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Tenpō (天保) was a Japanese era name (年号,, nengō,, lit. "year name"), also known as Tempō, after Bunsei and before Kōka. The period spanned the years from December 1830 through December 1844. The reigning emperor was Ninko-tennō (仁孝天皇).

Introduction

Change of era

• December 10, 1830 (Tenpō gannen (天保元年)) : In the 13th year of Bunsei, the new era name of Tenpō (meaning "Heavenly Imperial Protection") was created to mark the disasters of a great fire in Edo and an earthquake at Kyoto. The new era name was created from an hortatory aphorism: "Respect and worship the Ways of heaven. Eternally keep the Mandate of Heaven" (欽崇天道、永保天命).

The Tenpō era is often described as the beginning of the end of bafuku government. Though the era accomplished much through its reforms, and also culturally speaking, the injury inflicted on the Tokugawa system of government during the Tenpō period was unparalleled. Public order and dissatisfaction with government with a main issue, but the bafuku was not entirely at fault for the stir amongst the people. For example, the failure of crops in 1833, which soon became a lengthy disaster endured for over four years called the Great Tenpō famine, was caused mainly due to poor weather conditions. It became simply too cold for crops to flourish or receive needed warmth and water. Prices skyrocketed, as well. These dire circumstances sparked many rebellions and riots across Japan over the course of the Tenpō years. Weary and desperate for someone to blame, the people rose up against the government, and Ōshio Heihachirō, known for leading one of the largest rebellions, even stated the crop failure due to poor weather was a sign of Heaven's disappointment and retribution aimed towards the government itself. Mizuno Tadakuni's reforms were meant to remedy these economic issues, but the reforms could not rescue the bakufu from its ultimate collapse.

The shogunate rule during the Tenpō era was that of Tokugawa Ieyoshi, the 12th shogun of the bakufu government. His reign lasted from 1837 to 1853. During this time, many factors appeared to have seen to the decline of his health: namely, the great and devastating famine, the many rebellions rising up against the bakufu, and the swift advance of foreign influence.

Great Tenpō Famine

The Great Tenpō famine of the 1830s was a devastating term in which the whole of Japan suffered sinking temperatures and loss of crops, and in turn, merchant prices began to spike. Many starved to death during this grim time. In areas like Takayama, the death rate spiked as high as nearly forty-five percent per thousand. Crops continued to fail in the countryside, prices increased and supplies diminished, forcing people to compete to survive with what meager funds they had. The samurai also suffered the effects of the famine, dealing with lower wages from the Japanese domain governments in anticipation for challenging fiscal issues to come. To further the already dire conditions of the famine, illness eventually began to spread, and many who were starving could not resist forms of sickness such as pestilence, smallpox, measles and influenza. Thousands died from hunger alone at the pinnacle of the crisis in 1836 to 1837.

Rebellion

One of the rebellions sparked by the Great Tenpō famine was the Ōshio Heihachirō Rebellion. The man for whom it was named led an attempted revolt in the 1830s, and was granted the label of yonaoshi daimyojin, or "world saviour", for his attempts at moral restoration. Formally a police officer and scholar, Ōshio Heihachirō (1792-1837) had requested help from Osaka city commissioners and otherwise wealthy merchants in 1837, only to be met with indifference. Shocked by his lack of success in the endeavour, Ōshio instigated an uprising to oppose those who had refused their aid. With approximately 300 followers, including poor townsfolk and peasants from various villages, Ōshio set fire to one-fifth of Osaka city. But the rebellion was suppressed in short order, forcing Ōshio to a quick end in which he committed suicide.

The scholar Ikuta Yorozo (1801-1837) also instigated a rebellion from similar roots as that of Ōshio Heihachirō. Ikuta had opened a school for the education of adolescents, consisting mostly of peasants. Having also suffered from the Great Tenpō Famine, Ikuta despaired the lack of aid local bureaucrats were willing to provide, and in 1837, he assembled a band of peasants in retaliation. Together they launched an attack on the bureaucrats, which met with devastating results and Ikuta taking his own life.

Ogata Kōan and Tekijuku

A year following Ōshio Heihachirō's rebellion, after the fire that had scorched nearly a quarter of Osaka city, the physician Ogata Kōan founded an academy to teach medicine, healing and Dutch Studies. The school was called Tekijuku, where distinction of status was unknown and competition abounded. Ogata encouraged this competitive learning, especially of the Dutch language to which he had devoted much of his own life. However, the competition may have been too much when eventually students bent to the pressure of the academy and acted recklessly to vent frustrations, for example, "slashing their swords against the central pillar of the main boarding hall, leaving gashes and nicks". Ogata did not deem it necessary to take disciplinary measures, thinking it benign and recreational.

Much of Ogata's life was devoted to Rangaku, which was clearly displayed in the vision he had for Tekijuku. Ogata is known for his attentions to the medical, or internal therapeutic aspects of Rangaku, including emphasis on diseases and aid in translation of foreign medicinal terms.

Morrison Incident

In 1837, the American ship Morrison endeavoured to initiate trade with Japan through the rescue of seven ship-wrecked Japanese sailors. However, as the merchant ship entered Japanese seas, the Morrison was open fired upon and driven from the waters by law of the Edict to Repel Foreign Vessels passed by Japan in 1825.

However, there were those who criticized this law, namely the Bangaku Shachu, a band of scholars intent on justifying the merits of Western learning. This stance against the shogunate riled the government into arresting twenty-six members of the Bangaku Shachu, and further enforcing the policies on foreign education by limiting the publication of books, and making access to materials such as Dutch Studies difficult.

Tenpō Reforms

As the Tokugawa era drew to a close, a major reform was exerted called the Tenpō Reforms (1841-1843), primarily instituted by Mizuno Tadakuni, a dominant leader in the shogunate. The reforms were economic policies introduced prominently to resolve fiscal issues mainly caused by the Great Tenpō famine, and to revisit more traditional aspects of the Japanese economy. For the samurai, these reforms were meant to spur them to return to their roots of education and military arts. The samurai aimed for change within the status quo itself. There was a stringency amongst all classes of people, and at this time, farmers were forced to remain in their villages, while travellers to the cities were sent back home. Trade relations were disassembled, and various goods were lowered in price. Under Mizuno's leadership, the reforms brought about moral reform, encouraged moderation and frugality, introduced recoinage and, of course, cancelled previous samurai debts. In addition, land transfers were impressed upon some of the daimyo to reassert Tokugawa authority. Some historians may view the reforms as the first steps towards the ultimate modernization of Japan's economy.

Fires at Edo Castle

Edo Castle was devastated by two fires during the Tenpō era, in 1839 and 1843 respectively, and despite rampant rebellion during this period, neither fire was due to unrest.

Other Events of the Tenpō era

• 1834 (Tenpō 5): Kondō Isami born in Tama.
• July 20, 1835 (Tenpō 6, 7th day of the 6th month): Earthquake in Sanriku (Latitude: 37.900/Longitude: 141.900), 7.6 magnitude on the Richter Scale.
  • Hijikata Toshizō born, May 5.
• 1836 (Tenpō 7): Matsudaira Katamori born in Edo.
• 1837 (Tenpō 7): Tokugawa Ieyoshi becomes the 12th shogun of the bakufu government.
• 1837 (Tenpō 8): Tokugawa Yoshinobu born.
• April 25, 1843 (Tenpō 14, 25th day of the 3rd month): Earthquake in Yezo, Kushiro, Nemuro (Latitude: 41.800/Longitude: 144.800), 8.4 magnitude on the Richter Scale.
• 1844 (Tenpō 15): Insurrection in Chōshū; also, Saitō Hajime born in Edo.

Calendar revision

During the Tenpō era, Koide Shuki translated portions of Jérôme Lalande's work on astronomy. Koide presented this work to the Astronomy Board as evidence of the superiority of the European calendar, but the effort produced no identifiable effect. However, Koide's work and translations of other Western writers did indirectly affect the Tenpo calendar revision in 1842-1844. A great many errors had been found in the lunar calendar; and a revised system was publicly adopted in 1844. The new calendar was called the Tenpō-Jinin calendar. It was in use in Japan until 1872 when the Gregorian calendar was adopted.

Gallery

• 
  Branched ("Edasen" 枝銭) Mon coins of the Tenpō period.
• 
  Japanese drawing of the Morrison, anchored in front of Uraga in 1837.

See also

• Tenpo Reform

References

• Hall, John Whitney and Marius Jansen. (1991). Early Modern Japan: The Cambridge History of Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10-ISBN 0-521-22355-5; 13-ISBN 978-0-521-22355-3; OCLC 62064695
• Nussbaum, Louis Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan Encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 10-ISBN 0-674-01753-6; 13-ISBN 978-0-674-01753-5; OCLC 48943301
• Smith, David E. and Yoshio Mikami. (1914). A History of Japanese Mathematics. Chicago: Open Court Publishing. OCLC 1515528 – note alternate online, full-text copy at archive.org
• Wiskundig Genootschap (Mathematical Society). (1907). Nieuw archief voor wiskunde (New Archive of Mathematics). Amsterdam, Swets & Zeitlinger. OCLC 5814818
• Jansen, Marius B. (2000). The Making of Modern Japan. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Hall, John Whitney. (1991). The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 4. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
• Jansen, Marius B. (1995). The Emergence of Meiji Japan. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
• Jansen, Marius B. (1989). The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 5. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
• Totman, Conrad D. (1993). Early Modern Japan. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
• Hane, Mikiso and Perez, Louis G. (2009). Modern Japan: A Historical Survey. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
• Frédéric, Louis. (2002). Japan Encyclopedia. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Lu, David J. (1997). Japan: A Documentary History. Armonk, NY: East Gate Book.
• Hauser, William B. (1974). Economic Institutional Change in Tokugawa Japan: Osaka and the Kinai Cotton Trade. New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Shavit, David. (1990). The United States in Asia: A Historical Dictionary. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group.
• Cullen, L. M. (2003). A History of Japan, 1582-1941: Internal and External Worlds. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
• Cunningham, Mark E. and Zwier, Lawrence J. (2009). The End of the Shoguns and the Birth of Modern Japan. Minneapolis, MN: Twenty-First Century Books.
• McClain, James L. and Osamu, Wakita. (1999). Osaka: The Merchants' Capital of Early Modern Japan. New York: Cornell University Press.
• Jannetta, Ann Bowman. (2007). The Vaccinators: Smallpox, Medical Knowledge, and the "Opening" of Japan. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

External links

• "The Japanese Calendar", National Diet Library—historical overview plus illustrative images from library's collection

Tenpō	1st	2nd	3rd	4th	5th	6th	7th	8th	9th	10th	11th	12th	13th	14th	15th
Gregorian	1830	1831	1832	1833	1834	1835	1836	1837	1838	1839	1840	1841	1842	1843	1844

Preceded by: Bunsei

Era or nengō: Tenpō

Succeeded by: Kōka

Category:Japanese eras