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[[Image:Abraham_tomb.JPG|thumb|[[Cave of the Patriarchs |Tomb of Abraham]]]] |
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'''Abraham''' (between 2000 BC/BCE and 1500 BC/BCE) ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: '''אברהם''', <small>[[Hebrew language#Modern Hebrew|Standard]]</small> '''''Avraham''''' <small>[[Ashkenazi Hebrew|Ashkenazi]]</small> '''''Avrohom''''' or '''''Avruhom''''' <small>[[Tiberian vocalization|Tiberian]]</small> ''{{Unicode|ʾAḇrāhām}}'' ; [[Arabic language|Arabic]]: '''ابراهيم''', ''[[Ibrahim|{{Unicode|Ibrāhīm}}]]'' ; [[Ge'ez]]: አብርሃም, ''{{Unicode|ʾAbrəham}}'' ; "Father/Leader of many") is regarded as the founding [[patriarch]] of the [[Israelites]] whom God chose to bless out of all the families of the earth. He is a critical figure in [[Judaism]] later adopted by other religions like [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], and the [[Bahá'í Faith]]. Accounts of his life are given in the [[Book of Genesis]] and in the [[Qur'an]]. |
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Judaism, Christianity, Islam and the [[Bahá'í Faith]] are sometimes referred to as the "[[Abrahamic religion]]s", because of the role Abraham plays in their holy books and beliefs. In the [[Hebrew Bible]] and the [[Qur'an]], Abraham is described as a patriarch blessed by God (the Jewish people called him "Father Abraham") and [[promise]]d great things. Jews, Christians, and Muslims consider him father of the [[Israelites|people of Israel]] through his son [[Isaac]]; Muslims also regard him as the father of the [[Arab]]s through his son [[Ishmael]]. In Christian belief Abraham is a model of faith, and his intention to obey God by offering up Isaac is seen as a foreshadowing of God's offering of his son, [[Jesus]]. In Islam, Abraham obeyed God by offering up Ishmael and is considered to be one of the most important prophets sent by God. The founder of the [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í]] Faith is believed to be a descendant of Abraham through his wife [[Keturah]]; Bahá'ís see Abraham as a [[Manifestation of God]]. |
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His original name was '''Abram''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: '''אַבְרָם''', <small>[[Hebrew language#Modern Hebrew|Standard]]</small> '''''Avram''''' <small>[[Tiberian vocalization|Tiberian]]</small> ''{{Unicode|ʾAḇrām}}'' ; "High/Exalted father/leader"); he was the foremost of the [[Bible|Biblical]] [[Patriarchs (Bible)|patriarchs]]. Later in life he went by the name Abraham. His significance lies in the promises which God gave concerning his descendants. The most remarkable of these promises is that through his offspring, all the nations of the world will come to be blessed. |
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==Calculations of Abraham's birth== |
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According to calculations derived from the [[Masoretic]] Hebrew [[Torah]], Abraham was born 1,948 years after [[Creation (theology)|biblical creation]] and lived for 175 years, which would correspond to a life spanning from 1812 BC/BCE to 1637 BC/BCE by Jewish dating; or from 2166 BC/BCE to 1991 BC/BCE by other calculations. The figures in the [[Book of Jubilees]] have Abraham born 1,876 years after creation, and 534 years before the [[Exodus]]; the ages provided in the [[Samaritan Pentateuch|Samaritan version of Genesis]] agree closely with those of Jubilees before the [[Deluge (mythology)|Deluge]], but after the Deluge, they add roughly 100 years to each of the ages of the Patriarchs in the Masoretic Text, resulting in the figure of 2,247 years after creation for Abraham's birth. The Greek [[Septuagint]] version adds around 100 years to nearly ''all'' of the patriarchs' births, producing the even higher figure of 3,312 years after creation for Abraham's birth. |
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[[Image:Abraham.jpg|thumb|300px|right|"Abraham Sacrificing Isaac" by Laurent de LaHire, 1650]] |
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==Abraham in the Hebrew Bible== |
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{{main|Abraham (Hebrew Bible)}} |
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His father [[Terah]] came from [[Ur]] of the [[Chaldea|Chaldees]], popularly identified since 1927 by Sir Charles Woolley with an ancient city in southern [[Mesopotamia]] which was under the rule of the Chaldeans — although [[Josephus]], Islamic tradition, and Jewish authorities like Maimonides all concur that [[Ur-Of-The-Khaldis]] was in Northern Mesopotamia—now southeastern [[Turkey]] (identified with [[Urartu]], [[Urfa]], and [[Kutha]] respectively). This is in accord with the local tradition that Abraham was born in Urfa, or with the nearby [[Urkesh]], which others identify with “Ur of the Chaldees”. They also say “Chaldees” refers to a group of gods called [[Khaldis]]. Abram migrated to [[Harran]], apparently the classical [[Carrhae]], on a branch of the [[Habor]]. Thence, after a short stay, he, his wife [[Sarah|Sarai]], [[Lot (biblical)|Lot]] (the son of Abram's brother [[Haran]]), and all their followers, departed for [[Canaan]]. There are two cities possibly identifiable with the biblical Ur, neither far from Haran: Ura and Urfa, a northern Ur also being mentioned in tablets at [[Ugarit]], [[Nuzi]], and [[Ebla]]. These possibly refer to Ur, Ura, and Urau (See ''BAR'' January 2000, page 16). Moreover, the names of Abram's forefathers [[Peleg]], [[Serug]], [[Nahor]], and Terah, all appear as names of cities in the region of Haran (''Harper's Bible Dictionary'', page 373). God called Abram to go to "the land I will show you", and promised to bless him and make him (though hitherto childless) a great nation. Trusting this promise, Abram journeyed down to [[Shechem]], and at the sacred tree (compare Gen. 25:4, [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] 24:26, [[Book of Judges|Judges]] 9:6) received a new promise that the land would be given unto his seed (descendant or descendants). Having built an [[altar]] to commemorate the [[theophany]], he removed to a spot between [[Bethel]] and [[Ai (biblical)|Ai]], where he built another altar and called upon (i.e. invoked) the name of God (Gen. 12:1-9). |
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Here he dwelt for some time, until strife arose between his herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram thereupon proposed to Lot that they should separate, and allowed his nephew the first choice. Lot preferred the fertile land lying east of the [[Jordan River]], while Abram, after receiving another promise from Yahweh, moved down to the oaks of [[Mamre]] in [[Hebron]] and built an altar. |
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In the subsequent history of Lot and the destruction of [[Sodom and Gomorrah]]. In Genesis 18, Abraham pleads with God not to destroy [[Sodom]], and God agrees that he would not destroy the city if there were 50 righteous people in it, or 45, or 30, 20, even 10 righteous people. (Abraham's nephew [[Lot (biblical)|Lot]] had been living in Sodom.) |
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Driven by a [[famine]] to take refuge in [[Egypt]] (26:11, 41:57, 42:1), Abram feared lest his wife's beauty should arouse the evil designs of the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]] and thus endanger his own safety, and alleged that Sarai was his sister. This did not save her from the [[Pharaoh]], who took her into the royal [[harem]] and enriched Abram with herds and servants. But when Yahweh "plagued Pharaoh and his house with great [[Plagues of Egypt|plagues]]" Abram and Sarai left Egypt. There are two other parallel tales in Genesis of [[a wife confused for a sister]] (Genesis 20-21 and 26) describing a similar event at Gerar with the [[Philistine]] king Abimelech, though the latter attributing it to Isaac not Abraham. |
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As Sarai was infertile, God's promise that Abram's seed would inherit the land seemed incapable of fulfillment. His sole heir was his servant, who was over his household, a certain Eliezer of Damascus (15:2). Abraham is now promised as heir one of his own flesh. The passage recording the ratification of the promise is remarkably solemn (see [[Genesis]] 15). Sarai, in accordance with custom, gave to Abram her Egyptian handmaid [[Hagar]], who, when she found she was with child, presumed upon her position to the extent that Sarai, unable to endure the reproach of barrenness (cf. the story of [[Hannah]], [[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel]] 1:6), dealt harshly with her and forced her to flee (16:1-14). Hagar is promised that her descendants will be too numerous to count, and she returns. Her son [[Ishmael]] thus was Abram's [[firstborn (disambiguation)|firstborn]], but was not the promised child, as God made his covenant with Abram after Ishmael's birth (chapter 16-17). Hagar and Ishmael were eventually driven permanently away from Abram by Sarah (chapter 21). |
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The name ''Abraham'' was given to Abram (and the name [[Sarah]] to Sarai) at the same time as the covenant of [[circumcision]] (chapter 17), which is practiced in [[Judaism]] and [[Islam]] and by many [[Christians]] to this day. At this time Abraham was promised not only many descendants, but descendants through Sarah specifically, as well as the land where he was living, which was to belong to his descendants. The covenant was to be fulfilled through [[Isaac]], though God promised that Ishmael would become a great nation as well. The covenant of circumcision (unlike the earlier promise) was two-sided and conditional: if Abraham and his descendants fulfilled their part of the covenant, Yahweh would be their God and give them the land. |
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The promise of a son to Abraham made Sarah "laugh," which became the name of the son of promise, Isaac. Sarah herself "laughs" at the idea, when Yahweh appears to Abraham at Mamre (18:1-15) and, when the child is born, cries "God has made me laugh; every one that hears will laugh at me" (21:6). |
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Some time after the birth of Isaac, Abraham was commanded by God to offer his son up as a sacrifice in the land of [[Moriah]]. Proceeding to obey, he was prevented by an [[angel]] as he was about to sacrifice his son, and slew a [[Domestic sheep|ram]] which he found on the spot. As a reward for his obedience he received another promise of a numerous seed and abundant prosperity (22). Then he returned to [[Beersheba]]. The [[Binding of Isaac|near sacrifice of Isaac]] is one of the most challenging, and perhaps [[ethics|ethically]] troublesome, parts of the Bible. According to Josephus, Isaac is 25 years old at the time of the sacrifice or ''Akedah'', while the [[Talmud]]ic sages teach that Isaac is 37. In either case, Isaac is a fully grown man, old enough to prevent the elderly Abraham (who is 125 or 137 years old) from tying him up had he wanted to resist. |
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The primary interest of the narrative now turns to Isaac. To his "only son" (22:2, 12) Abraham gave all he had, and dismissed the sons of his concubines to the lands outside [[Canaan]]; they were thus regarded as less intimately related to [[Isaac]] and his descendants (25:1-6). See also: [[Midianites]], [[Sheba]]. |
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Sarah died at an old age, and was buried in the [[Cave of Machpelah]] near [[Hebron]], which Abraham had purchased, along with the adjoining field, from [[Ephron the Hittite]] (Genesis 23). Here Abraham himself was buried. Centuries later the tomb became a place of [[pilgrimage]] and [[Muslim]]s later built an [[Islam]]ic [[mosque]] inside the site. |
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Abraham is considered the father of the Jewish nation, as their first Patriarch, and having a son (Isaac), who in turn begat [[Jacob]], and from there the [[Israelite|Twelve Tribes]]. To father the nation, God "tested" Abraham with ten tests, the greatest being his willingness to sacrifice his son Isaac. God promised the land of Israel to his children, and that is the first claim of the Jews to Israel. Judaism ascribes a special trait to each Patriarch. Abraham's was kindness. Because of this, Judaism considers kindness to be an inherent Jewish trait. |
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According to the 1st Century Jewish Historian Flavius Josephus in his twenty-one volume Antiquities of the Jews "Nicolaus of Damascus, in the fourth book of his History, says thus: "Abraham reigned at Damascus, being a foreigner, who came with an army out of the land above Babylon, called the land of the Chaldeans: but, after a long time, he got him up, and removed from that country also, with his people, and went into the land then called the land of Canaan, but now the land of Judea, and this when his posterity were become a multitude; as to which posterity of his, we relate their history in another work. Now the name of Abraham is even still famous in the country of Damascus; and there is shown a village named from him, The Habitation of Abraham." He is an important source for studies of immediate post-Temple Judaism |
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==Abraham in the New Testament== |
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Abraham stands out prominently as the recipient of the promises (Gen. 12:2-7, 13:14-17, 15, 17, 18:17-19, 22:17-18, 24:7). In the [[New Testament]] Abraham is mentioned prominently as a man of [[faith]] (see e.g., [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]] 11), and the apostle [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] uses him as an example of [[salvation]] by faith (in e.g. [[Epistle to Galatians|Galatians]] 3). Abraham also plays significantly in the theology of [[Paul]] as the progenitor of the [[Christ]] (or [[Messiah]]) (see [[Galatians]] 3:16). |
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Authors of the New Testament report that Jesus cited Abraham to support belief in the [[resurrection]] of the dead. "But concerning the dead, that they rise, have you not read in the [[Book of Moses]], in the [[burning bush]] passage, how God spoke to him, saying, "I am the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob?" He is not the God of the dead, but the God of the living. You are therefore greatly mistaken." ([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 12:26-27) "By faith Abraham, when he was tested, offered up Isaac, and he who had received the promises offered up his only begotten son, of whom it was said, "In Isaac your seed shall be called," concluding that God was able to raise him up, even from the dead, from which he also received him in a figurative sense." (''Hebrews'' 11:17-19) |
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The traditional view in [[Christianity]] is that the chief promise made to Abraham in ''Genesis'' 12 is that through Abraham's seed, all the people of earth would be blessed. Notwithstanding this, [[John the Baptist]] specifically taught that merely being of Abraham's seed was no guarantee of [[salvation]]. The promise in Genesis is considered to have been fulfilled through Abraham's seed, Jesus. It is also a consequence of this promise that Christianity is open to people of all races and not limited to Jews. |
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The [[Roman Catholic Church]] calls Abraham "our father in Faith," in the [[Eucharistic prayer]] called the ''Roman Canon'', recited during the [[Mass]]. (See [[Abraham in Liturgy]]). |
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Christian tradition sees Abraham as a figure of God, and Abraham's attempt to offer up [[Isaac]] is a foreshadowing of [[God]]'s offering of his Son, [[Jesus]] (Gen. 22:1-14; Heb. 11:17-19). Just as Isaac carried wood for the sacrifice up the mountain and willingly submitted to being offered, so Jesus carried his [[Cross]] up the hill and allowed himself to be [[crucified]]. |
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==Islamic view of Abraham== |
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{{main|Ibrahim}} |
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Abraham (known as [[Ibrahim]] in Arabic) is very important in [[Islam]], both in his own right as prophet and as the father of [[Ishmael]], his firstborn son, who is considered the ''Father of the Arabs'', and as the father of [[Isaac]], who is considered the ''Father of the Hebrews''. Abraham is revered by Muslims as one of the most important [[prophets of Islam]], and is commonly termed ''Khalil Ullah'', "Friend of God". (Islam regards most of the [[Old Testament]] "patriarchs" as prophets of God, and hence as Muslims.) |
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Muslims believe Abraham re-built the [[Kaaba]], the Holy Mosque in [[Mecca]], during his life. The construction of the Kaaba was upon God's command. Abraham's footprint is believed to remain to this day on a stone in the Holy Mosque, which Muslims believe was sent by God from paradise. |
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The annual [[Hajj]], the fifth [[Five Pillars of Islam|pillar of Islam]], follows Abraham, [[Hagar]], and Ishmael's journey to the sacred place of the Kaaba. The [[Eid ul-Adha]] ceremony is focused on Abraham's willingess to sacrifice his promised son, which Muslims consider Ishmael, on God's command. |
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==Bahá'í view of Abraham== |
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Bahá'ís consider Abraham to be a greater Prophet and Manifestation of God. He is mentioned in many of the Writings of [[Bahá'u'lláh]]. [['Abdu'l-Bahá]] taught that the exile of Abraham from His native Ur resulted in the spread of monotheism, and that the exiles of Bahá'u'lláh would have an even greater result in the future. 'Abdu'l-Bahá wrote: |
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<blockquote>"...in consequence of His exile the whole of Europe and most of Asia came under the protecting shadow of the God of Israel. See what a power it is that enabled a Man Who was a fugitive from His country to found such a family, to establish such a faith, and to promulgate such teachings. Can anyone say that all this occurred accidentally? We must be just: was this Man an Educator or not?... Since the exile of Abraham from Ur to Aleppo in Syria produced this result, we must consider what will be the effect of the exile of Bahá'u'lláh in His several removes from Ṭihrán to Ba<u>gh</u>dád, from thence to Constantinople, to Rumelia and to the Holy Land."[http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/SAQ/saq-4.html]</blockquote> |
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The Founder of the [[Bahá'í Faith]], [[Bahá'u'lláh]], is regarded as being a descendant of Abraham through one of the sons of [[Keturah]], as well as through [[Jesse]]. [[Báb|The Báb]], Prophet-Herald of the Faith, is considered a descendant of Abraham through [[Muhammad]]. |
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==Mormonism's view of Abraham== |
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The [[Book of Abraham]] has five chapters. Chapters 1 through 2 include previously lost details about Abraham’s early life and his fight against the idolatry of his society and even of his own family. It recounts how pagan priests tried to sacrifice him to their god, but an angel appeared and rescued him. Chapter 2 includes important information about God’s covenant with Abraham, and how it would be fulfilled. Chapters 3 through 5 are a vision in which God reveals much about astronomy, the creation of the world, and the creation of man. It agrees precisely with [[Moses]]’ account of the creation, except that it gives us even more detail. |
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In addition to the text, there are three facsimiles of vignettes from the papyrus. One depicts Abraham about to be sacrificed by a priest; the second is the hypocelaphus which contains important insights about the organization of the heavens. The final picture shows Abraham teaching in the Pharaoh’s court. |
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==Abraham in philosophy== |
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Abraham, as a man communicating with God or the divine, has inspired some fairly extensive discussion in some [[philosopher]]s, such as [[Søren Kierkegaard]] and [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]. Kierkegaard goes into Abraham's plight in considerable detail in his work ''[[Fear and Trembling]]''. Sartre understands the story not in terms of Christian obedience or a "teleological suspension of the ethical", but in terms of mankind's utter behavioral and moral freedom. God asks Abraham to sacrifice his only son. Sartre doubts that Abraham can know that the voice he hears is really the voice of his God and not of someone else, or the product of a mental condition. Thus, Sartre concludes, even if there are signs in the world, humans are totally free to decide how to interpret them. |
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==Abraham and his descendants (Biblical perspective)== |
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Biblical narratives represent Abraham as a wealthy, powerful and supremely virtuous man, but humanly flawed, and when afraid for himself, miscalculating, and a sometimes deceiver and an inconsiderate husband. But his central importance in the Book of Genesis, and his portrait as a man favored by God, is unequivocal. Abraham's generations (Hebrew: ''[[toledoth]]'', translated to Greek: "Genesis") are presented as part of the crowning explanation of how the world has been fashioned by the hand of God, and how the boundaries and relationships of peoples were established by him. |
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As the father of Isaac and Ishmael, Abraham is ultimately the common ancestor of the [[Israelites]] and their neighbours. As the father of [[Ishmael]], whose twelve sons became desert princes (most prominently, [[Nebaioth]] and [[Kedar]]), along with [[Midian]], [[Sheba]] and other [[Arab]]ian tribes (25:1-4), the Book of Genesis gives a portrait of Isaac's descendants as being surrounded by kindred peoples, who are also oft-times enemies. It seems that some degree of kinship was felt by the [[Hebrews]] with the dwellers of the more distant south, and it is characteristic of the genealogies that the mothers (Sarah, the Egyptian Hagar, and [[Keturah]]) are in the descending scale, perhaps of purity of blood, or as of purity of relationship, or of connectedness to Sarah: Sarah, her servant, her husband's other wife (or concubine). The Bible says of the Hebrew people: "Your father was a wandering Syrian". |
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As stated above, Abraham came from Ur in [[Babylonia]] to Haran and thence to [[Canaan]]. Late tradition supposed that the [[Migration (human)|migration]] was to escape Babylonian idolatry ([[Judith]] 5, [[Jubilees]] 12; cf. [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] 24:2), and knew of Abraham's miraculous escape from death (an obscure reference to some act of deliverance in [[Isaiah]] 29:22). The route along the banks of the [[Euphrates]] from south to north was so frequently taken by migrating tribes that the tradition has nothing improbable in itself. It was thence that [[Jacob]], the father of the tribes of Israel, came, and the route to [[Shechem]] and [[Bethel]] is precisely the same in both. A twofold migration is doubted by some, but from what is known of the situation in [[Canaan]] in the [[15th century BC|15th century BC/BCE]], not at all impossible. |
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Further, there is yet another parallel in the story of the conquest by Joshua, partly implied and partly actually detailed (cf. also Joshua 8:9 with Gen. 12:8, 13:3), whence it would appear that too much importance must not be laid upon any [[ethnological]] interpretation which fails to account for the three versions. That similar traditional elements have influenced them is not unlikely; but to recover the true historical foundation is difficult. The invasion or immigration of certain tribes from the east of the [[Jordan]]; the presence of [[Aramean]] blood among the Israelites; the origin of the sanctity of venerable sites — these and other considerations may readily be found to account for the traditions. |
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Noteworthy coincidences in the lives of Abraham and Isaac, such as the strong parallels between two tales of [[a wife confused for a sister]], point to the fluctuating state of traditions in the oral stage, or suggest that Abraham's life has been built up by borrowing from the common stock of popular lore. More original is the parting of Lot and Abraham at Bethel. The district was the scene of contests between [[Moab]] and the Hebrews (cf. perhaps [[Judges]] 3), and if this explains part of the story, the physical configuration of the [[Dead Sea]] may have led to the legend of the destruction of inhospitable and vicious cities. |
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===Arab connection=== |
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All Arab historians, before and after Islam, agree that some Arabs are descendants of [[Ishmael]]. As for western historians, although they have no non-religious evidence for Abraham's connection to the Arabs, and the historicity of Biblical accounts is questioned by academics (see [[The Bible and history]]), some believe that the area outlined as the final destination of Ishmael and his descendants (from Havilah to Assyria) refers to Northern [[Arabia]]. The earliest known record of the connection of Abraham's son Ishmael to the Arabs is by the [[Jewish]] historian [[Josephus]], who, approximately 2000 years after such events, asserted that Ishmael was the father of the "Arab nation" [http://www.blessedquietness.com/alhaj/append-1.htm]. One line in the [[Book of Jubilees]] (20:13) also mentions the tradition. |
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This has led to the identification of Abraham as the father of the Arabs through Ishmael. In addition, Abraham's next wife, [[Keturah]], is said to have borne him a son named [[Midian]] who became father of the [[Midianites]][http://www.keyway.ca/htm2002/midian.htm]. The Midianites are also identified with the Arabs as they are said to have settled east of the [[Jordan River]][http://www.brow.on.ca/Books/Ishmael/Ishpost.htm]. In recent times some Christian polemicists have insisted these claims are spurious and entirely made up by Muslims, although they existed long before Islam arrived. Some have claimed that all of Ishmael's descendants in fact died out; and that most Arabs are descended from Joktan. |
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==Abraham: modern historical criticism (secularist perspective)== |
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''For an exploration/examination of the '''historicity''' of Abrahamic stories in the'' [[Book of Genesis]], ''see'' [[The Bible and history#The Patriarchs|Historicity of the Patriarchs]]. |
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Writers have regarded the life of Abraham in various ways. He has been viewed as a [[chieftain]] of the [[Amorites]], as the head of a great [[Semitic]] migration from [[Mesopotamia]]; or, since Ur and Haran were seats of [[Moon]]-worship, he has been identified with a moon-god. From the character of the literary evidence and the locale of the stories it has been held that Abraham was originally associated with Hebron. The double name Abram/Abraham has even suggested that two personages have been combined in the Biblical narrative; although this does not explain the change from Sarai to Sarah. |
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The interesting discovery of the name ''Abi-ramu'' (Abram?) on Babylonian contracts of about 2000 BC/BCE does not prove the Abraham of the Old Testament to be an historical person, even as the fact that there were [[Amorites]] in Babylonia at the same period does not make it certain that the 'patriarch' was one of their number (if he existed altogether). |
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One remarkable chapter associates Abraham with kings of [[Elam]] and the east (''Genesis'' 14). No longer a peaceful sheikh but a warrior with a small army of 318 followers, he overthrows a combination of powerful monarchs who have ravaged the land. The genuineness of the narrative has been strenuously maintained, although upon insufficient grounds. |
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On the assumption that a recollection of some invasion in remote days may have been current, considerable interest is attached to the names. Of these, [[Amraphel]], king of [[Shinar]] (i.e., Babylonia, ''Genesis'' 10:10), has been in the past identified with [[Hammurabi]], one of the greatest of the Babylonian kings (ca. 2000 BC/BCE), and since he claims to have ruled as far west as the [[Mediterranean Sea]], the equation has found considerable favour. Apart from chronological difficulties, the identification of the king and his country is far from certain, and at the most can only be regarded as possible. [[Arioch]], king of [[Ellasar]], has been connected with [[Eriaku of Larsa]] — the reading has been questioned — a contemporary with Hammurabi. [[Chedorlaomer]], king of Elam, bears what is doubtless a genuine [[Elamite]] name, Kudur-Lagamer. Finally, the name of [[Tid'al]], king of [[Goiim]], may be identical with a certain [[Tudhulu]], the son of Gazza, a warrior, but apparently not a king, who is mentioned in a Babylonian inscription, and has been connected by others with [[Tudhaliya]], a predynastic Hittite king. Goiim (the Hebrew for "gentiles" or "nations") may also stand for Gutim, the [[Guti]] being a people who lived to the east of [[Kurdistan]]. Nevertheless, there is as yet no considerable evidence for the genuineness of the story, and the most that can be said is that the author (of whatever date) has derived his names from a trustworthy source, and in representing an invasion of Canaan by Babylonian overlords, has given expression to a recurrent situation in ancient Middle Eastern history. |
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If it is a historical romance (cf., e.g., the [[Book of Judith]]), it is possible that a writer who lived in the [[post-exilic]] age, and was acquainted with Babylonian history, decided to enhance the greatness of Abraham by exhibiting his military success against the monarchs of the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]], the high esteem he enjoyed in Canaan, and the practical character displayed in his brief exchange with [[Melchizedek]]. |
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The historical section of the article [[Tithe]] deals more extensively with the historicity of the meeting with Melchizedek. |
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On the other hand, several scholars claim, on the basis of archaeological and philological evidence, that many stories in the Old Testament, including the accounts about Abraham, [[Moses]], and others, were actually made up by scribes under King [[Josiah]] ([[7th century BC|7th century BC/BCE]]) in order to provide a historical framework for the monotheistic belief in Yahweh. Such scholars claim that the archives of neighbouring countries that kept written records, such as Egypt, Assyria, etc., show no trace of the stories of the Bible or its main characters before 650 BC/BCE. |
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Such claims are detailed in "Who Were the Early Israelites?" by [[William G. Dever]], (William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, MI, 2003). Another similar book by [[Neil A. Silberman]] and [[Israel Finkelstein]] is "The Bible Unearthed," (Simon and Schuster, New York, 2001). |
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==Interesting facts== |
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"There are certain striking similarities between the [[Hindu]] god [[Brahma]] and his consort [[Saraswati]], and the Jewish Abraham and Sarai, that are more than mere coincidences. Although in all of [[India]] there is only one temple dedicated to Brahma, this cult is the third largest Hindu sect." |
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"The Arabian historians contend that Brahma and Abraham, their ancestor, are the same person. The Persians generally called Abraham Ibrahim Zeradust. Cyrus considered the religion of the Jews the same as his own. The Hindus must have come from Abraham, or the Israelites from Brahma…" ([[Anacalypsis]]; Vol. I, p. 396.) |
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Ram and Abraham were possibly the same person or clan. For example, the syllable "Ab" or "Ap" means "father" in Kashmiri. The prototypical Jews could have called Ram "Ab-Ram" or "Father Ram." It's also conceivable that the word "Brahm" evolved from "Ab-Ram" and not vice-versa. The Kashmiri word for "Divine Mercy," Raham, likewise derives from Ram. Ab-Raham = "Father of Divine Mercy." Raham = "Divine Mercy" in Hebrew; Ram is also the Hebrew term for "highly placed leader or governor." Indian historian A. D. Pusalker, whose essay "Traditional History From the Earliest Times" appeared in The Vedic Age, said that Ram was alive in 1950 BC, which is about the time that Abraham, the Indo-Hebrews, and the Aryans made the greatest India-to-the-Middle East migration since the [[Great Flood]]. |
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==References== |
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* [[1911 Encyclopedia Britannica]]. |
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* [[Genesis]] |
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* Rosenberg, David. ''Abraham: The First Historical Biography.'' Basic Books/Perseus Books Group, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2006. ISBN 0-465-07094-9. |
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==See also== |
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*[[Abrahamic religions]] |
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*[[Abraham's bosom]] |
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*[[Biblical criticism]] |
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*[[List of founders of major religions]] |
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* The [[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]], Book of Abraham |
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*[[Genealogies of Genesis]] |
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==External links== |
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*[http://www.dinur.org/1.html?rsID=219 The Jewish History Resource Center] Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem |
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*[http://www.warsofisrael.com/earlywarsturnstile.html Early Wars of Israel] Abraham's Wars & others |
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*[http://www.soundvision.com/info/hajj/abraham.asp Abraham in all three Abrahamic faiths] |
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*[http://www.hajj.ca/Ismail.html Abraham's sacrifice: an Islamic perspective] |
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*[http://www.GospelTruth.info/ GospelTruth] -- God's promises to Abraham according to Christian belief |
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*[http://www.BiblicalArcheology.Net/ Biblical Archeology] -- Bible-related article about Abraham |
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*[http://www.time.com/time/covers/1101020930/ The Legacy of Abraham] -- Time magazine cover story |
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*[http://www.islamfrominside.com/Pages/Tafsir/Tafsir%286-74_to_79%29.html Abraham's vision in the Qur'an] |
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*[http://www.clearvisionpk.com/Millat-e-Ibrahim.html Millat-e-Ibrahim: Prophet Abraham's Way] by [http://clearvisionpk.com ClearVision Pakistan] |
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*[http://speakingoffaith.publicradio.org/programs/2004/09/09_abraham/ Children of Abraham] -- episode of the weekly [[Minnesota Public Radio]] show ''[[Speaking of Faith]]'' |
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* [http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/article_abraham.html ''Abraham'' by Rob Bradshaw] An extensive dictionary-style article. |
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* [http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/epn.html A.R. Millard & D.J. Wiseman, eds., ''Essays on the Patriarchal Narratives''. Leicester: IVP, 1980. Hbk. ISBN 0851117430.] |
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{{1911}} |
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{{Adam to David}} |
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[[Category:Abrahamic religions]] |
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[[Category:Jewish prophets]] |
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[[Category:Christian prophets]] |
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[[Category:Islamic prophets]] |
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[[Category:Torah people]] |
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[[Category:Polygamists]] |
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[[ar:إبراهيم]] |
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[[ca:Abraham]] |
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[[el:Αβραάμ]] |
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[[fa:ابراهیم]] |
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[[it:Abramo (patriarca)]] |
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[[he:אברהם]] |
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[[ku:Îbrahîm]] |
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[[hu:Ábrahám (Biblia)]] |
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[[ms:Nabi Ibrahim a.s.]] |
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[[sr:Абрахам]] |
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[[ta:ஆபிரகாம்]] |
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[[tr:İbrahim]] |
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[[ur:ابراہیم علیہ السلام]] |
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[[zh:亞伯拉罕]] |
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Revision as of 23:24, 12 September 2006
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