.[25] The following year, he reported that this was erroneous and that the ore contained mostly gold and an unknown metal very similar to antimony. After a thorough investigation which lasted for three years and consisted of more than fifty tests, Müller determined the specific gravity of the mineral and noted the radish-like odor of the white smoke which passed off when the new metal was heated, the red color which the metal imparts to sulfuric acid, and the black precipitate which this solution gives when diluted with water. Nevertheless, he was not able to identify this metal and gave it the names aurum paradoxium and metallum problematicum, as it did not show the properties predicted for the expected antimony.[26][27][28]

In 1789, a Hungarian scientist, Pál Kitaibel, also discovered the element independently in an ore from Deutsch-Pilsen which had been regarded as argentiferous molybdenite, but later he gave the credit to Müller. In 1798, it was named by Martin Heinrich Klaproth who had earlier isolated it from the mineral calaverite.[29][27][28][30]

The 1960s brought growth in thermoelectric applications for tellurium (as bismuth telluride), as well as its use in free-machining steel, which became the dominant use.[31]

Production

The principal source of tellurium is from anode sludges produced during the electrolytic refining of blister copper. It is a component of dusts from blast furnace refining of lead. Treatment of 1000 tons of copper ore typically yields one kilogram (2.2 pounds) of tellurium. Tellurium is produced mainly in the United States, Peru, Japan and Canada.[32] For the year 2009 the British Geological Survey gives the following numbers: United States 50 t, Peru 7 t, Japan 40 t and Canada 16 t.[33]

Grey and white world map with four countries colored to show the percentage of worldwide tellurium production. US to produce 40%; Peru 30%; Japan 20% and Canada 10%.
Tellurium production 2006

The anode sludges contain the selenides and tellurides of the noble metals in compounds with the formula M2Se or M2Te (M = Cu, Ag, Au). At temperatures of 500 °C the anode sludges are roasted with sodium carbonate under air. The metal ions are reduced to the metals, while the telluride is converted to sodium tellurite.[34]

M2Te + O2 + Na2CO3 → Na2TeO3 + 2 M + CO2

Tellurites can be leached from the mixture with water and are normally present as hydrotellurites HTeO3− in solution. Selenites are also formed during this process, but they can be separated by adding sulfuric acid. The hydrotellurites are converted into the insoluble tellurium dioxide while the selenites stay in solution.[34]

HTeO−
3 + OH− + H2SO4 → TeO2 + SO2−
4 + 2 H2O

The reduction to the metal is done either by electrolysis or by reacting the tellurium dioxide with sulfur dioxide in sulfuric acid.[34]

TeO2 + 2 SO2 + 2H2O → Te + 2 SO2−
4 + 4 H+

Commercial-grade tellurium is usually marketed as 200-mesh powder but is also available as slabs, ingots, sticks, or lumps. The year-end price for tellurium in 2000 was US$14 per pound. In recent years, the tellurium price was driven up by increased demand and limited supply, reaching as high as US$100 per pound in 2006.[35][36] Despite an expected doubling in production due to improved extraction methods, the United States Department of Energy (DoE) anticipates a supply shortfall of tellurium by 2025.[37]

Compounds

See also the categories Tellurium compounds and Telluride minerals

Tellurium belongs to the same chemical family as oxygen, sulfur, selenium and polonium: the chalcogen family. Tellurium and selenium compounds are similar. It exhibits the oxidation states −2, +2, +4 and +6, with the +4 state being most common.[11]

Tellurides

Reduction of Te metal produces the tellurides and polytellurides, Ten2−. The −2 oxidation state is exhibited in binary compounds with many metals, such as zinc telluride, ZnTe, formed by heating tellurium with zinc.[38] Decomposition of ZnTe with hydrochloric acid yields hydrogen telluride (H
2Te), a highly unstable analogue of the other chalcogen hydrides, H
2O, H
2S and H
2Se:

ZnTe + 2 HCl → ZnCl
2 + H
2Te

H
2Te is unstable, whereas salts of its conjugate base [TeH]− are stable.

Halides

The +2 oxidation state is exhibited by the dihalides, TeCl
2, TeBr
2 and TeI
2. The dihalides have not been obtained in pure form,[39]: 274  although they are known decomposition products of the tetrahalides in organic solvents, and their derived tetrahalotellurates are well-characterized:

Te + X
2 + 2 X−
 → TeX2−
4

where X is Cl, Br, or I. These anions are square planar in geometry.[39]: 281  Polynuclear anionic species also exist, such as the dark brown Te
2I2−
6,[39]: 283  and the black Te
4I2−
14.[39]: 285 

Fluorine forms two halides with tellurium: the mixed-valence Te
2F
4 and TeF
6. In the +6 oxidation state, the –OTeF
5 structural group occurs in a number of compounds such as HOTeF
5, B(OTeF
5)
3, Xe(OTeF
5)
2, Te(OTeF
5)
4 and Te(OTeF
5)
6.[40] The square antiprismatic anion TeF2−
8 is also attested.[34] The other halogens do not form halides with tellurium in the +6 oxidation state, but only tetrahalides (TeCl
4, TeBr
4 and TeI
4) in the +4 state, and other lower halides (Te
3Cl
2, Te
2Cl
2, Te
2Br
2, Te
2I and two forms of TeI). In the +4 oxidation state, halotellurate anions are known, such as TeCl2−
6 and Te
2Cl2−
10. Halotellurium cations are also attested, including TeI+
3, found in TeI
3AsF
6.[41]

Oxocompounds
A sample of pale yellow powder
A sample of tellurium dioxide powder

Tellurium monoxide was first reported in 1883 as a black amorphous solid formed by the heat decomposition of TeSO
3 in vacuum, disproportionating into tellurium dioxide, TeO
2 and elemental tellurium upon heating.[42][43] Since then, however, some doubt has been cast on its existence in the solid phase, although it is known as a vapor phase fragment; the black solid may be merely an equimolar mixture of elemental tellurium and tellurium dioxide.[44]

Tellurium dioxide is formed by heating tellurium in air, causing it to burn with a blue flame.[38] Tellurium trioxide, β-TeO
3, is obtained by thermal decomposition of Te(OH)
6. The other two forms of trioxide reported in the literature, the α- and γ- forms, were found not to be true oxides of tellurium in the +6 oxidation state, but a mixture of Te4+
, OH−
 and O−
2.[45] Tellurium also exhibits mixed-valence oxides, Te
2O
5 and Te
4O
9.[45]

The tellurium oxides and hydrated oxides form a series of acids, including tellurous acid (H
2TeO
3), orthotelluric acid (Te(OH)
6) and metatelluric acid ((H
2TeO
4)
n).[44] The two forms of telluric acid form tellurate salts containing the TeO2–
4 and TeO6−
6 anions, respectively. Tellurous acid forms tellurite salts containing the anion TeO2−
3. Other tellurium cations include TeF2+
8, which consists of two fused tellurium rings and the polymeric TeF2+
7.

Zintl cations

When tellurium is treated with concentrated sulfuric acid, it forms red solutions containing the Zintl ion, Te2+
4.[46] The oxidation of tellurium by AsF
5 in liquid SO
2 also produces this square planar cation, as well as with the trigonal prismatic, yellow-orange Te4+
6:[34]

4 Te + 3 AsF
5 → Te2+
4(AsF−
6)
2 + AsF
3
6 Te + 6 AsF
5 → Te4+
6(AsF−
6)
4 + 2 AsF
3

Other tellurium Zintl cations include the polymeric Te2+
7 and the blue-black Te2+
8, which consists of two fused 5-membered tellurium rings. The latter cation is formed by the reaction of tellurium with tungsten hexachloride:[34]

8 Te + 2 WCl
6 → Te2+
8(WCl−
6)
2

Interchalcogen cations also exist, such as Te
2Se2+
6 (distorted cubic geometry) and Te
2Se2+
8. These are formed by oxidizing mixtures of tellurium and selenium with AsF
5 or SbF
5.[34]

Organotellurium compounds
Main article: Organotellurium chemistry

Tellurium does not readily form analogues of alcohols and thiols, with the functional group –TeH and are called tellurols. The –TeH functional group is also attributed to using the prefix tellanyl-.[47] Like H2Te, these species are unstable with respect to loss of hydrogen. Telluraethers (R-Te-R) are more stable as are telluroxides.

Applications

Metallurgy

The largest consumer of tellurium is metallurgy, where it is used in iron, copper and lead alloys. When added to stainless steel and copper it makes these metals more machinable. It is alloyed into cast iron for promoting chill for spectroscopic purposes, as the presence of electrically conductive free graphite tends to deleteriously affect spark emission testing results. In lead it improves strength and durability and decreases the corrosive action of sulfuric acid.[31][48]

Semiconductor and electronic industry uses

Solar panels, angled at about 30 degrees, reflect the blue sky from above a grassy field.
A CdTe photovoltaic array

Tellurium is used in cadmium telluride (CdTe) solar panels. National Renewable Energy Laboratory lab tests using this material achieved some of the highest efficiencies for solar cell electric power generation. Massive commercial production of CdTe solar panels by First Solar in recent years has significantly increased tellurium demand.[49][50][51] If some of the cadmium in CdTe is replaced by zinc then (Cd,Zn)Te is formed which is used in solid-state X-ray detectors.[52]

Alloyed with both cadmium and mercury, to form mercury cadmium telluride, an infrared sensitive semiconductor material is formed.[53] Organotellurium compounds such as dimethyl telluride, diethyl telluride, diisopropyl telluride, diallyl telluride and methyl allyl telluride are used as precursors for metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy growth of II-VI compound semiconductors.[54] Diisopropyl telluride (DIPTe) is employed as the preferred precursor for achieving the low-temperature growth of CdHgTe by MOVPE.[55] For these processes highest purity metalorganics of both selenium and tellurium are used. The compounds for semiconductor industry and are prepared by adduct purification.[56][57]

Tellurium as a tellurium suboxide is used in the media layer of several types of rewritable optical discs, including ReWritable Compact Discs (CD-RW), ReWritable Digital Video Discs (DVD-RW) and ReWritable Blu-ray Discs.[58][59]

Tellurium dioxide is used to create acousto-optic modulators (AOTFs and AOBSs) for confocal microscropy.

Tellurium is used in the new phase change memory chips[60] developed by Intel.[61] Bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3) and lead telluride are working elements of thermoelectric devices. Lead telluride is used in far-infrared detectors.

Other uses

  • Used to color ceramics.[62]
  • The strong increase in optical refraction upon the addition of selenides and tellurides into glass is used in the production of glass fibers for telecommunications. These chalcogenide glasses are widely used.[63][64]
  • Mixtures of selenium and tellurium are used with barium peroxide as oxidizer in the delay powder of electric blasting caps.[65]
  • Organic tellurides have been employed as initiators for living radical polymerization and electron-rich mono- and di-tellurides possess antioxidant activity.
  • Rubber can be vulcanized with tellurium instead of sulfur or selenium. The rubber produced in this way shows improved heat resistance.[66]
  • Tellurite agar is used to identify members of the corynebacterium genus, most typically Corynebacterium diphtheriae, the pathogen responsible for diphtheria.[67]
  • The tellurium is a key constituent of high performing mixed oxide catalysts for the heterogeneous catalytic selective oxidation of propane to acrylic acid.[68][69] The surface elemental composition changes dynamically and reversibly with the reaction conditions. In the presence of steam the surface of the catalyst is enriched in tellurium and vanadium which translates into the enhancement of the acrylic acid production.[70][71]

Biological role

Tellurium has no known biological function, although fungi can incorporate it in place of sulfur and selenium into amino acids such as telluro-cysteine and telluro-methionine.[10][72] Organisms have shown a highly variable tolerance to tellurium compounds. Many cells, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa take up tellurite and reduce it to elemental tellurium, which accumulates and causes a characteristic and often dramatic darkening of cells.[73] In yeast, this reduction is mediated by the sulfate assimilation pathway.[74] Tellurium accumulation seems to account for a major part of the toxicity effects. Many organisms also metabolize tellurium partly to form dimethyl telluride, although dimethyl ditelluride is also formed by some species. Dimethyl telluride has been observed in hot springs at very low concentrations.[75][76]

Precautions

Tellurium and tellurium compounds are considered to be mildly toxic and need to be handled with care, although acute poisoning is rare.[77] Tellurium poisoning is particularly difficult to treat as many chelation agents used in the treatment of metal toxicities will increase the toxicity of tellurium. Tellurium is not reported to be carcinogenic.[77]

Humans exposed to as little as 0.01 mg/m3 or less in air exude a foul garlic-like odor known as "tellurium breath."[62] This is caused from the tellurium being metabolized by the body, converting it from any oxidation state to dimethyl telluride, (CH3)2Te. This is a volatile compound with a highly pungent garlic-like smell. Even though the metabolic pathways of tellurium are not known, it is generally assumed that they resemble those of the more extensively studied selenium, because the final methylated metabolic products of the two elements are similar.[78][79][80]

People can be exposed to tellurium in the workplace by breathing it in, swallowing it, skin contact, and eye contact. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (Permissible exposure limit) for tellurium exposure in the workplace as 0.1 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 0.1 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday. At levels of 25 mg/m3 , tellurium is immediately dangerous to life and health.[81]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Standard Atomic Weights: Tellurium". CIAAW. 1969.
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