Homophobia

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Homophobia is the fear of, aversion to, or discrimination against homosexuality or homosexuals. It can also mean hatred of and disparagement of homosexual people, their lifestyles, sexual behaviors or cultures, and is generally associated with bigotry.

When the term is applied to political or religious opposition to specific sexual acts or political positions, it has been criticized as a pejorative, loaded term intended to discredit or silence opposition to any of the alleged political or social problems connected with homosexuality (see LGBT social movements). Critics of the term have often claimed that it creates a climate of intimidation by demonizing one side of the debate.

Etymology and usage

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word homophobia was originally used to mean "fear of men, or aversion towards the male sex". However, from 1969 the term has been more frequently used with its present meaning.

The first time it appeared in print with its current connotation was in the American Time magazine, where it was utilized by clinical psychologist George Weinberg, who claims to have first thought of it while speaking at a homophile group in 1965, and popularized by his book Society and the Healthy Homosexual in 1971. It combines the Greek term phobos, meaning "fear" or "panic", and the root homo from the word "homosexual", which originates in the Greek word homos, meaning "the same". A possible etymological precursor was homoerotophobia, coined by Dr Wainwright Churchill in Homosexual Behavior Among Males in 1967.

Despite its wide usage and recognition, the fact that "homophobia" contains the word "phobia" can be in principle misleading, since it can be confused with clinical syndromes and "clinical homophobia" is not listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Nevertheless, homosexual panic has been successfully used as a defense in legal cases, though this defense is no longer permissible in many jurisdictions.

Just as some people use the term "homophobia" to stress the association between prejudice and a fear or medical disorder, other terms such as sexism, sexualism, heterosexism, heterosexualism, and "homosexualism" have been proposed as alternatives which are more morphologically parallel, and which do not have the association with phobia. Sexism refers to sexual discrimination and hatred, and may be extended to include discrimination and hatred based on both sex and sexuality (sexual-identity/sexual-orientation/hypersexuality). Sexualism refers to hatred against homosexuals (gay men/lesbians) and bisexuals. Heterosexism refers to hatred against people who are not heterosexual. Heterosexualism is an ambiguous term which is used either as a synomym for heterosexuality or heterosexism. The term "homosexualism" is a rarely-used synonym of homosexuality. Queer Theory and critical theory use the terms heterocentric and heteronormativity to refer to similar ontological assumptions.

As behaviors and thoughts that are frequently considered homophobic are often not fear based but instead reflect a disapproval of homosexuality, recent psychological literature has favored the term homonegativity.

There is also considerable debate over the term's usage as a label for opponents of certain categories of social policy, with the debate centering upon the question of whether such opposition is a legitimate moral stance or indefensible discrimination, and whether or not there are reasons other than fear and misunderstanding that might justify such positions. As in cases such as the Santorum controversy, many have alleged that the term is often used as a means of demonizing and silencing political opponents without regard to their actual motives; those on the other side of the debate argue that the motives in such cases are always connected with bigotry or fear.

Measuring frequency of homophobic attitudes in the United States and UK

Disapproval of same-sex love and of homosexuals is not evenly distributed throughout society, but is more or less pronounced according to age, sex, social class, education and religious status. According to UK HIV/AIDS charity AVERT, low educational level and social status are strongly associated with such views.

One study of white adolescent males conducted at the University of Cincinnati by Janet Baker has been used to argue that negative feelings towards homosexuals are also associated with other discriminatory behaviors. The study claims to have found that hatred of homosexuals, anti semitism and racism are "likely companions", suggesting it is an abuse of power.

The anxiety of non-gay individuals that others may identify them as gay, particularly among adolescents whose construction of heterosexual masculinity is factored in part on not being seen as gay, has also been identified by Michael Kimmel and Matthew Mahler as an example of homophobia. The gay-bashing of boys seen as eccentric (and who usually are not homosexual) is claimed to be endemic in rural and suburban American schools, and has been associated with risk-taking behavior and outbursts of violence (such as a spate of fatal school shootings) by boys seeking revenge or trying to assert their masculinity.

Internalized homophobia

Internalized homophobia (or ego-dystonic homophobia) refers to homophobia as a prejudice carried by individuals against homosexual manifestations in themselves and others. It causes severe discomfort with or disapproval of one's own sexual orientation.

Such a situation may cause extreme repression of homosexual desires. In other cases, a conscious internal struggle may occur for some time, often pitting deeply held religious or social beliefs against strong emotional desires and needs. This discordance often causes clinical depression, and the unusually high suicide rate among homosexual teenagers (up to 30% of non-straight youth attempt suicide) has been attributed to this phenomenon.

The theory attributing higher incidences of depression, alchoholism and other self-destructive tendencies among homosexually oriented individuals to internalized homophobia has been put into question by groups such as NARTH that reject the validity of the studies behind the American Psychiatric Association's 1973 removal of homosexuality from the DSM. Studies of homosexuals in societies such as Sweden, New Zealand and the Netherlands where homosexuality is more socially accepted than in the United States found similar incidences of such behavior. A study conducted by the Christchurch School of Medicine and Health in Christchurch, New Zealand followed 1007 individuals since birth. It found that at age 21, the 28 subjects classified as gay, lesbian or bisexual were significantly more likely to have had mental-health problems than the 979 classed as heterosexual. [2]

The Dutch study found, "Psychiatric disorders were more prevalent among homosexually active people compared with heterosexually active people. Homosexual men had a higher 12-month prevalence of mood disorders (odds ratio [OR] = 2.93; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.54-5.57) and anxiety disorders (OR = 2.61; 95% CI = 1.44-4.74) than heterosexual men. Homosexual women had a higher 12-month prevalence of substance use disorders (OR = 4.05; 95% CI = 1.56-10.47) than heterosexual women. Lifetime prevalence rates reflect identical differences, except for mood disorders, which were more frequently observed in homosexual than in heterosexual women (OR = 2.41; 95% CI = 1.26-4.63). The proportion of persons with 1 or more diagnoses differed only between homosexual and heterosexual women (lifetime OR = 2.61; 95% CI = 1.31-5.19). More homosexual than heterosexual persons had 2 or more disorders during their lifetimes (homosexual men: OR = 2.70; 95% CI = 1.66-4.41; homosexual women: OR = 2.09; 95% CI = 1.07-4.09)."

J. Michael Bailey, researcher behind the New Zealand study warns a politicization of research into homosexuality has arisen in the name of preventing homophobia. Bailey argues "...it would be a shame if sociopolitical concerns prevented researchers from conscientious consideration of any reasonable hypothesis" regarding homosexuality. [3]

Many people in this situation attempt to resolve it, at least for a period of time, through chastity. This is an attractive option because many belief systems are neutral or only mildly disapprove of, for example, homosexual feelings, but strongly disapprove of acting on those feelings. Advocates of the ex-gay movement believe that in addition to behavior, sexual orientation is a malleable attribute, and advocate attempting to change it (this is highly controversial, and many mental health professionals warn that such therapies have not been proven to be effective, and that they may be psychologically harmful).

The label of internalized homophobia is sometimes applied to conscious or unconscious behaviors which an observer feels the need to promote or conform to the expectations of heteronormativity or heterosexism. This might include making assumptions about the gender of a person's romantic partner, or about gender roles. Some also apply this label to LGBT persons who support "compromise" policies, such as those that find civil unions an acceptable alternative to same-sex marriage. Whether this is a tactical judgement call or the result of some kind of internal prejudice (whether in a cause-and-effect fashion, or definitionally) is a matter of some debate.

Some claim (including Sigmund Freud in his psychoanalytic theory) that some or most homophobics are repressed homosexuals, but this claim is somewhat controversial. In 1996, a controlled study of 64 heterosexual men (half claimed to be homophobic by experience and self-reported orientation) at the University of Georgia found that the allegedly homophobic men (as measured by the Index of Homophobia) were considerably more likely to experience more erectile responses when exposed to homoerotic images than non-homophobic men.

However, the homophobic men also tended to report more negative emotions in response to those particular images (not sexual arousal), and the researchers noted that general anxiety has been shown to enhance erectile response. There was no significant difference in results on the Aggression Questionnaire. The group recommended further research.

Fear of being identified as a homosexual

A component considered to play into homophobia, as considered by some theorists, such as Calvin Thomas and Judith Butler, is an individual's fear of being identified as homosexual him or herself.

This notion suggests that when expressing homophobic viewpoints and emotions, the individual who does so is not only expressing his thoughts as to homosexuals, but also actively attempting to distance himself from this category and attributed social status. Therefore, by distancing him or herself from the people in question, he/she is reaffirming his/her role as a heterosexual, within heteronormativity, and contributing to the avoidance of his/her potential labeling and consequent treatment as a homosexual.

This interpretation plays into notions of violent opposition to "the Other" as a means of establishing one's identity as part of the majority and therefore, validated by society. This concept is also recurrent in interpretations of racism and xenophobia.

Homophobia as leading to a climate of prejudice

Whether viewed as unfounded prejudices or legitimate moral opinions, attitudes frowning on LGBT orientations and lifestyles have been reflected in legislation and these attitudes have had a profound impact on political debates over LGBT civil rights in general. Some look at people holding negative attitudes about LGBT people and assign blame to them for a creating or perpetuating a climate of prejudice that has resulted in violence against LGBT people, by individuals, states or other organizations.

Many social and religious attitudes toward homosexuality are negative, which some might describe as a form of prejudice. See Societal attitudes towards homosexuality and Religion and homosexuality.

Psychology researchers have used measures such as the Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) and Right Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) to predict homophobic attitudes. These measures are traditionally used to measure other forms of prejudice.

Sexist beliefs

Some gender theorists interpret the fact that male-to-male relationships often incite a stronger reaction in a homophobic person than female-to-female (lesbian) as meaning that the homophobic person feels threatened by the perceived subversion of the gender paradigm in male-to-male sexual activity. According to such theorists as D.A. Miller, male heterosexuality is defined not only by the desire for women but also, and more importantly, by the denial of desire for men. Therefore, expressions of homophobia serve as a means of limiting those who they view as displaced in heteronormativity, and also of accenting their male nature, by isolating the threatening concept of their own potential feminity in gay men, and consequently belittling them, as not real males. They regard the reason male homosexuality is treated worse compared to female homosexuality as sexist in its underlying belief that men are superior to women and therefore for a man to "replace" a woman during intercourse with another man is his own subjection to (non-male) inferiority.

However, this view would imply that only the receptive male partner in homosexual acts would be thought of as "offensive", which is the case in many cultures. Miller's specific claim that male heterosexuality does not require "desire for women" would seem to preclude the possibility of asexuality or bisexuality. Nor is it clear why male heterosexuals would "need" or even fear homosexuals in order to affirm maleness – unless their sexuality was already experienced as threatened by some other cause.

Opposition to homophobia

To combat homophobia, the LGBT community uses events such as pride parades and political activism (See gay pride). Some parts of the festivities are criticized for reinforcing stereotypes about LGBT people (e.g. Dykes on Bikes, the prominence of cross-dressing, a gay male fascination with musicals, the colour pink, a sex-positive atmosphere that may seem to give endorsement to a promiscuous lifestyle which in turn relates to the problem of AIDS, etc). Other portions tend to challenge stereotypes, including the presence of religious organizations who support gay rights and oppose homophobia (See Religion and homosexuality), the families of LGBT people, and LGBT people with children. Much of the colour, glamour, and noise of pride parades can also be seen as a simple celebration of LGBT culture, or of life in general.

One form of organized resistance to homophobia is the International Day Against Homophobia (IDAHO), first celebrated May 17, 2005 in related activities in more than 40 countries.

Some activists also call homophobia straight supremacism, equating it to white supremacism. Anti-gay groups see this as an attempt to marginalize those who disapprove of homosexuality.

Besides public expression, specific laws have been made to oppose homophobia, as in hate speech, hate crime, and laws against discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation.

Some argue that anti-LGBT prejudice is immoral or unwise above and beyond the effects on that class of people. Warren J. Blumenfeld argues that this emotion gains a dimension beyond itself, as a tool for extreme far-right conservative and religious groups and as a restricting factor on gender-relations as to the weight associated with performing each role accordingly. Furthermore, Blumenfeld in particular claimed:

Anti-gay bias causes young people to engage in sexual behaviour earlier in order to prove that they are straight. Anti-gay bias contributed significantly to the spread of the AIDS epidemic. Anti-gay bias inhibits the ability of schools to create effective honest sexual education programs that would save children's lives and prevent STDs.

"Homophobia" as applied to political figures

The term "homophobe" has also been used to describe opponents of laws considered favorable to gay rights causes. Opponents of same-sex marriage legalization, child adoption by same-sex couples, and anti-gay hate crime laws are often accused of homophobia for not supporting this legislation.

The Concerned Women for America, a conservative lobby group, issued a press release following the Rick Santorum affair because they claimed that

The Rick Santorum controversy has illuminated a serious problem in the Republican Party: Its leaders seem woefully ill-prepared to defend the pro-family position on homosexuality.

in their advice to "fellow Republicans," they issued several points, including #3:

expose the deceptive terms, such as "sexual orientation", diversity and "homophobia", which are used by pro-"gay" proponents to confuse the issue and control the debate. This requires nothing but making them define their terms at the start of argument, then focusing the debate on clarifying the definitions and exposing their illogic and hypocrisy.

The press release goes on to say:

Ask them to identify some examples of non-homophobic opposition to homosexuality. They can't do it because they define all opposition as "homophobic". Do they really believe that disapproval of sodomy/rimming/fisting/sadism is irrational bigotry? You get the idea. You'll find that this technique derails virtually every pro-"gay" argument because each one relies on deceptive rhetoric.

Senator Rick Santorum was accused of homophobia by the Gay and Lesbian Medical Association, for making a declaration that he believed consenting adults do not have a constitutional right to privacy with respect to sexual acts. Santorum described the ability to regulate homosexual acts as comparable to the states' ability to regulate sexual behaviors such as bestiality, pedophilia and incest. (See Santorum controversy)

Alan Keyes was accused of homophobia by The Washington Blade correspondent Steve Koval in reference to Keyes' comments about Vice President Dick Cheney's lesbian daughter when Keyes was running for the U.S. Senate.

The term is likewise controversial when used in incidences such as the death threats made against Kamloops city councillor John DeCicco for objecting to a gay pride event. His opposition earned him the label of a "homophobe", with the phrase "Homophobia Die" being written on the door to his business, accompanied by letters expressing sentiments such as "I hope you rot in Hell".

Usage of the term, and the climate it creates, has been alleged to have incited incidents such as the beating of the six-year old son of David Parker after the latter, a Christian, opposed the promotion of same-sex couples in the local elementary school curriculum.

Excerpts from discussions of the term

Gay rights supporter Scott Bidstrup, in a personal essay titled Homophobia: The Fear Behind The Hatred, emphasizes the association between prejudice and fear:

If you look up homophobia in the dictionary, it will probably tell you that it is the fear of homosexuals. While many would take issue with that definition, it is nevertheless true that in many ways, it really is a fear of homosexuality or at least homosexuals.

Niclas Berggren, writing in the Independent Gay Forum, argues that "homophobic" opinions are irrational:

It is usually not the case, for homophobic persons, that the basis of their attitudes towards homosexuality is rational reasoning, or intellectual argumentation. Such endeavors have, as a rule, been added afterwards, to try to give the homophobia a nicer and more respectable framing. However, these attempts to argue intellectually against homosexuality are utter failures.

Christian commentator Gregory Koukl, in a personal essay titled Heterosexism, objects to the medicalization of a moral position:

The word homophobia has come to describe any kind of opposition to homosexuality of any sort, but its interesting that part of their (homosexuals') goal was to shift the emphasis from what many perceived to be a homosexual problem, away from the homosexual activity itself, and towards the attitude people have about homosexuality... They purposely did this to change the focus of the discussion from the morality of their activity and the social appropriateness of their lifestyle to the attitudinal bias of those who would judge them.

Kelly Boggs, writing for the conservative Christian website Lifeway, identifies "homophobe" as a "pejorative term" and says:

I have grown weary of being accused of hating someone simply because I disagree with or oppose their behavior. While there are right-wing radicals that despise homosexuals and wish them harm, they represent only a tiny fraction of the conservative constituency. In fact, those who spout hate toward the homosexual community usually aren't overly thrilled with my belief that the God of the Bible loves homosexuals and wants to transform their lives.

The above is an example of a common sentiment expressed by conservative Christians who feel that they are being unfairly associated with people who in fact have often attacked mainstream conservative Christians for the reasons Boggs mentions above. The most famous example is perhaps Fred Phelps (known for his websites "godhatesfags.com" and "godhatesamerica.com"), who has attacked mainstream conservative Christian leaders in statements such as the following: "Most well-known preachers (Billy Graham, Jerry Falwell, Pat Robertson, etc.) have departed from God, and disassociated themselves with pure Gospel preaching", a criticism of the mainstream conservative view that God only hates the sin rather than the sinner, in contradiction to Phelps' theology.

Homophobia in popular culture

• Eminem's lyrics, with their use of slurs (such as "fag") and violent imagery, were referred to as "homophobic" by such groups as GLAAD, which opposed a duet he sang with Elton John at the 2001 Grammy Award presentation. The British gay rights activist Peter Tatchell commented that he could be a repressed homosexual who was seeking to distance himself from The Other.

• The Guns N' Roses song "One in a Million" contains homophobic lyrics as well as prejudiced lyrics against blacks and immigrants. It used words such as "faggots", described as "spreading some fuckin' disease". The band (mostly their singer, Axl Rose) were accused of homophobia. Rose denied this, arguing that he was an active fan of gay singers such as Freddie Mercury and Elton John, as well as pointing out that his guitarist, Slash, was half-black. The song, while not as popular in the US is quite popular in other countries. Rose would play "Bohemian Rhapsody" with Elton John at the Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert.

• In 2004 the reggae artist Sizzla cancelled his tours of the United Kingdom and France after protests over his anti-gay lyrics (popularly referred to as "homophobic"), and at one point the British government considered banning him from entry into the country.

• In 2001 the Russian pop-band Chugunnyi Skorokhod (Template:Lang-ru) (literally, "The fast-walker of pig-iron") released a song "Пидоры идут!" (Pidory idut!) ("Fags are marching!"). The song is about how it is hard for a straight man to live in a world where gay men rule (particularly, in fields of TV, show business, etc.). It contains lines like "You were born a man - you're trapped! There's no way if you are straight!" "Any hairdresser or stylist must be a homosexual! How can a straight man work, if gay men want him immediately?" The reaction in Russian society was mixed: while some gay magazines and web sites accused the authors of fascism, many people accepted it quite warmly and some even viewed it as satire.

• Jamaican reggae artist Buju Banton has been openly criticized for the homophobic content featured in his rap lyrics. The song "Boom Bye Bye" includes lyrics inciting the murder of homosexuals, ("Batty boy get up and run, ah gunshot in ah head man"). Homosexuality is illegal under Jamaican law, and frequently carries prison sentences of up to ten years (see LGBT rights in Jamaica).

See also

• Homonegativity
• Allophilia
• Anti-gay slogan
• Biphobia
• Heterophobia
• Heterosexism
• Homophobic hate speech
• List of sexual slurs
• National Day Against Homophobia
• Homosexuality and religion
• Sexualism
• Violence against gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and the transgendered
• Family values

External links

• Wikiquote - Quotes about Homophobia
• Meanings of the word Homophobia
• GLAAD site: Nationwide Responses to Senator Lott's Homophobic Remarks
• The Homophobic Imagination
• The Rockway Institute for LGBT research in the public interest at Alliant International University

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