Privacy law

Main article: Privacy

Privacy law refers to the laws that deal with the regulation, storage, and use of personal information about individuals, which can be collected by governments and other public as well as private organizations.

Privacy laws are considered in the context of an individual's privacy rights or within reasonable expectation of privacy.

Classification of privacy laws

Privacy laws can be broadly classified into:

• General privacy laws that have an overall bearing on the personal information of individuals and affect the policies that govern many different areas of information.
• Specific privacy laws that are designed to regulate specific types of information. Some examples include:
  • Communication privacy laws
  • Financial privacy laws
  • Health privacy laws
  • Information privacy laws
  • Online privacy laws
  • Privacy in one's home

International legal standards on privacy

Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights, which was drafted and adopted by the Council of Europe in 1950 and currently covers the whole European continent except for Belarus and Kosovo, protects the right to respect for private life: "Everyone has the right to respect for his private and family life, his home and his correspondence." Through the huge case-law of the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg, privacy has been defined and its protection has been established as a positive right of everyone.

Data privacy laws are converging in the EU, helped by the National data protection authorities and the Data Protection Directive adopted in 1995.

Article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights of the United Nations of 1966 also protects privacy: "No one shall be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to unlawful attacks on his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks."

Privacy laws by country

For a comprehensive global summary of data privacy laws (2015), click here to access Greenleaf’s article documenting the change of privacy regulations throughout the international landscape.

Afghanistan

Afghanistan is currently part of the minority of countries who doesn't have any official data privacy laws.

Algeria

Algeria is currently part of the minority of countries who doesn't have any official data privacy laws. 

Australia

Main article: Privacy in Australian law

The current state of privacy law in Australia includes Federal and state information privacy legislation, some sector-specific privacy legislation at state level, regulation of the media and some criminal sanctions. The current position concerning civil causes of action for invasion of privacy is unclear: some courts have indicated that a tort of invasion of privacy may exist in Australia. However this has not been upheld by the higher courts, which have been content to develop the equitable doctrine of Breach of Confidence to protect privacy, following the example set by the UK. In 2008, the Australian Law Reform Commission recommended the enactment of a statutory cause of action for invasion of privacy.

Bahamas

The Bahamas has an official data protection law that protects the personal information of its citizens in both the private and public sector: Data Protection Act 2003 (the Bahamas Law). The Bahamas Law appoints a data protection commissioner to the Office of Data Protection to ensure that data protection is being held. Even though there is legislation enforced in the Bahamas through the Data Protection Act 2003, the act lacks many enforcements since a data protection officer doesn't need to be in office nor does any group or organization need to notify the Office of Data Protection when a hacker has breached privacy law. Also, there are no requirements for registering databases or restricting data flow across national borders. Therefore, the legislation does not meet European Union standards, which was the goal of creating the law in the first place. 

The Bahamas is also a member of CARICOM, the Caribbean Community.

Bangladesh

Bangladesh is currently part of the minority of countries who doesn't have any official data privacy laws. 

Belize

Belize is currently part of the minority of countries who doesn't have any official data privacy laws.

However, the Freedom of Information Act (2000) currently protects the personal information of the citizens of Belize, but there is no current documentation that distinguishes if this act includes electronic data.

In consequence to a lack of official data privacy laws, there was a breach of personal data in 2009 when an employee’s laptop from Belize’s Vital Statistics Unit was stolen, containing birth certification information for all citizens residing in Belize. Even though the robbery was not intentionally targeting the laptop- the robber did not predict the severity of the theft- Belize was put in a vulnerable position which could have been avoided if regulations were in order.

Brazil

A Brazilian citizen's privacy is protected by the country's constitution, which states:

The intimacy, private life, honor and image of the people are inviolable, with assured right to indenization by material or moral damage resulting from its violation

Canada

Main article: Canadian privacy law

In Canada, the federal Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act (PIPEDA) governs the collection, use, and disclosure of personal information in connection with commercial activities and personal information about employees of federal works, undertakings and businesses. It generally does not apply to non-commercial organizations or provincial governments. Personal information collected, used and disclosed by the federal government and many crown corporations is governed by the Privacy Act. Many provinces have enacted similar provincial legislation such as the Ontario Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act which applies to public bodies in that province.

There remains some debate whether there exists a common law tort for breach of privacy. There have been a number of cases identifying a common law right to privacy but the requirements have not been articulated.

In Eastmond v. Canadian Pacific Railway & Privacy Commissioner of Canada Canada's Supreme Court found that CP could collect Eastmond's personal information without his knowledge or consent because it benefited from the exemption in paragraph 7(1)(b) of PIPEDA, which provides that personal information can be collected without consent if "it is reasonable to expect that the collection with the knowledge or consent of the individual would compromise the availability or the accuracy of the information and the collection is reasonable for purposes related to investigating a breach of an agreement".

Congo

Congo is currently part of the minority of countries who doesn't have any official data privacy laws. 

China

Computer Processed Personal Information Protection Act was enacted in 1995 in order to protect personal information processed by computers. The general provision specified the purpose of the law, defined crucial terms, prohibited individuals from waiving certain rights.

Egypt

Egypt is currently part of the minority of countries who doesn't have any official data privacy laws. 

Fiji

An archipelago located in pacific, the country of Fiji was founded in the tenth of October 1970 . In its constitution, the people inhabiting the land are granted the right to privacy. The exact workings from the constitution is the following: “Every person has the right to personal privacy, which includes the right to— (a) confidentiality of their personal information; (b) confidentiality of their communications; and (c) respect for their private and family life” . But in this very same constitution, it is expressed that it is possible “to the extent that it is necessary” for a law to be passed that limits or impact the execution of the right to privacy law. Another privacy-related law can be seen in section 54 of the Telecommunications Promulgation passed in 2008, which states that “any service provider supplying telecommunications to consumers must keep information about consumers confidential”. Billing information and call information are no exceptions. The only exception to this rule is for the purpose of bringing to light “fraud or bad debt”. Under this law, even with the consent of the customer, the disclosure of information is not permitted . Other Privacy laws that have been adopted by this country are those that are meant to protect the collected information, cookies and other privacy-related matter of tourist. This is in regards to (but not limited to) information collected during bookings, the use of one technology of another that belongs to said company or through the use of a service of the company, or when making payments. Additionally, as a member of the United Nations, the Fiji is bound by the universal declaration of Human Rights which states in article two “No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honor and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks” .

France

France adopted a data privacy law in 1978. It applies to public and private organizations and forbids gathering sensitive data about physical persons (sexuality, ethnic, political or religious opinions...). The law is administered by the Commission nationale de l'informatique et des libertés (CNIL), a dedicated national administration.

Greece

During the military dictatorship era the 57 AK law prohibited taking photos of people without their permission but the law has since been superseded. The 2472/1997 law protects personal data of citizens but consent for taking photos of people is not required as long as they aren't used commercially or are used only for personal archiving ("οικιακή χρήση" / "home use"), for publication in editorial, educational, cultural, scientific or news publications, and for fine art purposes (e.g. street photography which has been uphold as legal by the courts whether done by professional or amateur photographers). However, photographing people or collecting their personal data for commercial (advertising) purposes requires their consent. The law gives photographers the right to commercially use photos of people who have not consented to the use of the images in which they appear if the depicted people have either been paid for the photo session as models (so there is no separation between editorial and commercial models in Greek law) or they have paid the photographer for obtaining the photo (this, for example, gives the right to wedding photographers to advertise their work using their photos of newly-wed couples they photographed in a professional capacity). In Greece the right to take photographs and publish them or sell licensing rights over them as fine art or editorial content is protected by the Constitution of Greece (Article 14 and other articles) and free speech laws as well as by case law and legal cases. Photographing the police or children and publishing the photographs in a non-commercial capacity is also legal.

Hong Kong

In Hong Kong, the law governing the protection of personal data is principally found in the Personal Data (Privacy) Ordinance (Cap. 486) which came into force on 20 December 1996. Various amendments were made to enhance the protection of personal data privacy of individuals through the Personal Data (Privacy) (Amendment) Ordinance 2012. Examples of personal data protected include names, phone numbers, addresses, identity card numbers, photos, medical records and employment records. As Hong Kong remains a common law jurisdiction, judicial cases are also a source of privacy law. The power of enforcement is vested with the Privacy Commissioner (the "Commissioner") for Personal Data. Non-compliance with data protection principles set out in the ordinances does not constitute a criminal offense directly. The Commissioner may serve an enforcement notice to direct the data user to remedy the contravention and/or instigate the prosecution action. Contravention of an enforcement notice may result in a fine and imprisonment.

India

In June, 2011, India passed a new privacy package that included various new rules that apply to companies and consumers. A key aspect of the new rules requires that any organization that processes personal information must obtain written consent from the data subjects before undertaking certain activities. Application of the rule is still uncertain.

Previously, the Information Technology (Amendment) Act, 2008 made changes to the Information Technology Act, 2000 and added the following two sections relating to Privacy:

Section 43A, which deals with implementation of reasonable security practices for sensitive personal data or information and provides for the compensation of the person affected by wrongful loss or wrongful gain.

Section 72A, which provides for imprisonment for a period up to 3 years and/or a fine up to Rs. 5,00,000 for a person who causes wrongful loss or wrongful gain by disclosing personal information of another person while providing services under the terms of lawful contract.

Indonesia

Indonesia is currently part of the minority of countries who doesn't have any official data privacy laws. 

Ireland

The island of Ireland is under the Data Protection Act 1988 and amended by the Data Protection Act 2003 along with the EU Data Protection Directive 95/46 EC, which regulates the utilization of personal data. Data Protection Act 1988 along with 2003 is known as the DPA and protects the data within the private and personal sector. The DPA ensures that when data is transported, the location must be safe and in acknowledgement of the legislation to maintain data privacy. When collecting and processing data, some of the requirements are listed below that must be adhered to:

• the subject of personal data must have given consent
• the data is in the subject's interest
• the reason for the processing of data is for a contract
• the reason for the processing of data is the prevention of injury

Specifically the Data Protection Commissioner oversees the entirety of the enforcement of data privacy regulations for Ireland. All persons that collect and process data must register with the Data Protection Commissioner unless they are exempt (non-profit organizations and etc.) and renew their registration annually.

Electronic Privacy Protection

Considering the protection of internet property and online data, the ePrivacy Regulations 2011 protects the communications and higher-advanced technical property and data such as social media and the telephone.

In relation to international data privacy law that Ireland is involved in, the British-Irish Agreement Act 1999 Section 51 extensively states the relationship between data security between the United Kingdom and Ireland.

In addition, Ireland is part of the Council of Europe and the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development.

The Data Protection Commissioner of Ireland is a member of the International Conference of Data Protection and Privacy Commissioners, European Data Protection Authorities, the EU Article 29 Working Party, Global Privacy Enforcement Network, and the British, Irish, and Islands Data Protection Authorities.

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Japan

Act on the Protection of Personal Information was fully enacted in 2005 for the purpose to protect the rights and interests of individuals while taking consideration of the usefulness of personal information. The law applies to business operators that hold the personal information of 5,000 or more individuals.

Lebanon

Lebanon is currently part of the minority of countries who doesn't have any official data privacy laws. 

Mexico

In July 5, 2010, Mexico passed a new privacy package focused on treatment of personal data by private entities. The key elements included where:

• Requirement of all private entities who gather personal data to publish their privacy policy in accordance to the law.
• Set fines for up to $16,000,000 MXN in case of violation of the law.
• Set prison penalties to serious violations.

New Zealand

In New Zealand, the Privacy Act 1993 sets out principles in relation to the collection, use, disclosure, security and access to personal information.

The introduction into the New Zealand common law of a tort covering invasion of personal privacy at least by public disclosure of private facts was at issue in Hosking v Runting, and was accepted by the Court of Appeal. In Rogers v TVNZ Ltd the Supreme Court indicated it had some misgivings with how the tort was introduced, but chose not to interfere with it at that stage.

Complaints about privacy are considered by the Privacy Commissioner

Pakistan

Pakistan is currently part of the minority of countries who doesn't have any official data privacy laws. 

Russia

Applicable legislation:

1. Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data, signed and ratified by the Russian Federation on December 19.2005;
2. the Law of the Russian Federation “On Personal Data” as of 27.07.2006 No. 152-FZ, regulating the processing of personal data by means of automation equipment. It is the operator who is required to comply with that Act.

As a general rule, consent of the individual is required for processing, i.e. obtaining, organizing, accumulating, holding, adjusting (updating, modifying), using, disclosing (including transfer), impersonating, blocking or destroying of his personal data. This rule doesn't apply where such processing is necessary for performance of the contract, to which an individual is a party.

• Data protection principles and legislation in the Russian Federation (in English)
• On-line database of the Russian laws (in Russian)
• Federal Service on supervising in the sphere of communications, information technology and mass media (in Russian)

Rwanda

Rwanda is currently part of the minority of countries who doesn't have any official data privacy laws. 

Singapore

Singapore enacted the privacy law in 2012, overseen by the Personal Data Protection Commission. On top of protecting personal privacy, new laws was introduced to govern telemarketing (and other marketing activities in similar nature) in which individuals can now list their contact number as part of a Do Not Call list.

South Africa

The Constitution of South Africa guarantees the most general right to privacy for all its citizens. This provides the main protection for personal data privacy so far.

The Protection of Personal Act 2013 (POPI) was signed into act, focusing on data privacy and is inspired by other foreign national treaties like the United Kingdom. Minimum requirements are presented in POPI for the act of processing personal data, like the fact that the data subject must provide consent and that the data will be beneficial, and POPI will be harsher when related to cross-border international data transfers, specifically with personal information. However, POPI won't be in full effective until an estimated date of 2018 as it is still being deliberated by the National Council of Provinces.

The recording of conversations over phone and internet is not allowed without the permission of both parties with the Regulation of Interception of Communications and Provision of Communications Related Act (2002).

In addition, South Africa is part of the Southern African Development Community and the African Union.

Switzerland

The main legislation over personal data privacy for the personal and private sector in Switzerland is the Swiss Federal Protection Act, specifically the Data Protection Act, a specific section under the Swiss Federal Protection Act. The Data Protection Act has been enacted since 1992 and is in charge of measuring the consent of sharing of personal data, along with other legislation like the Telecommunication Act and the Unfair Competition Act. The Act generally guides on how to collect, process, store, data, use, disclose, and destruct data. The Data Inspection Board is in charge of overseeing data breaches and privacy enforcement.

Personal data must be protected against illegal use by "being processed in good faith and must be proportionate". Also, the reason for the transfer of personal data must be known by the time of data transfer. Data not associated with people (not personal data) is not protected by the Data Protection Act.

In the case of data transfer to unsafe data protection countries, these are the major regulations required by the Data Protection Act:

·      Need of direct channels for data transfer

·      Individual case must have consent from receivers of data

·      Disclosure is accessible to public

Switzerland is a white-listed country, meaning that it is a nation that has proper levels of data protection under the surveillance by the European Commission (EU Commission). Switzerland is not under the EU Data Protection Directive 95/46 EC. However, the data protection regulations are sufficient enough under European Union (EU) regulations without being a member of the EU.

In addition, Switzerland is part of the Council of Europe and the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development.

The Data Inspection Board of Switzerland is a member of the International Conference of Data Protection and Privacy Commissioners, European Data Protection Authorities, the EU Article 29 Working Party, and the Nordic Data Protection Authorities.

Syria

Syria is currently part of the minority of countries who doesn't have any official data privacy laws. 

United Kingdom

Main article: Privacy in English law

As a member of the European Convention on Human Rights, the United Kingdom adheres to Article 8 ECHR, which guarantees a "right to respect for privacy and family life" from state parties, subject to restrictions as prescribed by law and necessary in a democratic society towards a legitimate aim.

However, there is no independent tort law doctrine which recognises a right to privacy. This has been confirmed on a number of occasions.

• Kaye v Robertson
• Wainwright v Home Office

United States

Main article: Privacy laws of the United States

The right to privacy is not explicitly stated anywhere in the Bill of Rights. The idea of a right to privacy was first addressed within a legal context in the United States. Louis Brandeis (later a Supreme Court justice) and another young lawyer, Samuel D. Warren, published an article called "The Right to Privacy" in the Harvard Law Review in 1890 arguing that the U.S. Constitution and common law allowed for the deduction of a general "right to privacy".

Their project was never entirely successful, and the renowned tort expert Dean Prosser argued that "privacy" was composed of four separate torts, the only unifying element of which was a (vague) "right to be left alone". The four torts were:

• Appropriating the plaintiff's identity for the defendant's benefit
• Placing the plaintiff in a false light in the public eye
• Publicly disclosing private facts about the plaintiff
• Unreasonably intruding upon the seclusion or solitude of the plaintiff

For additional information on Privacy laws in the United States, see:

• Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)
• Financial Services Modernization Act (GLB), 15 U.S. Code §§ 6801-6810
• Final Rule on Privacy of Consumer Financial Information, 16 Code of Federal Regulations, Part 313
• Fair Credit Reporting Act (FCRA), 15 U.S. Code §§ 1681-1681u
• Fair Debt Collection Practices Act (FDCPA), 15 U.S.C. §§ 1692-1692
• Driver's Privacy Protection Act (DPPA), 18 U.S.C. §§ 2721–2725

Uzbekistan

Though the right to privacy exists in several regulations, the most effective privacy protections come in the form of constitutional articles of Uzbekistan. Varying aspects of the right to privacy are protected in different ways by different situations.

See also

• Data Protection Act 1998 (United Kingdom)
• Data Protection Directive (European Union)
• Data protection and privacy laws (Russia)
• Electronic Communications Privacy Act (United States)
• Personality rights
• Privacy Act of 1974 (United States)
• Privacy Act 1988 (Australian)
• Right to be forgotten

External links

• 2014 International Compendium of Data Privacy Laws, provided by BakerHostetler
• Handbook on European data protection law

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