Sri Lanka: Difference between revisions

Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka

இலங்கை சனநாயக சோஷலிசக் குடியரசு
Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ; இலங்கை சனநாயக சோஷலிசக் குடியரசு
	Flag Coat of arms of Sri Lanka Coat of arms
	Motto: none
	Anthem: Sri Lanka Matha, by Ananda Samarakone
Capital	Sri Jayawardenapura
Largest city	Colombo
Official languages	Sinhala
Government	Democratic Socialist Republic
• President	Mahinda Rajapaksa
• Prime Minister	Ratnasiri Wickremanayake
Independence From the UK
• Granted	February 4, 1948
• Water (%)	4.4%
Population
• 2005 estimate	20,743,000 (52nd)
• 2001 census	18,732,255
GDP (PPP)	2005 estimate
• Total	86.72 billion (61st)
• Per capita	$4300 (111st)
HDI (2003)	0.751; high (93rd)
Currency	Sri Lankan Rupee (LKR)
Time zone	UTC+5:30
Calling code	94
ISO 3166 code	LK
Internet TLD	.lk

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Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (ශ්‍රී ලංකා in Sinhala known as Ceylon before 1972), is a tropical island nation off the southeast coast of the Indian subcontinent, about 31 kilometres (18½ mi) south of India. It is in a strategic position in the Indian Ocean, along major sea trade routes from the Far East to Africa and Europe. Its capital is Sri Jayewardenapura-Kotte.

The country was a British crown colony for more than a century, but gained independence February 4, 1948 and is now a Democratic Socialist Republic with a linguistically and religiously diverse population.

Name

In 1972, the official name of the nation that governs the island was changed to "Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka" (ශ්‍රී ලංකා in Sinhala). In 1978 it was changed to "Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka". Prior to 1972, Sri Lanka was known by a variety of names; ancient Greek geographers called it Taprobane, Arabs referred to it as Serendib, but the best known is Ceylon. "Sri Lanka" (originally Sanskrit) is translated as "venerable Lanka", "śrī" meaning "venerable" and "laṃkā" being the ancient name of the island as attested in the Mahabharata and the Ramayana.

History

Prehistory

The earliest inhabitants of the island now known as Sri Lanka were probably the ancestors of the Veddas, an aboriginal people now numbering around 3,000 and living in remote mountain areas. Paleolithic human settlements have been discovered at excavations in several cave sites in the Western Plains region and the South-western face of the Central Hills region. Paleo-anthropologists have shown that burial rites and certain decorative artifacts exhibit similarities between the first inhabitants of the island and the early inhabitants of southern India. One of the first written references to the island is found in the Indian epic Ramayana. The main written accounts of the country's history are the Buddhist chronicles of Mahavansa and Dipavamsa.

Ancient history

File:Vijay landing.jpg

Landing of King Vijaya depicted in a painting

According to legend, the history of the Sinhala people of the island begins with the arrival of an Indian prince named Vijaya and his followers. The story goes that when Vijaya arrived, there were people (referred to as Yakshas in the scriptures) already living there. Vijaya took as his consort Kuveni, the queen of these people, who gave birth to a son and daughter. This story is generally accepted to refer to the North Indian immigrants to a certain extent intermixing with the indigenous Vedda population. Later, however, Vijaya is said to have married a Pandyan princess from South India, from where he had more women brought as wives for his followers; this refers to early streams of immigrants from Southern India who peacefully integrated with the North Indian group. Vijaya's origins according to the Mahavamsa lie in the North-East of India (the region of what is now Orissa), while linguistic evidence in Sinhala clearly points to the North-West (the region of today's Sindh or Gujarat). Researchers believe that the term Sinhala and the national identity of the Sinhalese as one people developed only at a later stage, after non-Aryan immigrants and indigenous people had been absorbed into the population.

Buddhism arrived from the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BC. The Bhikkhu Mahinda, said to have been a son or brother of Buddhist Indian Emperor Ashoka, was sent to Sri Lanka as a missionary; he is said to have converted the Sinhalese King Devanampiyatissa at Mihintale. The Sinhalese population at large subsequently became Buddhists.Template:Ancientcapitalsofsrilanka

The country's written history is almost exclusively Sinhalese-Buddhist, but since the earliest times the presence of Tamil-speaking people in the island is mentioned in the chronicles. There is no clearly established date for the arrival of Dravidian people on the island, which is thought to have occurred soon after that group reached South India. While there is no mention of wars between the Sinhalese and Tamils of Sri Lanka, there are many reports of conflicts between the Sinhalese and South Indian kingdoms which invaded Sri Lanka on several occasions because of the prosperity of the country; parts of the island, especially areas close to India, were ruled at times by Dravidian dynasties such as the Cholas, Pandyas, Cheras and Pallavas. The island was also invaded and ruled by Kings of Kalinga and Malay Straits. Several times, South Indian kings were expelled from the island by Sinhalese rulers from the South; the most famous story is that of the victory of the Sinhalese prince Dutugemunu over the Tamil king Elara of Anuradhapura in 161 B.C.E. Over the centuries, several Sinhalese kingdoms with different capitals existed, often simultaneously. At least by the 13th century B.C.E., a Tamil kingdom with the capital Jaffna had been established in the North, but it did not last long.

From the ancient period date some remarkable archaeological sites including the ruins of Sigiriya, the so-called "Fortress in the Sky", and huge public works. Among the latter are large "tanks" or reservoirs, important for conserving water in a climate that alternates rainy seasons with dry times, and elaborate aqueducts, some with a slope as finely calibrated as one inch to the mile (1:60,000).

Colonial rule

In 1505 the Portuguese arrived on the island, and colonial rule began. At that point the island consisted of three kingdoms, namely Yarlpanam (Anglicised Jaffna) in the north, Kandy in the central hills and Kotte at the Western coast. The Dutch arrived in the 17th century. During Portuguese and Dutch rule of coastal areas, the interior, hilly region of the island remained independent, with its capital in Kandy. Great Britain replaced the Dutch in 1796, and the coastal areas became a crown colony in 1802. After the fall of the Kandy kingdom in 1815, the British unified it with the 'low country' Kingdoms on the island for administrative purposes in 1818. A struggle for independence started in the 1930s, when the Youth Leagues opposed the 'Ministers' Memorandum' which asked the colonial authority to increase the powers of the board of ministers, rather than moving toward independence.

Independence

After the crucial role played by Ceylon in World War II, the pressure for independence intensified, and under the name of Ceylon [1], it became a Commonwealth realm in 1948. The first prime minister was Don Stephen Senanayake. In 1972, the country became a republic within the Commonwealth, and the name was changed to Sri Lanka.

Recent conflict

Main article: Sri Lankan civil war

Since the early 1980s, there has been an ongoing war between the Sri Lankan government and the Tamil separatist group Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam in the northeast of the island. A ceasefire was declared in 2002, but has gradually broken down.

Government and politics

The President of the Republic is directly elected for a six-year term and serves as Head of State, Head of Government and Commander in Chief of the armed forces. The President is responsible to Parliament for the exercise of duties in accordance with the Constitution and laws. The incumbent may be removed from office by a two-thirds vote of Parliament, with the agreement by the Supreme Court. The President appoints and heads a Cabinet of Ministers responsible to Parliament. The President's deputy is the Prime Minister, who leads the ruling party in Parliament.

In post-independence Sri Lanka, a significant hallmark was the conflict between the socialist government headed by Prime Minister Sirimavo Bandaranaike and the "capitalist" mainstream press. This conflict culminated in the take-over ("broadbasing") of the country's largest newspaper group through the Associated Newspapers of Ceylon Ltd. (Special Provisions) Act 1973.

The Sri Lankan Parliament is a unicameral 225-member legislature. Members are elected by universal (adult) suffrage based on a modified proportional representation system by district to a six-year term. The primary modification is that the party that receives the largest number of valid votes in each constituency gains a unique "bonus seat" (see Hickman, 1999). The president may summon, suspend, or end a legislative session and dissolve Parliament any time after it has served for one year. Parliament reserves the power to make all laws. Since its independence in 1948, Sri Lanka has remained a member of the Commonwealth of Nations.

Parliament was dissolved on February 7, 2004 by President Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga. Elections were held on April 4 and the new Parliament convened on April 23 and elected Mahinda Rajapaksa as the Prime Minister.

In August 2005, the Supreme Court ruled that Presidential Elections would be held in November 2005, resolving a long-running dispute on the length of President Kumaratunga's term. Mahinda Rajapaksa was nominated the SLFP candidate even though the party leader and President Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga did not support his campaign. The former Prime Minister Ranil Wickremesinghe was nominated the UNP candidate and had the backing of minority parties.

The Election was held on November 17, 2005, and Mahinda Rajapaksa was elected the fifth Executive President of Sri Lanka with a 50.29% of valid votes, compared to Ranil Wickremesinghe's 48.43%. Mahinda Rajapaksa took oath as President on November 19, 2005. Ratnasiri Wickremanayake was appointed the 22nd Prime Minister on November 21, 2005, to fill the post vacated by Mahinda Rajapaksa. He was previously Prime Minister in 2000. His narrow victory was largely due to the mass support from the Southern Sinhala-Buddhist voters. Also, in the North, the LTTE boycotted the election, thereby preventing thousands of Tamils living in the areas under their control from voting, and so Wickremasinghe, whose election promises included a Federal state to the North and East, from taking power.

Rajapaksa offers less autonomy than Wickremasinghe to the northeast, home to most of Sri Lanka's 3.2 million ethnic Tamils. However, since taking the office, Rajapaksa has offered to have peace talks with the LTTE on a permanent solution to the conflict.

Foreign relations of Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka generally follows a non-aligned foreign policy but has been seeking closer relations with the United States since December 1977. It participates in multilateral diplomacy, particularly at the United Nations, where it seeks to promote sovereignty, independence, and development in the developing world. Sri Lanka was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). It also is a member of the Commonwealth, the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Asian Development Bank, and the Colombo Plan. Sri Lanka continues its active participation in the NAM, while also stressing the importance it places on regionalism by playing a strong role in SAARC.

Military of Sri Lanka

The Sri Lankan Military comprises of Sri Lankan Army, Sri Lankan Navy and Sri Lankan Air Force. They are under the control of the Ministry of Defence, which is currently controlled by President Mahinda Rajapaksa who also acts as Minster of Defence. The Sri Lankan Armed Forces are primarily focused on land warfare, with the Army being the oldest and largest of all the services. However, as the nation is surrounded by sea, the Navy is considered the most vital defence force. The Air Force is seen primarily as a support force for both land and naval services. The military has taken part in many wars throughout its history including the Boer Wars and both World Wars (under the command of the British at the time). Since independence, however, its primary missions have been counter-insurgency, targeting armed groups within the country, most notably the LTTE and at one point the Sinhalese insurgent group the JVP. The Sri Lankan military has apparently received training assistance from other nations such as Australia, the United Kingdom, Israel, United States, India, Pakistan and even South Africa. There have even been claims that soldiers from some of those countries have taken part in operations, but this has not been substantiated or confirmed. Recently, the Sri Lankan Army was chosen by the United Nations to take part in peacekeeping operations in Haiti. A massive military upgradation plan of the armed forces is underway with Pakistan with purchases like Super Mushaks, Al-Khalid tanks, F-6 multi role aircraft, APC Talha etc being discussed.

Administrative divisions

Sri Lanka is divided into 8 provinces and subdivided into 25 districts. Each province is administered by a directly elected Provincial Council. The provinces are (capitals in parentheses):

Geography

The island of Sri Lanka lies in the Indian Ocean, southwest of the Bay of Bengal. It is separated from the Indian subcontinent by the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait.

According to Hindu mythology, a land bridge to the Indian mainland, known as Rama's Bridge, was constructed during the time of Rama. Often referred to as Adam's Bridge, it now amounts to only a chain of limestone shoals remaining above sea level. According to temple records, this natural causeway was formerly complete, but was breached by a violent storm (probably a cyclone) in 1480.

The pear-shaped island consists mostly of flat-to-rolling coastal plains, with mountains rising only in the south-central part. Amongst these are Sri Pada and the highest point Pidurutalagala (also known as Mt Pedro), at 2,524 meters (8,281 ft). The Mahaweli ganga (Mahaweli river) and other major rivers provide fresh water.

At its maximum, Sri Lanka is 435KM / 235 miles long (North to South) and 225KM / 140 miles wide (East to West).

The climate is tropical, characterized by monsoons: the northeast monsoon lasts from December to March, the southwest June to October. The lowest gravitational field on Earth lies just off the coast of Sri Lanka.

Sri Lanka Map

Ecology

Sri Lanka is one of the world's bio-diversity hot-spots. Its forests are among the most floristically rich in Asia and for some faunal groups, it has the world's highest density of species diversity. The southwest, where the influence of the moisture-bearing southwest monsoon is strongest, is home to the Sri Lanka lowland rain forests. At higher elevations they transfer to the Sri Lanka mountain rain forests. Both these tropical moist forest ecoregions are very similar to those of India's Western Ghats.

The north and east are considerably drier, lying in the rain shadow of the central highlands. The Sri Lanka dry-zone dry evergreen forests are a tropical dry broadleaf forest ecoregion, which, like the neighbouring East Deccan dry evergreen forests of India's Coromandel Coast, is characterized by evergreen trees, rather than the dry-season deciduous trees that predominate in most other tropical dry broadleaf forests.

These forests have been largely cleared for agriculture, timber or grazing, and many of the dry evergreen forests have been degraded to thorn scrub, savannah, or thickets. Several preserves have been established to protect some of Sri Lanka's remaining natural areas. The island has three biosphere reserves, Hurulu (established 1977), Sinharaja (established 1978), and Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya (KDN) (established 2004).

Sri Lanka is a centre of bird endemism. See Endemic Birds of the Indian Subcontinent for more information.

Economy

File:SriLanka-100Rupees-1979- f.jpg

1979 100 rupee banknote

Sri Lanka is historically famous for the production of cinnamon and tea (introduced by the British in the 19th century). From independence until 1977, it had a strongly socialist economy, but since then it has been increasingly pursuing privatization, market-oriented policies and export-oriented trade. While tea and rubber are still important, the most dynamic sectors are now food processing, textiles and apparel, food and beverages, telecommunications, insurance, and banking. By 1996, plantation crops made up only 20% of exports (compared with 93% in 1970), while textiles and garments have reached 63%.

The GDP grew at an average annual rate of 5.5% during the early 1990s, until a drought and a deteriorating security situation lowered growth to 3.8% in 1996. The economy rebounded in 1997-2000, with average growth of 5.3%. The year of 2001 saw the first economic contraction in the country's history, as a result of power shortages, budgetary problems, the global slowdown, and continuing civil strife. Signs of recovery appeared after the 2002 ceasefire. The Colombo stock exchange reported the highest growth in the world for 2003, and today Sri Lanka has the highest per capita income in South Asia. ^{[citation needed]}

In April 2004, there was a sharp reversal in economic policy after the government headed by Ranil Wickremesinghe of the United National Party was defeated by a coalition made up of Sri Lanka Freedom Party and the left-nationalist Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna called the United People's Freedom Alliance. The new government stopped the privatization of state enterprises and reforms of state utilities such as power and petroleum, and embarked on a subsidy program called the Rata Perata economic program. Its main theme to support the rural and suburban SMEs and protect the domestic economy from external influences, such as oil prices, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.

But this policy of subsidizing imported commodities like fuel, fertilizer and wheat soon unravelled the fiscal sector. In 2004 alone Sri Lanka spent approximately US$ 180 million on a fuel subsidy, as fixing fuel prices had been an election promise.

To finance the expanded budget deficit arising from a range of subsidies and a public sector recruitment drive, the government eventually had to print Rs 65 billion (US$ 650 million) or around 3% of GDP. The expansionary fiscal policy, coupled with loose monetary policy eventually drove inflation up to 18% by January 2005, as measured by the Sri Lanka Consumer Price Index.

Tsunami December 2004

By December 2004, the country was heading for a balance of payments crisis, as the currency depreciated and reserves dwindled. The tsunami in that month brought aid flows, and support from the IMF helped improve sentiment in the foreign exchange market. But GDP growth, which had climbed to 6.4% by the first quarter of 2004, had fallen to 4.8% by the first quarter of 2005. The tsunami helped stabilize the deterioration of macro-economic fundamentals as foreign debt relief and assistance from the International Monetary Fund strengthened both the external sector and fiscal operations.

A September 2005 IMF report called for an end to 'fiscal domination' of monetary policy and more independence for the Central Bank so that inflation could be contained. In December 2005, Sri Lanka received its first international credit rating with Fitch Ratings assigning it a BB- (a rating held by Brazil and Indonesia among others).

Education

Sri Lanka's population is highly educated with a literacy rate of 96%, higher than that typical of a third world country and one of the highest rates in South Asia. This can mainly be attributed to the free education system initiated by the late Hon. C.W.W. Kannangara. One of the leading schools in the country is Trinity College, Kandy which was founded in 1872. It has a reputation for being one of the most disciplined schools in the country with a strict code of governing and had seen many of its students reaching very high and commendable positions in society.

Demographics of Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka has the world's 53rd largest population. The Sri Lankan population has not been growing as quickly as many other Asian countries but has kept a steady pace for the last 20 years. The precise population is unclear (between 16 and 20 million) because many people have been displaced as a result of the ethnic conflict and the tsunami. The population growth rate is 0.79% compared to 1.4% in India and 2.03% in Pakistan. Sri Lanka has a birth rate of 15.63 birth per 1,000 people and a death rate of 6.49 deaths per 1,000 people. Population density is greatest in the western part of the country, particularly around the largest city, Colombo.

Ethnic identities in Sri Lanka generally do not represent the genetic heritage. Assimilation and intermixing has produced a group of people who are only marginally different from each other irrespective of ethnic boundaries. About 74% of Sri Lankans are Sinhalese. Sri Lankan Tamils constitute 18%, and though scattered evenly throughout the country, form a large proportion in the north, east and central provinces. Tamils comprise two communities: Native Tamils and immigrants from India (who arrived during the late colonial period) called “Indian Origin" (or "estate") Tamils. There is a large population of Moors (Muslims of Arab descent), living in all parts of the island, but forming a large percentage of the population living in the Eastern Province. There are smaller ethnic groups such as the Burghers (of mixed European descent) and Malay people. There is also a small population of the indigenous inhabitants of the island called Wanniyala-Aetto or Veddahs.veddas

Both Sinhala and Tamil are official languages. English, the link language in the present constitution, is spoken competently by about 10% of the population, and is widely understood. All three languages are used in education, business and administration.

Religions of Sri Lanka

File:Nallur kandaswami.jpg

Nallur Kandaswamy Temple, Jaffna

Religion in Sri Lanka is as varied as ethnicity. 68% are Buddhist, and the other religions are Hinduism (18%), Christianity (7%), and Islam (6%).

The ancient and famous Sri Dalada Maligawa or "Temple of the Tooth" is the principal Buddhist Temple in Sri Lanka, and by tradition houses the Tooth of Buddha. It is visited every year by millions of pilgrims. There are many other famous religious institutions in Sri Lanka that attract many visitors daily.

Sri Lankan Culture

The island is the home of two main traditional cultures: the Sinhalese (centred in the ancient cities of Kandy and Anaradhapura) and the Tamil (centred in the city of Jaffna, where the public library that was destroyed in 1983 was the world centre of Tamil archives and scholarship). In more recent times a British colonial culture was added, and lately Sri Lanka, particularly in the urban areas, has experienced a dramatic makeover in the western mold. Until recently, for example, most Sri Lankans, certainly those in the villages, have eaten traditional food, engaged in traditional crafts and expressed themselves through traditional arts. But economic growth and intense economic competition in developed countries has spilled over even to much of Sri Lanka, producing changes that might variously be identified as progress, westernization, or a loss of identity and assimilation.

You can now find the presence of American taste represented by McDonalds, Kentucky Fried Chicken, and others. Sri Lankans have not stopped practicing their culture and traditions, but they have added western options to the customary diet such as Rice and Curry, Pittu (mixture of fresh rice meal, very lightly roasted and mixed with fresh grated coconut, then steamed in a bamboo mould). Kiribath (cooked in thick coconut cream for this un sweetened rice-pudding which is accompanied by a sharp chili relish called "Lunumiris"), Wattalapam (rich pudding of Malay origin made of coconut milk, jaggery, cashew nuts, eggs, and various spices including Cinnamon cloves and Nutmeg -- and most of all hoppers ("appa"), batter cooked rapidly in a hot curved pan, accompanied by eggs, milk or savouries. Sri Lankan food also has Dutch and Portuguese influences, with the island's Burgher People community preserving this culture through traditional favourites such as Lamprais (rice cooked in stock and baked in a banana leaf), Breudher (Dutch Christmas cake) and Bolo Fiado (Portuguese-style layer cake).

Being one of the largest producers of tea in the world (the Royal Family of the United Kingdom has been known to drink Ceylon tea), Sri Lankans drink a lot of tea. Many Sri Lankans drink at least two cups a day.

File:Odi dn gabba.jpg

Sri Lanka playing Australia in One Day Cricket

Religion plays an important part in the life and culture of Sri Lankans. The Buddhist majority observe Poya Days, once per month according to the Lunar calendar. The Hindus and Muslims also observe their own holidays. There are many Buddhist temples in Sri Lanka and many mosques, Hindu temples and churches all across the island. The North and the East of the island have many mosques and Hindu temples because a large Tamil and Muslim population resides in those areas. Many churches can be found along the southern coast line because of a concentration of Christians, particularly Roman Catholics, in that region. The interior of the island is mostly Buddhist, and indeed there are many Buddhists in all parts of the island.

Sri Lanka's main sport is cricket. Every child knows how to play cricket and there are many cricket fields scattered across the island for children and adults to play the sport. The biggest passtime of the Sri Lankan population other than playing cricket is watching the Sri Lankan National Team playing cricket. Most of the time, businesses shut down when there is a big match on television. This was the case in 1996 when the Sri Lanka team reached (and won) the Cricket World Cup finals against Australia. The whole country shut down as if there was a curfew imposed.

Sri Lankan Firsts

First country in the world to have established a dedicated hospital (Mihintale, 4th century BC)
The world's first recorded wildlife sanctuary was at Mihintale. It was established by King Devanampiyatissa in the 3rd century BC.
Oldest country in the World within its present borders (the island of Sri Lanka existed as an independent sovereign country as far back as the 4th century BC)
First female monarch in an Asian country, Queen Anula (47–42 BC)
First country in the World to have a female prime minister (Sirimavo Bandaranaike, July 21, 1960)
Longest period of continuous multi-party democracy by a non-western country (1931–present)
World's leading exporter of tea; Ceylon tea is famed to be one of the best teas in the world.
World's leading exporter of cinnamon; exported to Egypt as early as 1400 BC
First country in South Asia to start radio broadcasting with Radio Ceylon — celebrated 80 years in Broadcasting on December 16, 2005
First country in Asia to fly the Airbus A340

Miscellaneous facts about Sri Lanka

The Nil Manel, (Nympheae Stelleta), has been the national flower of Sri Lanka from 1986. The national tree of Sri Lanka is Na (Mesua ferrea)
Seven properties of Sri Lanka have been inscribed in the UNESCO World Heritage List, namely, the ancient city of Polonnaruwa (1982), the ancient city of Sigiriya (1982), the golden Temple of Dambulla (1991), the old town of Galle and its fortifications (1988), the sacred city of Anuradhapura (1982), the sacred city of Kandy (1988) and the Sinharaja forest reserve (1988)
The world's oldest documented tree, and first generation of the tree under which the Buddha gained enlightenment - the Sri Maha Bodhi - still grows in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka.
The Buddhist scriptures were first committed to writing at Aluvihare in Sri Lanka.
The chronology of early India depends upon that of the Mahawansa, the Sri Lankan Historical Record.
Winner of the 1996 Cricket World Cup
Sri Lanka is recognised with the popular slogan The Pearl of the Indian Ocean
Several names have been used in ancient times to describe Sri Lanka. In Ptolemy's map (127–151 AD) Sri Lanka was depicted as Taprobana. One of the seamen of Alexander the Great used the name Sinhala Dvipa. The name Serendib was used by the Arab navigators in the 6th and 7th centuries. This was further contracted to Ceilão by the Portuguese, Ceylan by the Dutch and Ceylon by the British.

References

Gunaratne, S.A.: "The Taming of the Press in Sri Lanka", Journalism Monographs 39 (May 1975)
Mendis, G.C.: Ceylon Today and Yesterday, Colombo 1957 (3rd edition 1995)
de Silva, Chandra Richard: Sri Lanka - A History, New Delhi 1987 (2nd, revised ed. 1997)
Smith, Vincent A.: The Oxford History of India, Oxford 1958 (4th edition 1981)
Robert Knox.: An Historical Relation of the Island of Ceylon in the East Indies, New Delhi 2004 (Reprint. Asian Educational Services)
Williams, H.: Ceylon : Pearl of the East Delhi, Surjeet, 2002
Devendra, T. and Gunasena, D.: Sri Lanka : The Emerald Island, (New Delhi 1996), Roli Books.
Codrington, H.W.: A Short History of Ceylon, New Delhi 1994 (Reprint. Asian Educational Services)
Nissanka, H.S.S.: Maha Bodhi Tree in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka : The Oldest Historical Tree in the World New Delhi 1996 (Reprint. Vikas)
R. A. E. Coningham.: Monks, Caves and Kings: A Reassessment of the Nature of Early Buddhism in Sri Lanka (Ceylon). World Archaeology 27: 222-242, 1995.
Elie L. Menasche, Ceylon : Island of Gems. Reprint. New Delhi, Asian Educational Services, 2004
K. M. De Silva.: A History of Sri Lanka. New Delhi, Penguin, xvii, p. 782, 2005.
James Brow.: Vedda villages of anuradhapura: The historical anthropology Of a community in Sri Lanka, University Of Washington Press, Seattle, 1978.
Manfred Domroes.: After the Tsunami: Relief and rehabilitation in Sri Lanka, New Delhi, Mosaic Books, 1st ed. 2006.
Manel Ratnatunga.: Tales from Sri Lanka: Folk and history New Delhi, Sterling Publishers, 1st ed. 2006
Harry Williams.: Ceylon Pearl of the East, Robert Hale Limited, London, Great Britain, 1950.
B. L. C. Johnson and M. Le M. Scrivenor.: Sri Lanka Land, People and Economy, Heinemann Educational Books Ltd, London, 1981.
Ondaatje, Michael: "Anil's Ghost" (fiction), Knopf, 2000.

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 == See Also ==
 {{SRILANKANEWTOPICS}}
+{{Sri lanka ties}}
 == External links ==
 {{sisterlinks|Sri Lanka}}

v t e International ties of Sri Lanka
Geographical and geopolitical	Asia South Asia Indies
Historical and cultural	Commonwealth of Nations
International organisations	United Nations World Trade Organization ADB SAARC Non-Aligned Movement International Monetary Fund World Bank Group G24 Group of 77 Colombo Plan Group of Fifteen (G15)