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| url = http://web.uni-marburg.de/religionswissenschaft/journal/mjr/pdf/2005/yang2005.pdf
| url = http://web.uni-marburg.de/religionswissenschaft/journal/mjr/pdf/2005/yang2005.pdf
| accessdate = 2006-10-02}}</ref>
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Indonesia is the world’s most populous Muslim-majority nation with almost 86% of Indonesians declared [[Islam in Indonesia|Muslim]] according to the 2000 [[census]].<ref name='indoCIA'>Indonesia - The World Factbook https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/id.html</ref> 11% of the population is [[Christianity|Christian]] (of which roughly two-thirds are [[Protestant]]), 2% [[Hindu]], and 1% [[Buddhism|Buddhist]]. [[Shi'a]] form just over 1% of Indonesian Muslims.
Indonesia is the world’s most populous Muslim-majority nation with almost 86% of Indonesians declared [[Islam in Indonesia|Muslim]] according to the 2000 [[census]].<ref name='indoCIA'>Indonesia - The World Factbook https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/id.html</ref> 11% of the population is [[Christianity|Christian]] (of which roughly two-thirds are [[Protestant]]), 2% [[Hindu]], and 1% [[Buddhism|Buddhist]]. The [[Shi'a]] form just over 1% of Indonesian Muslims.


Before the arrival of the [[Abrahamic]] faiths of Christianity and Islam to the [[Malay Archipelago]], the popular belief systems in the region were thoroughly influenced by [[Indic]] religious philosophy through Hinduism and Buddhism. The influence of Hinduism and classical India remains a defining trait of [[Culture of Indonesia|Indonesian culture]]; including the Indian concept of the god-king which still shapes Indonesian concepts of leadership; the use of Sanskrit in courtly literature and adaptations of Indian mythology such as the ''Ramayana'' and ''Mahabharata''. The vast majority of today’s Indonesian Hindus are [[Balinese]] who, similar to ''abangan'' Muslims, follow a version of Hinduism fused with existing cultural and religious beliefs and markedly distinct from orthodox Hinduism. The Sumatra-based Sriwijava kingdom of the 7th century AD was the centre of Buddhism in Indonesia, however, most of today’s Buddhists in Indonesia are Chinese.
Before the arrival of the [[Abrahamic]] faiths of Christianity and Islam to the [[Malay Archipelago]], the popular belief systems in the region were thoroughly influenced by [[Indic]] religious philosophy through Hinduism and Buddhism. The influence of Hinduism and classical India remains a defining trait of [[Culture of Indonesia|Indonesian culture]]; including the Indian concept of the god-king which still shapes Indonesian concepts of leadership; the use of Sanskrit in courtly literature and adaptations of Indian mythology such as the ''Ramayana'' and ''Mahabharata''. The vast majority of today’s Indonesian Hindus are [[Balinese]] who, similar to ''abangan'' Muslims, follow a version of Hinduism fused with existing cultural and religious beliefs and markedly distinct from orthodox Hinduism. The Sumatra-based Sriwijava kingdom of the 7th century AD was the centre of Buddhism in Indonesia, however, most of today’s Buddhists in Indonesia are Chinese.

Revision as of 23:01, 12 October 2006

Template:Article Indonesian collaboration

Republic of Indonesia
Republik Indonesia
Motto: Bhinneka Tunggal Ika
(Old Javanese: Unity in Diversity)
National ideology: Pancasila
Anthem: Indonesia Raya
Location of Indonesia
Capital
and largest city
Jakarta
Official languagesIndonesian
GovernmentRepublic
• President
Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono
Jusuf Kalla
Independence 
From the Netherlands
• Declared
17 August 1945
• Recognised
27 December 1949
• Water (%)
4.85%
Population
• 2005 estimate
222,781,000 (4th)
• 2000 census
206,264,595
GDP (PPP)2005 estimate
• Total
$977.4 billion (15th)
• Per capita
$4,458[1] (110th)
HDI (2003)0.697
medium (110th)
CurrencyRupiah (IDR)
Time zoneUTC+7 to +9 (various)
• Summer (DST)
UTC+7 to +9 (not observed)
Calling code62
ISO 3166 codeID
Internet TLD.id

Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia (Indonesian: Republik Indonesia), is a nation of islands consisting of 18,110 islands in the South East Asian Archipelago. Indonesia (from Greek: indus = India nesos = islands) is the world's largest archipelagic nation. Its capital is Jakarta. Indonesia is bordered by the nations of Papua New Guinea, East Timor, and Malaysia. With a population of over 200 million, it is the world's fourth most populous country and the most populous Muslim-majority nation.

The Indonesian Archipelago, home of the Spice Islands, has been an important trade destination since ancient times, when early Chinese sailors began to find profit in the spice trade. Much of Indonesia's history has been influenced by the many foreign powers that have been drawn to the archipelago and by its wealth of natural resources. These have included Classical Hindus and Buddhists from India, Muslim traders in medieval times, and Europeans during the Age of Exploration who fought for monopolisation of the spice trade. Indonesia was colonized by the Dutch for over three centuries but declared its independence in 1945, which was internationally recognised four years later. Since then, Indonesia has had a turbulent history, including political instability and corruption, periods of rapid economic growth and decline, environmental catastrophe, and a recent democratisation process.

Indonesia is a unitary state, consisting of numerous distinct ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups spread across its many islands. The modern-day borders of Indonesia are based upon those of the Dutch East Indies colony, rather than on any preconceived notion of unity; however, a shared history of colonialism and rebellion against it, a national Indonesian language, and a majority religion (Islam) help to define Indonesia as a state. Indonesia's national motto, Bhinneka tunggal ika (derived from Old Javanese for unity in diversity), reflects the coming together of the country's myriad cultures, languages, and ethnic groups. However, sectarian tensions have threatened political stability in some regions, leading to violent confrontations and the secession of East Timor.

Etymology

The name Indonesia was derived the from Greek indus, meaning India, and nesos, meaning islands.[2] Dating back to the eighteenth century, the name far predates the formation of the Indonesian nation.[3] In 1849, an English etymology expert, George Samuel Windsor Earl, writing in an annual science journal,[4] suggested that the Hindia or Malaya archipelago choose a distinct name, suggesting either Indunesia or Melayunesia, although he favoured the latter.[3] In a concurrent article in the same publication,[5] another etymologist, James Richardson Logan, proposed using Indunesia over Melayunesia. He also changed the letter "u" to "o" to improve the pronunciation.[3] The first Indonesian to use the name was Suwardi Suryaningrat (Ki Hajar Dewantara), when he established a press bureau with the name Indonesische Pers-bureau in the Netherlands.[3]

History

Main article: History of Indonesia
File:Cubeb.jpg
Dried berries of Cubeb or Java Pepper

Fossil evidence suggests the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited by Homo erectus,[6] popularly termed the Java Man. Estimates of its existence range from 500,000[7] to 2 million years ago.[8] The modern peoples of Malay origin are descendants of immigrants from mainland South East Asia beginning around 6,000 years ago. Ideal agricultural conditions, and in particular the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the seventh century BC, allowed villages, towns and eventually small kingdoms to flourish by the first century AD. Around the same time, trade was established between both India and China, fostered by Indonesia’s highly strategic sea lane position which would continue to greatly influence the country’s history.

It was upon this trade, and the Hinduism and Buddhism that was brought with it, that the Sriwijaya kingdom flourished from the 7th century AD. It became a powerful naval state, which grew wealthy on the international trade it controlled through the region until its decline in the 12th century. During the 8th and 10th centuries AD, the agriculturally-based Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java with great monuments built, including Borobudur and Prambanan respectively. The Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in 1294, and under its military commander Gajah Mada stretched over much of modern day Indonesia. This period is referred to as a Golden Age in the country’s history.[9]

Arab traders first brought Islam to Indonesia in the late 12th century, establishing settlements in the Aceh region. It spread across the Indonesian archipelago, following trade routes. Rather than a violent conquest, it was, for the most part, peacefully laid over and mixed with existing cultural (and even religious) influences to form what is still the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia today, particularly in Java.

The logo of the Amsterdam Chamber of the VOC.

European traders first arrived in the early sixteenth century seeking to monopolise the sources of nutmeg, cloves, and cubeb pepper in The Moluccas. In 1506 the Portuguese, led by Ferdinand Magellan, were the first Europeans to arrive in Indonesia; the Dutch and British followed. The Dutch soon became the dominant traders in Indonesia, establishing the Dutch East India Company (VOC) in 1602. The VOC, however, was dissolved in 1798 and the government of the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a fully-fledged colony.

The Dutch colonial presence in Indonesia existed in various forms for over 300 years until the Japanese occupation in the second World War.[10] [11] During the war, Sukarno, a popular leader of the Indonesian Nationalist Party, cooperated with the occupying Japanese with the (ultimately successful) intention of strengthening the independence movement.[12] On August 17, 1945, Sukarno, with the Japanese organised National Committee of Independence (BPUPKI) unilaterally declared Indonesian independence.[13] Sukarno then became the first president, while Muhammad Hatta became the vice-president. Over the next four years, the Netherlands mounted military campaigns to reoccupy Indonesia, but in the face of international pressure acknowledged Indonesian independence in 1949.[14]

File:Soekarno Indonesia.jpg
Sukarno, Indonesia's founding president.

Increasing tensions between the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) and the Indonesian military culminated in an abortive coup on 30 September 1965 which saw six top-ranking generals murdered in circumstances that remain contentious even today. A quick counter-coup led by Major General Suharto resulted in an anti-communist purge centred mainly in Java and Bali, and to the deaths of hundreds of thousands of communists and their sympathisers.[15] Suharto capitalised on Sukarno's gravely weakened position and, by 1967, had manoeuvred himself into the presidency. Commonly referred to as the New Order,[16] Suharto's administration encouraged major foreign investment in Indonesia, which was to become a major factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth.

From 1997 to 1998, however, Indonesia became the country hardest hit by the East Asian Financial Crisis, aggravating popular discontent with Suharto, who already faced accusations of corruption, and further enflaming popular protests in early 1998.[17] On 21 May 1998, President Suharto announced his resignation, ushering in the Reformasi era in Indonesia.[18][19] A wide range of reforms have been introduced since then, including Indonesia's first direct presidential election in 2004, but progress has been slowed by political and economic instability, social unrest, terrorism and recent natural disasters. Although relations between different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, acute sectarian discontent, even violence, remains a problem in some areas. Political settlements relating to seperatism issues have been achieved in Aceh and East Timor, the latter having seceded from Indonesia in 1999.

Government and politics

Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, the President of Indonesia.

Template:Morepolitics Indonesia is a republic and a unitary state with a presidential system and power concentrated with the national government. The President of Indonesia is directly elected for a term of five years, and is the head of state, commander-in-chief of the Indonesian armed forces, and responsible for domestic governance, policy-making and foreign affairs. The president appoints a council of ministers, who are not required to be elected members of the legislature.

The highest legislative body is the Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat or 'People's Consultative Assembly,' consisting of the Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat or People's Representative Council, which is elected for a five-year term, and the Dewan Perwakilan Daerah or Regional Representatives Council. Following elections in 2004, the MPR became a bicameral parliament, with the creation of the DPD as its second chamber in an effort to increase regional representation.[20]

Indonesia is a founding member of the Association of South East Asian Nations,[21] and is therefore a member of both ASEAN+3 and the East Asia Summit. Since the 1980s, Indonesia has worked to develop close political and economic ties between South East Asian nations, and is influential in the Organization of Islamic Conference. During Suharto's presidency, Indonesia built strong relations with the United States,[22] while it had difficult relations with the People's Republic of China due to Suharto's anti-communist policies and domestic tensions with the Chinese ethnic community.[23][24]

Indonesia was internationally condemned for its invasion and annexation of East Timor in the 1970s, [25] for alleged human rights violations throughout the subsequent occupation, and for the military support of violent pro-integration militias following the 1999 independence referendum.[26] Under the administration of President Yudhoyono, a ceasefire agreement was reached with seperatists in Aceh in 2006, and in Papua there has been a significant, albeit imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy laws, and a reported decline in the levels of violence and human rights abuses. [27] In 2006, sensitivities over the Papua issue resulted in the Indonesian Government recalling its ambassador from Australia following the Australian government granting protection visas to 42 Papuan asylum seekers.[28]

File:021018 bali bombing.jpg
National flags at the explosion site in Kuta, Bali

Terrorism, linked to extreme Islamism, has been a critical challenge to the Indonesian government since 2000. The most deadly attack came in 2002, killing 202 people, including 164 international tourists, in the resort town of Kuta, Bali.[29] Subsequent, less deadly attacks have been made against western targets in Jakarta and again in Bali. The attacks, and subsequent travel warnings issued by a number of countries, have severely damaged the country’s important tourist industry and its foreign investment prospects.[30] Involving a high level of cooperation with other countries, the government has achieved substantial success in apprehending and prosecuting the perpetrators and also towards fracturing their organizations,[31][32] although terrorism is expected to be a major issue for Indonesia in the foreseeable future.

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Provinces of Indonesia and Subdivisions of Indonesia
Map of the provinces of Indonesia

Indonesia currently has 33 provinces, three of which have special status. One is a special capital region. The provinces are subdivided into regencies and cities, which are further subdivided into subdistricts.

Indonesian provinces:

  1. Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam*
  2. North Sumatra (Sumatera Utara)
  3. West Sumatra (Sumatera Barat)
  4. Riau
  5. Riau Islands (Kepulauan Riau)
  6. Jambi
  7. South Sumatra (Sumatera Selatan)
  8. Bangka-Belitung
  9. Bengkulu
  10. Lampung
  11. Jakarta*
  12. Banten
  13. West Java (Jawa Barat)
  14. Central Java (Jawa Tengah)
  15. Yogyakarta*
  16. East Java (Jawa Timur)
  17. West Kalimantan (Kalimantan Barat)
  1. Central Kalimantan (Kalimantan Tengah)
  2. South Kalimantan (Kalimantan Selatan)
  3. East Kalimantan (Kalimantan Timur)
  4. Bali
  5. West Nusa Tenggara (Nusa Tenggara Barat)
  6. East Nusa Tenggara (Nusa Tenggara Timur)
  7. North Sulawesi (Sulawesi Utara)
  8. Gorontalo
  9. Central Sulawesi (Sulawesi Tengah)
  10. West Sulawesi (Sulawesi Barat)
  11. South Sulawesi (Sulawesi Selatan)
  12. South East Sulawesi (Sulawesi Tenggara)
  13. Maluku
  14. North Maluku (Maluku Utara)
  15. West Irian Jaya (Irian Jaya Barat)
  16. Papua*

(*) indicates the provinces with special status.

The special territories have more autonomy from the central government than other provinces, and so have unique legislative privileges: the Acehnese government has the right to create an independent legal system, and instituted a form of sharia (Islamic Law) in 2003;[33] Yogyakarta remains a sultanate whose sultan (currently the widely popular Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono X) is the territory's de facto governor for life.[34] Papua (formerly called Irian Jaya) has had special status since 2001.[35] The special capital region is Jakarta. Though Jakarta is a single city, it is administered much as any other Indonesian province. For example, Jakarta has a governor (instead of a mayor), and is divided into several sub-regions with their own administrative systems.

East Timor was occupied by Indonesia from 1975 following a military invasion, until Indonesia relinquished its claims in 1999 after years of bitter fighting against East Timor guerrillas and abuses by Indonesian military forces against the East Timorese civilians.[36] Following a period of transitional administration by the UN, it became an independent state in 2002.

Geography

Map of Indonesia - click for high resolution version
Main article: Geography of Indonesia

At 1,919,440 km² (741,050 mi²), [37] Indonesia is the world's 16th-largest country in area. Its population density is 134.39 people per square kilometer, 79th in the world.[38]

Indonesia's 18,108 islands, about 6,000 of which are inhabited,[39] are scattered around the equator, giving the country a tropical climate. The most populated islands are Java (one of the most densely populated regions on Earth, where about half of the population lives), Sumatra, Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo shared with Malaysia and Brunei), New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea) and Sulawesi, formerly Celebes. Indonesia borders Malaysia on the island of Borneo (Indonesian: Kalimantan), Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea and East Timor on the island of Timor. In addition to the capital city of Jakarta, the nation's largest cities include Surabaya, Bandung, Medan, Palembang, and Semarang.

Mount Semeru and Mount Bromo, East Java: Indonesia's seismic and volcanic activity is among the world's highest.

Its location on the edges of three tectonic plates, specifically the Pacific, Eurasian, and Australian plates, makes Indonesia a site of frequent earthquakes and the resulting tsunamis. Indonesia has at least 66 volacanoes, [40] the most famous being the now-vanished Krakatau (Krakatoa) which was located between Sumatra and Java.

Ecology

Partly due to its vast size and tropical archipelago make-up, Indonesia has the world's second highest level of biodiversity (after Brazil) with its flora and fauna species a mixture of Asian and Australasian species.[41] Once linked to the Asian mainland, the Greater Sunda Islands (Sumatra, Kalimantan, Java and Bali) have a wealth of Asian fauna. Large species such as the tiger, rhinoceros, orangutan, elephant, and leopard, although once abundant and distributed as far east as Bali, have dwindled drastically in number and distribution. Sumatra and Kalimantan still contain vast forests, predominantly Asian in nature, but they are being logged at rapid rates, while the smaller but densely populated Java and Bali are now predominantly developed for habitation and agriculture. Originally part of the Australian landmass, the highlands of Papua enclose a number of unique environments, including over 600 bird species, with fauna closely related to Australia’s.[42] Sulawesi,[43] Nusa Tenggara and Maluku,[44] having been long separated from the continental landmasses, have developed their own unique flora and fauna.

The critically endangered Sumatran Orangutan, a great ape endemic to Indonesia

Surrounding a vast number of islands with over 80,000km of coastline, the warm, tropical seas of Indonesia also boast a high level of biodiversity, [2] corresponding with a diverse range of ecosystems including beaches, sand dunes, estuaries, mangroves, coral reefs, sea grass beds, coastal mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and small island ecosystems.

The British naturalist Alfred Wallace described a dividing line between the distribution of Indonesia's Asian and Australasian species, [45] Known as the Wallace Line, it runs along the edge of the Sunda shelf, between Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and along the deep Lombok Strait, between Lombok and Bali. West of the line, the flora and fauna are more Asian, and as one travels east from Lombok they are increasingly Australian. Wallace described not only the transition betwen Asian and Australasian species, but also numerous species unique to the surrounding area,[46] which is now known as Wallacea.[45]

As a highly populous country part way through a rapid industrialisation process, Indonesia faces some grave ecological issues, which are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance.[47] These issues include large-scale deforestation, much of it illegal, and related wildfires which cause heavy smog over parts of western Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore, over-exploitation of marine resources, and environmental problems associated with rapid urbanisation and economic development such as air pollution, traffic congestion, garbage management, and reliable water and waste water services.[47] Habitat destruction threatens the survival of many indigenous and endemic species, including 140 species of mammals identified by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) as threatened and 15 identified as critically endangered, including the Sumatran Orangutan.[48]

Economy

File:Indonesian Rupiah.jpg
Indonesian rupiah.
Main article: Economy of Indonesia

Major agricultural products include palm oil, rice, tea, coffee, spices and rubber and major industries include Petroleum and natural gas, textiles, apparel, and mining. Bank Indonesia, the country's central bank was established in 1974 and received its independent central bank status in 1999.[49] In 2005, the industrial production growth rate was 4.8% per annum, ranking 73rd in the world.[50] Major trading partners include Japan, the United States, Singapore, Malaysia, and Australia.[50]

The country has extensive natural resources outside Java, including crude oil, natural gas, tin, copper, and gold. Indonesia is the world’s largest LNG producer, exporting about 20% of the world’s total volume in 2002.[51] Apparently, in 2005, the income from exports was larger than the import's expenditure with $83.64 billion and $62.02 billion respectively. Indonesia's imports commodities include machinery and equipment, chemicals, fuels, and foodstuffs.[50]

Despite being the only East Asian member of OPEC, Indonesia's fuel production has declined significantly over the years, owing to aging oil fields and lack of investment in new equipment.[52] As a result, despite being an exporter of crude oil, Indonesia is now a net importer of oil and had previously subsidized fuel prices to keep prices low, costing US$ 7 billion in 2004.[53] The current president has mandated a significant reduction of government subsidy of fuel prices in several stages.[54] In order to alleviate economic hardships, the government has offered one-time subsidies to qualified citizens. The government has stated to reduce subsidies, aiming to reduce the budget deficit to 1% of gross domestic product (GDP) this year, down from around 1.7% last year. The real gross domestic product (GDP) of Indonesia is projected to reach 5.2% in the second half year of 2006.[55]

In the late 1990s, Indonesia suffered a drastic economic downturn followed by a significant but at times patchy and only partial recovery. This was largely due to the financial crisis that struck much of east Asia at the time, but was exacerbated by perceptions of corruption at all levels and a perceived slow pace of economic reform.[56]

Indonesia has received a great deal of economic aid from bilateral, multilateral and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Although Indonesia finished its IMF program in December 2003, the country still receives bilateral aid through the Consultative Group on Indonesia (CGI) which reached $2.8 billion for 2004 and 2005. Another aid package, totaling $5 billion, was granted through the NGO for the post-Tsunami reconstruction in Aceh. In total, Indonesia has received $43 billion in foreign aid.[50]

Education

See also: Education in Indonesia
File:Diknaslogo.JPG
Logo of the Logo of the Logo of the Ministry of Education of Indonesia

Education in Indonesia is the responsibility of the Ministry of Education of Indonesia (Departmen Pendidikan Nasional Republik Indonesia/Depdiknas). In Indonesia, every citizen has to have 9 years of education, 6 years at elementary level and 3 in middle school. Indonesian children education starts after the age of 5, since from birth until the age of 5, Indonesian children do not generally have access to formal education. From the age of 5 to 6 or 7, Indonesian children attend kindergarten (Taman Kanak-kanak). This education is not compulsory for Indonesian citizen, as most of the intention of this is to prepare them for primary school.

Children ages 7-12 attend Sekolah Dasar (SD) (literally elementary school). This level of education is compulsory for all Indonesian citizens, based on the national constitution. Middle school, generally known by the acronym 'SMP' (Sekolah Menengah Pertama) is a part of primary education as well; students attend middle school for three years from the age of 13 until the age of 15. Indonesian citizens do not have to attend high school as the citizens only require 9 years of education. This is also reflected by the number of high schools in Indonesia, with just slightly below 9,000 schools[57].

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Indonesia

Indonesia's population statistics are difficult to estimate. In the 2000 national census, an initial population estimate of 203 million was recorded, although only rough estimations made for the populations in Aceh and Papua, but the Indonesian government later revised the figure to 206 million.[58] The country's Central Statistics Bureau and Statistics Indonesia quoted 222 million as the population for 2006,[59] Indonesia has some of the most densely populated areas in the world: for example, Java is the most populous island in the world.[60]

Ethnic groups

Balinese boys in Ubud

Indonesia's population can be roughly divided into two groups. The west of the country is mostly occupied by Malay people, while the east by more Pacific. The people on the island of New Guinea are Papuan, with roots in the islands of Melanesia. There are approximately 300 different ethnicities in Indonesia and 742 different languages and dialects.[61][62] Small but significant populations of ethnic Chinese, Indians and Arabs are concentrated mostly in urban areas.

Minangkabau woman in traditional dress

Indonesia is a diverse country and not without ethnic tensions, particularly between Indonesians of Chinese ethnicity and the pribumi peoples, who are considered natives of Indonesia.[63] "Non-Pribumi" people are not always considered entirely Indonesian, leading to social tensions.[64] The riots in Jakarta in 1997 and 1998 highlight this recurring tension. Ethnic relations are strained mostly due to the disproportionately high wealth held by the Chinese relative to the Pribumi.[65] Public resentment of corruption, collusion, and nepotism (or KKN in Indonesian) that characterized Suharto's presidency was a major factor in the downfall of the New Order but also exacerbated ethnic tensions in Indonesia.[66]

The government-sponsored Transmigration program, at its peak between independence and the late 1990s, contributed to the spread of people from highly populated Java in the west to areas of eastern Indonesia. Ethnic and religious differences between immigrants from Java and the local peoples have been blamed for numerous difficulties, sometimes culminating in bloody conflicts. Examples include the conflict between the Javanese and the Maduranese,[67] and the massacre of hundreds of Madurese by a local Dayak community in West Kalimantan.[68] Other areas suffering fatal conflicts that were at least partly sparked by tensions between internal migrants and members of the pre-existing local population include Ambon,[69] Central Sulawesi,[70] and parts of Papua and West Irian Jaya (formerly known as Irian Jaya).

Languages

The official national language, Indonesian (Bahasa Indonesia in Indonesian), is universally taught in schools and is spoken by nearly every Indonesian. It is the language of business, politics, national media, education and academia. Yet, in isolated areas even on the major islands it is not uncommon to find villagers who are not familiar with Indonesian.[71][72] It was originally a lingua franca for most of the region, including present-day Malaysia (and is thus closely related to Malay), accepted by the Dutch as the de facto language for the colony, and declared the official language after independence.

Most Indonesians speak at least one of the several hundred local languages (bahasa daerah), often as their first language. Of these, Javanese is the most widely-spoken language, as it is the language of the largest ethnic group.[50]

Religion

Main article: Religion in Indonesia
Istiqlal Mosque in Jakarta
File:Map Indonesian religions.jpg
Indonesia religions map
Although all 6 recognised religions are represented thoughout Indonesia, this maps shows the majority group for each area

The Indonesian constitution guarantees religious freedom for all, [73]although officially it only recognises six religions, namely Islam, Protestantism, Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism and Confucianism.[74] Indonesia is the world’s most populous Muslim-majority nation with almost 86% of Indonesians declared Muslim according to the 2000 census.[50] 11% of the population is Christian (of which roughly two-thirds are Protestant), 2% Hindu, and 1% Buddhist. The Shi'a form just over 1% of Indonesian Muslims.

Before the arrival of the Abrahamic faiths of Christianity and Islam to the Malay Archipelago, the popular belief systems in the region were thoroughly influenced by Indic religious philosophy through Hinduism and Buddhism. The influence of Hinduism and classical India remains a defining trait of Indonesian culture; including the Indian concept of the god-king which still shapes Indonesian concepts of leadership; the use of Sanskrit in courtly literature and adaptations of Indian mythology such as the Ramayana and Mahabharata. The vast majority of today’s Indonesian Hindus are Balinese who, similar to abangan Muslims, follow a version of Hinduism fused with existing cultural and religious beliefs and markedly distinct from orthodox Hinduism. The Sumatra-based Sriwijava kingdom of the 7th century AD was the centre of Buddhism in Indonesia, however, most of today’s Buddhists in Indonesia are Chinese.

Islam was first brought to northern Sumatra by Arab traders in the 13th century and had become Indonesia’s dominant religion by the 15th and 16th centuries. Although Islam was once mainly practiced in Java and parts of Sumatra, emigration, largely from Java, has increased the number of Muslims living in Bali, Borneo, Sulawesi, Maluku, and Papua. Like other religions in Indonesia, Islam has blended with local traditional beliefs such as the Abangan (or traditionalist) Muslims on highly populous Java [75] and other mixed belief systems in northern Sumatra and Kalimantan. Abangan religious practises are distinctly Indonesian and often differ from more orthodox Islam. Significantly this includes generally higher freedom and status for women in society. Islam in Indonesia, as a whole, has generally been practiced in a tolerant manner, with the majority not overly concerned about following the religion to the letter. That does not imply that Indonesian Muslims are not earnest about their religion with millions of Indonesians having made the pilgrimage to Mecca, and daily the religion plays a central role in the lives of its adherents.

Catholicism was first brought to Indonesia by early Portuguese colonialists and missionaries, and the Protestant denominaions are largely a result of Dutch Calvinist and Lutheran missionary efforts during its colonial time, although these efforts did not extend to Java or other predominantly Muslim areas. As with Islam and Hinduism, many Christian beliefs in Indonesia are fused with animism and other traditional beliefs and cultural practises.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Indonesia
A Wayang kulit shadow puppet performance as seen by the audience
The 9th century Buddhist monumnet, Borobudur in Central Java

Indonesia has around 300 ethnic groups each with cultural differences which have shifted over the centuries. One example is the Borobudur temple, which is a mix of Hinduism and Javanese culture, as it was built by a Javanese dynasty, the Sailendra. Indonesia has also imported cultural aspects from Arabic, Chinese, Malay and even European sources.

Art forms in Indonesia have been influenced by several cultures. The famous Javanese and Balinese dances, for example, contain aspects of Hindu culture and mythology. Also well-known are the Javanese and Balinese wayang kulit shadow theatre shows, displaying several mythological events. Several islands are famous for their batik, ikat and songket cloth.

Pencak Silat is a unique martial art originating from the archipelago.

Indonesian music varies within cities and groups as people who live in the countryside would listen to a different kind of music than people in the city. Although rock was introduced in Indonesia by Indonesian rock band, God Bless (see Ian Antono),[76] native Indonesian music is still preserved. Examples of Indonesian traditional music are Gamelan and Keroncong. A more modern form of Indonesian native music is Dangdut. The movie industry's popularity peaked in the 1980s and dominated cinemas in Indonesia,[77] although it fell significantly in the early 1990s.[78] For instance, in 1990, 115 local movies were produced while only 37 movies produced in 1993. However, as of the year 2000, the movie industry has improved gradually with a number of successful movies.[77]

Media freedom in Indonesia increased considerably after the end of President Suharto's rule, during which the now-defunct Ministry of Information monitored and controlled domestic media and restricted foreign media. [79] The TV market includes 10 national commercial networks, which compete with public TVRI. Some provinces also operate their own stations. Private radio stations carry their own news bulletins and foreign broadcasters can supply programmes. The radio dial is crowded, with scores of stations on the air in Jakarta alone. Internet use is increasing Bisnis Indonesia reported in 2004 that there were 10 million users.

See also

Template:Indonesian Topics

Further reading

History

  • Beekman, E.M. (editor), Fugitive Dreams: An anthology of Dutch colonial literature, 2000 Periplus Editions Ltd, Hong Kong, ISBN 9652-593-327-0
  • Drakeley, S: The History of Indonesia, Westport, Connecticut : Greenwood, 2005, 201 pages, ISBN 0-313-33114-6
  • Friend, T Indonesian Destinies, Harvard University Press, 2003, hardcover, 544 pages, ISBN 0-674-01137-6
  • Milton, G., Nathaniel’s Nutmeg: How one man's courage changed the course of history, 2000 Sceptre; 400 pages, ISBN 0340696761
  • Raffles, T.S. The History of Java, Oxford Univ Pr (T) 1979 (originally published 1817), ISBN: 0195803477
  • Ricklefs, M.C, A History of Modern Indonesia 2002 Stanford University Press; 3rd ed, 512 pages, ISBN0804744793

Politics & economics

  • Luwarso, L.(editor), Jakarta Crackdown, 1997, Alliance of Independant Journalists, FORUM-ASIA, & ISAI, 318 pages.
  • Schwarz, A. 1999, A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia's Search for Stability, Westview Press; 2nd edition (October 1999), ISBN0813336503
  • Llyod G, Smith S, Indonesia Today, Lanham, Maryland : Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2001, 343 pages, ISBN 0-7425-1761-6

Travel literature

  • Wallace, A.R., The Malay Archipelago, 1869, 515 pages. (re-released paperback edition by Periplus Editions Ltd, 2000, ISBN 962-593-645-9)

Society

  • Magnis-Suseno, F., Javanese Ethics and World View: The Javanese idea of the good life, 1981 (translated from the German 1997), PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, ISBN 979-605-406-X
  • Pramoedya, A., Tales from Djakarta: caricatures of circumstances and their human beings, Equinox Publishing (Asia) PTE LTD, 2000 (first published 1963), Jakarta, ISBN979-95898-1-9.
  • Koch, C., The Year of Living Dangerously (fiction), 1978 Michael Joseph Ltd, London.

Arts & culture

  • Dawson, B., Gillow, J., The Traditional Architecture of Indonesia, 1994 Thames and Hudson Ltd, London, ISBN 0-500-34132X
  • Richter, A., Arts & Crafts of Indonesia, 1993 Thames and Hudson Ltd, London, 160 pages, ISBN 0-8118-0454-2.
  • Wijaya, M., Architecture of Bali: A source book of traditional and modern forms, 2002 Archipelago Press, Singapore, 224 pages, ISBN 981-4068-25-X

Natural history

  • Whitten, T., Whitten, T, Wild Indonesia: The wildlife & scenery of the Indonesian archipelago, 1992 New Holland Ltd, London, ISBN 1-85368-128-8
  • The Ecology of Indonesia Series (7 volumes), 1996. Periplus Editions.

Notes

  1. ^ Estimate "World Economic Outlook Database" (Press release). International Monetary Fund. April 2006. Retrieved 2006-10-05. {{cite press release}}: Check |url= value (help)
  2. ^ a b Tomascik, T (1996). The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas - Part One. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. ISBN 962-593-078-7. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help).
  3. ^ a b c d Anshory, Irfan (2004-08-16). "Asal Usul Nama Indonesia". Pikiran Rakyat. Retrieved 2006-10-05. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) Template:Id icon
  4. ^ Earl, George Samuel Windsor (1849). "On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations". Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA). {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  5. ^ Logan, James Richardson (1849). "On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations". Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA). {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  6. ^ Pope (1988). "Recent advances in far eastern paleoanthropology". Annual Review of Anthropology. 17. Annual Review: 43–77.cited in Whitten, T (1996). The Ecology of Java and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. pp. 309–312. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  7. ^ Pope, G (August 15, 1983). "Evidence on the Age of the Asian Hominidae". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 80 (16). National Academy of Sciences: 4, 988–4992. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) cited in Whitten, T (1996). The Ecology of Java and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. p. 309. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  8. ^ de Vos, J.P. (9 December 1994). "Dating hominid sites in Indonesia" (PDF). Science Magazine. 266 (16). The American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS): 4, 988–4992. doi:10.1126/science.7992059. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) cited in Whitten, T (1996). The Ecology of Java and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. p. 309. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  9. ^ "Javanese Influence". Balix. Retrieved 2006-10-05.
  10. ^ Sejarah Indonesia: An Online Timeline of Indonesian History, Gimonca.com, web site [http://www.gimonca.com/sejarah/sejarah02.shtml "1500 to 1670: Great Kings and Trade.
  11. ^ Moser, John (2005). "Turning the Tide in the Pacific, 1941-1943".
  12. ^ Toer, Pramoedya Ananta (1999). "Sukarno".
  13. ^ Smitha, Frank E. "Independence for Indonesia".
  14. ^ "Indonesian War of Independence" Dutch wanted to reoccupy Indonesia
  15. ^ Roosa, John and Nevins, Joseph (2005) "40 Years Later: The Mass Killings in Indonesia"
  16. ^ The Library Congress. "History of Indonesia #10".
  17. ^ Parker, Randall (2004). "Suharto Of Indonesia Embezzled Most Of Any Modern Leader".
  18. ^ Parker, Randall (2004). "Suharto Of Indonesia Embezzled Most Of Any Modern Leader".
  19. ^ Hefner, Robert W (2000). "Religious Ironies in East Timor".
  20. ^ Indonesian Embassy, China, Regional Representatives Council
  21. ^ BERNAMA (6 Dec 2001). "Country Profile Indonesia: Great Archipelago of Diversity". BERNAMA.com: 11th Annual ASEAN Summit 2005. BERNAMA.
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  23. ^ Indonesian Legal Studies Foundation (March 2006). "Discrimination against Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia" (PDF). FOCUS Asia=Pacific, Vol.43, pp2-3. Asia-Pacific Human Rights Information Center (HURIGHTS OSAKA).
  24. ^ Human Rights Watch (2 Nov 1997). "Discrimination against Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia". HRW.org, New York.
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  29. ^ "Commemoration of 3rd anniversy of bombings". AAP. The Age Newspaper. 2006-12-10. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  30. ^ "Travel Warning: Indonesia". US Embassy, Jakarta. 2005-5-10. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  31. ^ Cambrensis, Giraldius (2006-03-08). "Australia: Islamist Bomb Threats Taken Seriously". Western Resistance. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
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  33. ^ Kassim. "Yang Razali" (PDF). IDSS Commentaries. Retrieved 2006-10-05. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  34. ^ Negoro, Suryo S. (1998). "Arts, Cultures, Rituals and Other Information of Puro Pakualaman". Joglosemar. Sangga Sarana Persada. Retrieved 2006-10-05. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  35. ^ Dursin, Richel (2004-11-18). "Another Fine Mess in Papua". Editorial. The Jakarta Post. Retrieved 2006-10-05. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  36. ^ Miller, John M. (2001-04-03). "Indonesian General on Trial in U.S. Court". Timor Post. Retrieved 2006-10-05. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  37. ^ Central Intelligence Agency (2006-09-07). "Rank Order Area". The World Factbook. US CIA, Washington, DC. Retrieved 2006-09-17.
  38. ^ "Population density - Persons per sq km 2006". CIA world factbook. Photius Coutsoukis. 2006. Retrieved 2006-10-04.
  39. ^ "Indonesian Geography". U.S. Library of Congress. Country Studies - Indonesia.
  40. ^ Topinka, USGS/CVO, 2001; base map modified from CIA map, 1997; volcanoes from: Simkin & Siebert, 1994
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  43. ^ Whitten,, T. (1996). The Ecology of Sulawesi. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. ISBN 962-593-075-2. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  44. ^ Monk,, K.A. (1996). The Ecology of Nusa Tenggara and Maluku. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. ISBN 962-593-076-0. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  45. ^ a b Severin, Tim (1997). The Spice Island Voyage: In Search of Wallace. Great Britain: Abacus Travel. ISBN 0-349-11040-9.
  46. ^ Wallace, A.R. (2000 (originally 1869)). The Malay Archipelago. Periplus Editions. ISBN 962-593-645-9. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= (help),
  47. ^ a b Jason R. Miller (1997-01-30). "Deforestation in Indonesia and the Orangutan Population". TED Case Studies. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  48. ^ Massicot, Paul. "Animal Info - Indonesia". Animal Info - Information on Endangered Mammals.
  49. ^ Banking With The Poor Network Bank Indonesia overview
  50. ^ a b c d e f Indonesia - The World Factbook https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/id.html
  51. ^ Energy Information Administration 2004, The Global LNG Market, LNG Exporters Washington DC, viewed 17 Sept 2006
  52. ^ "Indonesia" (PDF). APEC Energy Demand and Supply Outlook 2006. Indonesia. Retrieved 2006-10-06. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  53. ^ Guerin, B. (Mar 10, 2005). "Tigers count the cost of easing fuel subsidies". Asia Times Online. Asia Times Online Ltd, Bangkok. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  54. ^ BBC News (31 August 2005). "Indonesia plans to slash fuel aid". BBC, London. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  55. ^ "IMF Executive Board Concludes 2006 Article IV Consultation and Fifth Post-Program Monitoring Discussions with Indonesia". Public Information Notice (PIN) No. 06/91. International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC. August 7, 2006. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  56. ^ Guerin, G. (23 May 2006). "Don't count on a Suharto accounting". Asia Tims Online. Asia Times Online Ltd, Hong Kong. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  57. ^ High school statistics between 2004-2005 http://www.depdiknas.go.id/statistik/thn04-05/SMA_0405.htm
  58. ^ "2000 Population Statistics" (Press release). Indonesian Central Statistics Bureau. 30 June 2000. Retrieved 2006-10-05.
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  60. ^ Calder, Joshua (3 May 2006). "Most Populous Islands". World Island Information. Retrieved 2006-09-26.
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  62. ^ Merdekawaty, E. (2006-07-06). ""Bahasa Indonesia" and languages of Indonesia" (PDF). UNIBZ - Introduction to Linguistics. Free University of Bozen. Retrieved 2006-07-17. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  63. ^ Ocorandi, M. (28 May 1998). "An Analysis of the Implication of Suharto's resignation for Chinese Indonesians". Worldwide HuaRen Peace Mission. Retrieved 2006-09-26.
  64. ^ Swasono, M. F. (1997). "Indigenous Cultures in the Development of Indonesia". INTEGRATION OF ENDOGENOUS CULTURAL DIMENSION INTO DEVELOPMENT. Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, New Delhi. Retrieved 2006-09-17. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  65. ^ Long, S. (1998-04-09). "The Overseas Chinese". Prospect Magazine. Retrieved 2006-09-17. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  66. ^ Winarta, F. H. (August 2004). "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika Belum Menjadi Kenyataan Menjelang HUT Kemerdekaan RI Ke-59". Komisi Hukum Nasional Republik Indonesia (National Law Commission, Republic of Indonesia), Jakarata. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)Template:Id icon
  67. ^ Pudjiastuti, T. N. (2002). "Migration & Conflict in Indonesia" (PDF). International Union for the Scientific Study of Population (IUSSP), Paris. Retrieved 2006-09-17. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  68. ^ Program on Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research [1] Conflict in Kalimantan]
  69. ^ Ajawaila, J.W. (1999). Proposal Pemecahan Masalah Kerusuhan di Ambon. Ambon, Indonesia: Fica-Net. Retrieved 2006-09-29. {{cite conference}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  70. ^ Kyoto University: Sulawesi Kaken Team & Center for Southeast Asian Studies Bugis Sailors
  71. ^ Crawford, Brian. South of the Philippines, East of Kalimantan, West of the Malukus. Conservation Strategies. Retrieved 2006-10-05.
  72. ^ Salazar, Noel B. (2006-04-06). An Anthropologist's Report from Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Penn Museum Research.
  73. ^ "The 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia". US-ASEAN. Retrieved 2006-10-02.
  74. ^ Yang, Heriyanto (August 2005). "The History and Legal Position of Confucianism in Post Independence Indonesia" (PDF). Religion. 10 (1): 8. Retrieved 2006-10-02.
  75. ^ Magnis-Suseno, F. 1981, Javanese Ethics and World-View: The Javanese Idea of the Good Life, PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta, 1997, pp. 15-18, viewed 17 Sept 2006 ISBN979-605-406-x
  76. ^ Diaz (editor) (2005). "Ian Antono:Pelopor Gitar Hero Indonesia". Biography of Ian Antono. Gitaris.com. {{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)Template:Id icon
  77. ^ a b Kristianto, JB (2005-07-02). "Sepuluh Tahun Terakhir Perfilman Indonesia" (in Indonesian). Kompas. Retrieved 2006-10-05.
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  79. ^ Shannon L., Smith (2001). Indonesia Today: Challenges of History. Melbourne, Australia: Singapore : Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 0-7425-1761-6. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

Government

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