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== Benefits in older adults ==
{{dashboard.wikiedu.org sandbox}}
There has been a surge in interest in the benefits of bilingualism against age-related cognitive decline.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Bialystok|first=Ellen|last2=Craik|first2=Fergus I. M.|last3=Klein|first3=Raymond|last4=Viswanathan|first4=Mythili|date=2004-06-01|title=Bilingualism, aging, and cognitive control: evidence from the Simon task|journal=Psychology and Aging|volume=19|issue=2|pages=290–303|doi=10.1037/0882-7974.19.2.290|issn=0882-7974|pmid=15222822}}</ref> Klein & Viswanathan<ref name=":6" /> found that the normal decrease in attentional control observed in older adults was reduced in bilinguals, suggesting that bilingualism may be protective against the effects of cognitive ageing. Elderly bilinguals have also been shown to be better at switching between tasks, ignoring irrelevant information and resolving conflicting cognitive alternatives.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bialystok|first=Ellen|year=2006|title=Effect of bilingualism and computer video game experience on the Simon task|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/cjep2006008|journal=Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie expérimentale|volume=60|issue=1|pages=68–79|doi=10.1037/cjep2006008}}</ref> Bilingualism may be one of the environmental factors which contributes to 'cognitive reserve'.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stern|first=Yaakov|date=2002-03-01|title=What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept|journal=Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society|volume=8|issue=3|pages=448–460|doi=10.1017/s1355617702813248|issn=1355-6177|pmid=11939702}}</ref> Cognitive reserve is the idea that engagement in stimulating physical or mental activity can act to maintain cognitive functioning in healthy aging and postpone the onset of symptoms in those suffering from dementia.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Bialystok|first=Ellen|last2=Craik|first2=Fergus I. M.|last3=Luk|first3=Gigi|date=2012-04-01|title=Bilingualism: consequences for mind and brain|journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences|volume=16|issue=4|pages=240–250|doi=10.1016/j.tics.2012.03.001|issn=1879-307X|pmc=3322418|pmid=22464592}}</ref> Researchers measure brain metabolism and neural connectivity in order to assess cognitive reserve. According to some studies <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Perani|first=Daniela|last2=Farsad|first2=Mohsen|last3=Ballarini|first3=Tommaso|last4=Lubian|first4=Francesca|last5=Malpetti|first5=Maura|last6=Fracchetti|first6=Alessandro|last7=Magnani|first7=Giuseppe|last8=March|first8=Albert|last9=Abutalebi|first9=Jubin|date=2017-02-14|title=The impact of bilingualism on brain reserve and metabolic connectivity in Alzheimer's dementia|url=http://www.pnas.org/content/114/7/1690|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=114|issue=7|pages=1690–1695|doi=10.1073/pnas.1610909114|issn=0027-8424|pmid=28137833}}</ref> bilingual adults have higher levels of connectivity in executive control. Factors that contribute to this also include education, occupational status, higher socio-economic class, and the continuing involvement in physical, intellectual and social activities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bennett|first=David A.|last2=Schneider|first2=Julie A.|last3=Tang|first3=Yuxiao|last4=Arnold|first4=Steven E.|last5=Wilson|first5=Robert S.|date=2006-05-01|title=The effect of social networks on the relation between Alzheimer's disease pathology and level of cognitive function in old people: a longitudinal cohort study|journal=The Lancet. Neurology|volume=5|issue=5|pages=406–412|doi=10.1016/S1474-4422(06)70417-3|issn=1474-4422|pmid=16632311}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bennett|first=D. A.|last2=Wilson|first2=R. S.|last3=Schneider|first3=J. A.|last4=Evans|first4=D. A.|last5=Mendes de Leon|first5=C. F.|last6=Arnold|first6=S. E.|last7=Barnes|first7=L. L.|last8=Bienias|first8=J. L.|date=2003-06-24|title=Education modifies the relation of AD pathology to level of cognitive function in older persons|journal=Neurology|volume=60|issue=12|pages=1909–1915|doi=10.1212/01.wnl.0000069923.64550.9f|issn=1526-632X|pmid=12821732}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stern Y|date=1994|title=Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease|url=|journal=JAMA|volume=271|issue=13|pages=1004–1010|doi=10.1001/jama.271.13.1004|pmid=8139057|display-authors=etal}}</ref>

To test the protection against Alzheimer's disease (AD), Bialystok et al. (2007)<ref name="BialystokDem1">{{cite journal|year=2007|title=Bilingualism as a protection against the onset symptoms of dementia|journal=Neuropsychologia|volume=45|issue=2|pages=459–464|doi=10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.10.009|pmid=17125807|author1=Bialystok E|author2=Craik F. I.|author3=Freedman M.}}</ref> examined the hospital records of monolingual and bilingual patients who had been diagnosed with various types of dementia and they found that bilinguals experienced the onset of symptoms and were diagnosed approximately 3–4 years later than monolinguals (controlled for various cognitive and other factors). This was replicated with patients all diagnosed with AD.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Craik|first=Fergus I. M.|last2=Bialystok|first2=Ellen|last3=Freedman|first3=Morris|date=2010-11-09|title=Delaying the onset of Alzheimer disease: bilingualism as a form of cognitive reserve|journal=Neurology|volume=75|issue=19|pages=1726–1729|doi=10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181fc2a1c|issn=1526-632X|pmc=3033609|pmid=21060095}}</ref> It is important to stress however that bilingualism doesn't directly prevent one from having AD, but enables functional cognition for a longer period of time; it delays the onset of symptoms for those with the disease. This was confirmed by the finding that, when monolingual and bilingual Alzheimer's patients' brains were scanned, bilinguals actually had more pathology (disease) and damage than the monolingual patients.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schweizer|first=Tom A.|last2=Ware|first2=Jenna|last3=Fischer|first3=Corinne E.|last4=Craik|first4=Fergus I. M.|last5=Bialystok|first5=Ellen|date=2012-09-01|title=Bilingualism as a contributor to cognitive reserve: evidence from brain atrophy in Alzheimer's disease|journal=Cortex|volume=48|issue=8|pages=991–996|doi=10.1016/j.cortex.2011.04.009|issn=1973-8102|pmid=21596373}}</ref> This suggests that active use of the two languages protects against the symptoms of the disease; areas of the brain that enable cognitive control may have benefitted from the bilingual experience and so improve cognitive function in older age. This finding has also been replicated by several other studies <ref name="Atkinson2016">{{Cite journal|year=2016|title=Does Bilingualism Delay the Development of Dementia?|url=http://jeps.efpsa.org/articles/10.5334/jeps.375/|journal=Journal of European Psychology Students|volume=7|issue=1|pages=43–50|doi=10.5334/jeps.375|authors=Atkinson AL}}</ref> Bilingualism is thought to develop cognitive control skills, and other factors also contribute to this in life, for example, becoming a skilled musician, playing video games, driving a taxi through a maze of city streets.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Kroll|first=Judith F.|last2=Dussias|first2=Paola E.|last3=Bice|first3=Kinsey|last4=Perrotti|first4=Lauren|date=2015-01-01|title=Bilingualism, Mind, and Brain|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-linguist-030514-124937|journal=Annual Review of Linguistics|volume=1|issue=1|pages=377–394|doi=10.1146/annurev-linguist-030514-124937}}</ref> However, the benefit of bilingualism over these is that language is used much more frequently than any of these activities and thus provides the most benefit.{{dashboard.wikiedu.org sandbox}}

Revision as of 18:23, 16 February 2017

Benefits in older adults

There has been a surge in interest in the benefits of bilingualism against age-related cognitive decline.[1] Klein & Viswanathan[1] found that the normal decrease in attentional control observed in older adults was reduced in bilinguals, suggesting that bilingualism may be protective against the effects of cognitive ageing. Elderly bilinguals have also been shown to be better at switching between tasks, ignoring irrelevant information and resolving conflicting cognitive alternatives.[2] Bilingualism may be one of the environmental factors which contributes to 'cognitive reserve'.[3] Cognitive reserve is the idea that engagement in stimulating physical or mental activity can act to maintain cognitive functioning in healthy aging and postpone the onset of symptoms in those suffering from dementia.[4] Researchers measure brain metabolism and neural connectivity in order to assess cognitive reserve. According to some studies [5] bilingual adults have higher levels of connectivity in executive control. Factors that contribute to this also include education, occupational status, higher socio-economic class, and the continuing involvement in physical, intellectual and social activities.[6][7][8]

To test the protection against Alzheimer's disease (AD), Bialystok et al. (2007)[9] examined the hospital records of monolingual and bilingual patients who had been diagnosed with various types of dementia and they found that bilinguals experienced the onset of symptoms and were diagnosed approximately 3–4 years later than monolinguals (controlled for various cognitive and other factors). This was replicated with patients all diagnosed with AD.[10] It is important to stress however that bilingualism doesn't directly prevent one from having AD, but enables functional cognition for a longer period of time; it delays the onset of symptoms for those with the disease. This was confirmed by the finding that, when monolingual and bilingual Alzheimer's patients' brains were scanned, bilinguals actually had more pathology (disease) and damage than the monolingual patients.[11] This suggests that active use of the two languages protects against the symptoms of the disease; areas of the brain that enable cognitive control may have benefitted from the bilingual experience and so improve cognitive function in older age. This finding has also been replicated by several other studies [12] Bilingualism is thought to develop cognitive control skills, and other factors also contribute to this in life, for example, becoming a skilled musician, playing video games, driving a taxi through a maze of city streets.[13] However, the benefit of bilingualism over these is that language is used much more frequently than any of these activities and thus provides the most benefit.

  1. ^ a b Bialystok, Ellen; Craik, Fergus I. M.; Klein, Raymond; Viswanathan, Mythili (2004-06-01). "Bilingualism, aging, and cognitive control: evidence from the Simon task". Psychology and Aging. 19 (2): 290–303. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.19.2.290. ISSN 0882-7974. PMID 15222822.
  2. ^ Bialystok, Ellen (2006). "Effect of bilingualism and computer video game experience on the Simon task". Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie expérimentale. 60 (1): 68–79. doi:10.1037/cjep2006008.
  3. ^ Stern, Yaakov (2002-03-01). "What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept". Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society. 8 (3): 448–460. doi:10.1017/s1355617702813248. ISSN 1355-6177. PMID 11939702.
  4. ^ Bialystok, Ellen; Craik, Fergus I. M.; Luk, Gigi (2012-04-01). "Bilingualism: consequences for mind and brain". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 16 (4): 240–250. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2012.03.001. ISSN 1879-307X. PMC 3322418. PMID 22464592.
  5. ^ Perani, Daniela; Farsad, Mohsen; Ballarini, Tommaso; Lubian, Francesca; Malpetti, Maura; Fracchetti, Alessandro; Magnani, Giuseppe; March, Albert; Abutalebi, Jubin (2017-02-14). "The impact of bilingualism on brain reserve and metabolic connectivity in Alzheimer's dementia". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 114 (7): 1690–1695. doi:10.1073/pnas.1610909114. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 28137833.
  6. ^ Bennett, David A.; Schneider, Julie A.; Tang, Yuxiao; Arnold, Steven E.; Wilson, Robert S. (2006-05-01). "The effect of social networks on the relation between Alzheimer's disease pathology and level of cognitive function in old people: a longitudinal cohort study". The Lancet. Neurology. 5 (5): 406–412. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(06)70417-3. ISSN 1474-4422. PMID 16632311.
  7. ^ Bennett, D. A.; Wilson, R. S.; Schneider, J. A.; Evans, D. A.; Mendes de Leon, C. F.; Arnold, S. E.; Barnes, L. L.; Bienias, J. L. (2003-06-24). "Education modifies the relation of AD pathology to level of cognitive function in older persons". Neurology. 60 (12): 1909–1915. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000069923.64550.9f. ISSN 1526-632X. PMID 12821732.
  8. ^ Stern Y; et al. (1994). "Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease". JAMA. 271 (13): 1004–1010. doi:10.1001/jama.271.13.1004. PMID 8139057.
  9. ^ Bialystok E; Craik F. I.; Freedman M. (2007). "Bilingualism as a protection against the onset symptoms of dementia". Neuropsychologia. 45 (2): 459–464. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.10.009. PMID 17125807.
  10. ^ Craik, Fergus I. M.; Bialystok, Ellen; Freedman, Morris (2010-11-09). "Delaying the onset of Alzheimer disease: bilingualism as a form of cognitive reserve". Neurology. 75 (19): 1726–1729. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181fc2a1c. ISSN 1526-632X. PMC 3033609. PMID 21060095.
  11. ^ Schweizer, Tom A.; Ware, Jenna; Fischer, Corinne E.; Craik, Fergus I. M.; Bialystok, Ellen (2012-09-01). "Bilingualism as a contributor to cognitive reserve: evidence from brain atrophy in Alzheimer's disease". Cortex. 48 (8): 991–996. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2011.04.009. ISSN 1973-8102. PMID 21596373.
  12. ^ "Does Bilingualism Delay the Development of Dementia?". Journal of European Psychology Students. 7 (1): 43–50. 2016. doi:10.5334/jeps.375. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |authors= ignored (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  13. ^ Kroll, Judith F.; Dussias, Paola E.; Bice, Kinsey; Perrotti, Lauren (2015-01-01). "Bilingualism, Mind, and Brain". Annual Review of Linguistics. 1 (1): 377–394. doi:10.1146/annurev-linguist-030514-124937.
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