Gustatory system: Difference between revisions
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{{Infobox anatomy |
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|Name = Gustatory system |
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}} |
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The '''gustatory system''' is the [[sensory system]] for the sense of [[taste]]. |
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== Importance == |
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The gustatory system allows humans to distinguish between safe and harmful food. [[Bitter (taste)|Bitter]] and [[sour]] foods we find unpleasant, while [[saltiness|salty]], [[sweet]], and meaty tasting foods generally provide a pleasurable sensation. The five specific tastes received by gustatory receptors are salty, sweet, bitter, sour, and [[umami]], which means “delicious” in Japanese. |
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According to Lindemann, both salt and sour taste mechanisms detect, in different ways, the presence of sodium chloride in the mouth. The detection of salt is important to many organisms, but specifically mammals, as it serves a critical role in ion and water [[homeostasis]] in the body. It is specifically needed in the mammalian [[kidney]] as an osmotically active compound which facilitates [[passive re-uptake]] of water into the blood. Because of this, salt elicits a pleasant taste in most humans. |
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Sour taste can be mildly pleasant in small quantities, as it is linked to the salt flavour, but in larger quantities it becomes more and more unpleasant to taste. This is presumably because the sour taste can signal over-ripe fruit, rotten meat, and other spoiled foods, which can be dangerous to the body because of bacteria which grow in such mediums. Additionally, sour taste signals [[acids]] ({{chem|H|+}} ions), which can cause serious tissue damage. |
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The bitter taste is almost completely unpleasant to humans. This is because many [[nitrogenous organic molecules]] which have a pharmacological effect on humans taste bitter. These include [[caffeine]], [[nicotine]], and [[strychnine]], which respectively compose the stimulant in [[coffee]], addictive agent in [[cigarettes]], and active compound in many [[pesticides]]. It appears that some psychological process allows humans to overcome their innate aversion to bitter taste, as caffeinated drinks are widely consumed and enjoyed around the world. It is also interesting to note that many common medicines have a bitter taste if chewed; the gustatory system apparently interprets these compounds as poisons. In this manner, the unpleasant reaction to the bitter taste is a last-line warning system before the compound is ingested and can do damage. |
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Sweet taste signals the presence of [[carbohydrates]] in solution. Since carbohydrates have a very high calorie count ([[saccharides]] have many bonds, therefore much energy), they are desirable to the human body, which has been designed to seek out the highest calorie intake foods, as the human body in many cultures in the distant past were unaware of when their next meal would occur. They are used as direct energy ([[sugars]]) and storage of energy ([[glycogen]]). However, there are many non-carbohydrate molecules that trigger a sweet response, leading to the development of many artificial sweeteners, including [[saccharin]], [[sucralose]], and [[aspartame]]. It is still unclear how these substances activate the sweet receptors and what adaptational significance this has had. |
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The [[umami]] taste, which signals the presence of the [[amino acid]] [[L-glutamate]], triggers a pleasurable response and thus encourages the intake of [[peptides]] and [[proteins]]. The amino acids in proteins are used in the body to build muscles and organs, transport molecules ([[hemoglobin]]), [[antibodies]], and the organic catalysts known as [[enzymes]]. These are all critical molecules, and as such it is important to have a steady supply of amino acids, hence the pleasurable response to their presence in the mouth. |
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== Function == |
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In the human body a [[Stimulus (physiology)|stimulus]] refers to a form of energy which elicits a physiological or psychological action or response. [[Sensory receptors]] are the structures in the body which change the stimulus from one form of energy to another. This can mean changing the presence of a chemical, sound wave, source of heat, or touch to the skin into an electrical [[action potential]] which can be understood by the brain, the body’s control center. Sensory receptors are modified ends of sensory [[neurons]]; modified to deal with specific types of stimulus, thus there are many different types of sensory receptors in the body. The neuron is the primary component of the nervous system, which transmits messages from sensory receptors all over the body. |
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===Taste as a form of chemoreception=== |
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Taste is a form of chemoreception which occurs in specialized receptors in the mouth. These receptors are known as taste cells, and they are contained in bundles called [[taste buds]], which are contained in raised areas known as [[wiktionary:Papillae|papillae]] that are found across the [[tongue]]. To date, there are five different types of taste receptors known: salt, sweet, sour, bitter, and umami. Each receptor has a different manner of [[sensory transduction]]: that is, detecting the presence of a certain compound and starting an action potential which ultimately alerts the brain. It is a matter of debate whether each taste cell is tuned to one specific tastant or to several; Smith and Margolskee claim that “gustatory neurons typically respond to more than one kind of stimulus, [a]lthough each neuron responds most strongly to one tastant” (35). Researchers believe that the brain interprets complex tastes by examining patterns from a large set of neuron responses. This enables the body to make “keep or spit out” decisions when there is more than one tastant present. “No single neuron type alone is capable of discriminating among stimuli or different qualities, because a given cell can respond the same way to disparate stimuli” (39). As well, [[serotonin]] is thought to act as an intermediary hormone which communicates with taste cells within a taste bud, mediating the signals being sent to the brain. With that in mind, specific types of taste receptors will now be discussed. |
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Receptor molecules are found on the apical (on top) [[microvilli]] of the taste cells. |
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===Salt=== |
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Arguably the simplest receptor found in the mouth is the [[sodium chloride]] (salt) receptor. An [[sodium channel]] in the taste cell wall allows positive sodium ions to enter the cell. This on its own depolarizes the cell, and opens [[voltage-dependent calcium channel]]s, flooding the cell with ions and leading to [[neurotransmitter]] release. This sodium channel is known as an [[epithelial sodium channel|ENaC]] and is composed of three subunits. An ENaC can be blocked by the drug [[amiloride]] in many mammals, especially rats. The sensitivity of the salt taste to amiloride in humans, however, is much less pronounced, leading to conjecture that there may be additional receptor proteins besides ENaC to be discovered. |
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===Sour=== |
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Sour taste signals the presence of [[acid]]ic compounds ({{chem|H|+}} ions in solution). There are three different receptor proteins at work in sour taste. The first is a simple ion channel which allows hydrogen ions to flow directly into the cell. The protein for this is BNaC, the same protein involved in the distinction of salt taste (this implies a relationship between salt and sour receptors and could explain why salty taste is reduced when a sour taste is present). There are also {{chem|H|+}} gated channels present. The second is a [[potassium channel|{{chem|K|+}} channel]], which ordinarily allows {{chem|K|+}} ions to escape from the cell. {{chem|H|+}} ions block these, trapping the potassium ions inside the cell (this receptor is classified as MDEG1 of the EnAC/Deg Family). A third protein opens to {{chem|Na|+}} ions when a hydrogen ion attaches to it, allowing the sodium ions to flow down the concentration gradient into the cell. The influx of ions leads to the opening of a voltage regulated {{chem|Ca|2+}} gate. These receptors work together and lead to depolarization of the cell and neurotransmitter release. |
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===Bitter=== |
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There are many different classes of bitter compounds which can be chemically very different. It is interesting that the human body has been designed{{Citation needed|date=November 2015}} with a very sophisticated sense for bitter substances: we can distinguish between the many radically different compounds which produce a generally “bitter” response. This may be because the sense of bitter taste is so important to survival, as ingesting a bitter compound may lead to injury or death. Bitter compounds act through structures in the taste cell walls called [[G protein-coupled receptors]] (GPCR’s). Recently, a new group of GPCR’s was discovered, known as the T2R’s, which it is thought respond to only bitter stimuli. When the bitter compound activates the GPCR, it in turn releases [[gustducin]], the G-protein it was coupled to. Gustducin is made of three subunits. When it is activated by the GPCR, its subunits break apart and activate phosphodiesterase, a nearby enzyme, which in turn converts a precursor within the cell into a secondary messenger, which closes potassium ion channels. As well, this secondary messenger can stimulate the [[endoplasmic reticulum]] to release {{chem|Ca|2+}}, which contributes to depolarization. This leads to a build-up of potassium ions in the cell, depolarization, and neurotransmitter release. It is also possible for some bitter tastants to interact directly with the G protein, because of a structural similarity to the relevant GPCR. |
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===Sweet=== |
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{{main|sweetness}} |
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Like bitter tastes, sweet taste transduction involves GPCRs. The specific mechanism depends on the specific molecule. “Natural” sweeteners such as saccharides activate the GPCR, which releases gustducin. The gustducin then activates the molecule adenylate cyclase, which catalyzes the production of the molecule cAMP, or adenosine 3', 5'-cyclic monophosphate. This molecule closes potassium ion channels, leading to depolarization and neurotransmitter release. Synthetic sweeteners such as saccharin activate different GPCR’s and induce taste receptor cell depolarization by an alternate pathway. |
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===Umami (savory)=== |
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{{main|Umami}} |
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It is thought that umami receptors act much the same way as bitter and sweet receptors (they involve GPCR’s), but not much is known about their specific function. It is thought that the amino acid L-glutamate bonds to a type of GPCR known as a metabotropic glutamate receptor ([[Metabotropic glutamate receptor 4|mGluR4]]). This causes the G-protein complex to activate a secondary receptor, which ultimately leads to neurotransmitter release. The intermediate steps are not known. |
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== Transmission to brain== |
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In humans, the sense of taste is conveyed via three of the twelve cranial nerves. The [[facial nerve]] (VII) carries taste sensations from the anterior two thirds of the [[tongue]], the [[glossopharyngeal nerve]] (IX) carries taste sensations from the posterior one third of the tongue while a branch of the [[vagus nerve]] (X) carries some taste sensations from the back of the oral cavity. |
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The [[trigeminal nerve]] (cranial nerve V) provides information concerning the general texture of food as well as the taste-related sensations of peppery or hot. |
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== References == |
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{{refbegin}} |
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*{{cite journal |author=Bradbury J |title=Taste perception: cracking the code |journal=PLoS Biol. |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=E64 |date=March 2004 |pmid=15024416 |pmc=368160 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0020064 |url=http://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0020064}} |
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*{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0301-32 |author=Smith DV, Margolskee RF |title=Making sense of taste |journal=Sci. Am. |volume=284 |issue=3 |pages=32–9 |date=March 2001 |pmid=11234504 }} |
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*{{cite web |author=Gleason, Michael |title=Chemoreception |year=2004 |url=http://www.biologyreference.com/Ce-Co/Chemoreception.html}} |
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*{{cite web |author=Watson, Flora |title=Tarsal Taste Receptors of Flies |date=2004 |url=http://science.csustan.edu/flora/zool4232/Labs-S2005/fly-receptors.htm}} |
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*{{cite journal |author=Scholey JM, Ou G, Snow J, Gunnarson A |title=Intraflagellar transport motors in ''Caenorhabditis elegans'' neurons |journal=Biochem. Soc. Trans. |volume=32 |issue=Pt 5 |pages=682–4 |date=November 2004 |pmid=15493987 |doi=10.1042/BST0320682 |url=http://www.biochemsoctrans.org/bst/032/0682/bst0320682.htm}} |
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* {{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.70.3.817 |author=Ward S |title=Chemotaxis by the nematode ''Caenorhabditis elegans'': identification of attractants and analysis of the response by use of mutants |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=70 |issue=3 |pages=817–21 |date=March 1973 |pmid=4351805 |pmc=433366 }} |
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*{{cite web |author=Jacob, Tim |title=The Physiology of Taste |date=2003 |url=http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/biosi/staff/jacob/teaching/sensory/taste.html}} |
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*{{cite journal |author=Lindemann B |title=Receptors and transduction in taste |journal=Nature |volume=413 |issue=6852 |pages=219–25 |date=September 2001 |pmid=11557991 |doi=10.1038/35093032 }} |
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*{{cite book |author=Di Giuseppe, Maurice|title=Nelson Biology 12 |publisher=Nelson Thomson Learning |year=2003 |page=438 |isbn=0-17-625987-2 |display-authors=etal}} |
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*{{cite web |author=Boeree, George |title=General Psychology: the Neuron |date=2003 |url=http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/theneuron.html}} |
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*{{cite web |title=What is an action potential? |url=http://www.bio.brandeis.edu/biomath/mike/AP.html}} |
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*{{cite web |author=Koehler, Kenneth |title=The Action Potential |date=1996 |url=http://www.rwc.uc.edu/koehler/biophys/4d.html}} |
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*{{cite web |title=Unit 10 — Neuronal Synapse |date=2006 |url=http://mcdb.colorado.edu/courses/3280/lectures/class10.html}} |
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*{{cite web |author=Bowen, R. |title=Physiology of Taste |date=2003 |url=http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/digestion/pregastric/taste.html}} |
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*{{cite book |author=Williams, S.J., Purves, Dale |title=Neuroscience |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland, MA |year=2001 |isbn=0-87893-742-0 |edition=2nd }} |
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*{{cite journal |doi=10.1351/pac200274071141 |author=Sugimoto K, Shigemura N, Yasumatsu K, Ohta R, Nakashima K, Kawai K, Ninomiya Y |title=Ion channels and second messengers involved in transduction and modulation of sweet taste in mouse taste cells |journal=Pure Appl. Chem. |volume=74 |issue=7 |pages=1141–51 |year=2002 |format=PDF |url=http://stage.iupac.org/originalWeb/publications/pac/2002/pdf/7407x1141.pdf}} |
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*{{cite web |author=Kalumuck, Karen |title=The Myth of the Tongue Map |date=2006 |format=PDF |url=http://www.exploratorium.edu/ti/conf/nsta_2006/karen_kalumuck_session/Tonge%20Map%20Myths.pdf}} |
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*{{cite web |author=Bartoshuk, Linda |title=A Taste Illusion: Taste Sensation Localized by Touch |date=1994 |url=http://www.bijouterieleroy.com/riedel3.htm}} |
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{{refend}} |
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{{Gustatory system}} |
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{{Sensory system}} |
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{{Taste}} |
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[[Category:Gustatory system]] |
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[[Category:Sensory systems]] |
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Revision as of 09:43, 12 March 2016
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