Rehabilitation and reintegration of child soldiers

A child soldier, as defined by the Cape Town Principles, is:

Any person under 18 years of age who is part of any kind of regular or irregular armed force in any capacity, including but not limited to cooks, porters, messengers, and those accompanying such groups, other than purely as family members. It includes girls recruited for sexual purposes and forced marriage. It does not, therefore, only refer to a child who is carrying or has carried arms. (UNICEF 1997)

The International Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (1998) advocates for the acceptance of and adherence to various laws and standards (including the Convention on the Rights of the Child) in order to end military recruitment of children under the age of 18.

Child soldiers can take on many roles, including active fighting, acting as spies or lookouts, or acting in support roles, such as medic, porter, cook, or agricultural laborer.^[1] While some child soldiers are abducted and forced to serve, others choose to serve. In many countries, choosing to serve in an armed group is the best alternative for the child. Many children join because these groups will provide food, shelter, and a sense of security. For instance, in the Democratic Republic of Congo, the choices facing children are often “to join the military, become a street child, or die” (Refugees International 2002). Similar situations face children throughout the world, with cited instances in Columbia and Sri Lanka. There is often a stigma that children who belonged to armed groups are immoral, untrustworthy, or dangerous and therefore many individuals are rejected by community members, making integration difficult.^[2] Former soldiers often have to fabricate “second stories” and live in fear of their former identity being discovered and it leading to loss of status, discrimination, exclusion, or even retaliation.^[2]

In order to accommodate the proper disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration of former members of armed groups, the United Nations started the Integrated DDR Standards in 2006.^[2] Disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) are applied strategies for executing successful peacekeeping operations, especially after civil wars. Disarmament entails the physical removal of the means of combat from ex-belligerents (weapons, ammunition, etc.), demobilization entails the disbanding of armed groups, and reintegration describes the process of reintegrating former combatants into civilian society, ensuring against the possibility of a resurgence of armed conflict. Programming usually has a number of components including a focus on psycho-social care, on returning to schooling, on job training, and on support for initiatives (through various regional partnerships) and children either go back to their family (with a monthly subsidy) or get sent to foster homes temporarily.^[2]

Female recruits

Between 1990 and 2002, female soldiers were involved in internal armed conflicts in 36 countries.^[1] In countries such as Angola, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Sierra Leone, and Uganda, as many as 30-40% of child soldiers are female.^[1] Reasons for joining these groups are varied. In Colombia, many girls decide to join for ideological and financial reasons, although being in with love with an existing soldier is also a common reason cited. In Colombia and Cambodia, girls are also often given as “tax payment” by parents.^[1] While serving as part of a fighting group is a traumatic experience for any child, the gender of the child must be taken into account in order to ensure that both males and females get effective help. Local anecdotes have found that females are often referred to as “wives”, “rewards for soldiers’ valor”, or victims of social terror. Other common roles include spies, porters, or minesweepers.^[1]

A 13-year-old fighter from Honduras reports:

“Later I joined the armed struggle. I had all the inexperience and the fears of a little girl. I found out that girls were obliged to have sexual relations to alleviate the sadness of the combatants. And who alleviated our sadness after going with someone we hardly knew?” (United Nations 1996b).

Health and psycho-social effects after reintegration

Evidence has shown that female soldiers are released (as part of a DDR program) at lower rates than male soldiers.^[1] Many female child soldiers suffer from a variety of health effects including, but not limited to, pregnancy and birth complications, vaginal and cervical tearing and sores, lack of health and medical infrastructure, and effects related to inequalities such as poorer health care, heavier workloads, and less freedom.^[1] Other health effects include STDs and HIV which are oftentimes passed down during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding.^[1] Consequences for pregnancies depend on the reproductive status and practices of the armed group. Females could either be encouraged to carry the pregnancy (to create future fighters), be forced to abort, or if carried to term, female soldiers often would have to give their child to peasants to raise then reclaim when he or she reached fighting age.^[1]

During reintegration, many of these females experience a variety of negative psycho-social effects. Reintegrated females often do not desire to enter into any marital relationships, sometimes choosing to withdraw from men altogether. This often results in further social stigma and further societal isolation.^[1] 

For effective rehabilitation and reintegration, measures must be taken to make sure that participation in reintegration for these females does not result in stigmatization and that cultural and religious rituals and practices are used for reintegration. Aside from these measures, more action must be taken to ensure that females have the necessary resources. Such resources would ensure proper life maintenance and preventative security from further sexual assault and violence. In order to maximize security for past child soldiers, programs should be carried out by human rights organizations rather than the armed forces..^[1]

Case studies

Colombia

The Colombian armed conflict involves a number of groups including the Colombian government’s National Army, guerilla groups (such as the National Liberation Army and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia), and paramilitary groups such as the United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia. In 2004, Colombia ranked fourth for the highest use of child soldiers in the world and currently, there are about 5,000-14,000 children in armed groups in the country (Watchlist 2004, Watchlist 2012). Current DDR programs in Colombia are carried out by the Colombian Family Welfare Institute (ICBF) and have focused on a “post-conflict” framework instead of the actual one where conflict is still ongoing.^[2] Former Colombian child soldiers reported the most difficult parts of reintegration as being the transition from rural to urban life (often for heightened security), reuniting with their family, and being taken out from a context of organized armed violence.^[2] 

Existing DDR programs in Colombia predominantly focus on protecting former soldiers from each other rather than addressing the fear and stigma that each group suffers. Many in Colombia have viewed the services granted under DDR programs as granting impunity to these individuals for former crimes. Instead, advocates have pushed for a public awareness through campaigns and advocacy in order to eliminate existing stigma (Thomas 2008).^[2]

Sierra Leone

Sierra Leone endured a civil war from 1991 to 2002. Child soldiers played a key role in the Revolutionary United Front and a more minor role in government forces and various militias throughout the countryside. UNICEF states that during this time period 84,666 children were officially documented as missing. The conflict seemed to come to an end with the signing of the Lome accord in 1999. However, conflict still flared up and fighting did not cease until 2000. The disarmament and demobilization portions ended in January 2002.

The rehabilitation and reintegration process focused primarily on community-based solutions. The main goal was to reunite children with their families. To this end, a number of Interim Care Centers (ICCs) were established and administered by child protection NGOs. These ICCs sought to serve as temporary stops for children while their family was searched for. In the end, 98% of demobilized children were reunited with one or both parents, older siblings, or extended family. ICCs kept children for no longer than six weeks before returning former child soldiers to family or foster care. ICCs began the process of rehabilitating these kids back into society. They separated child soldiers from the command structures that dominated much of their lives over the past few years. Additionally, former child soldiers were to become re-accustomed to domestic life through their involvement with ICCs. This included performing chores, living on a normal schedule, receiving an education, and playing with other children. Notably, the ICCs were not focused on providing formal, western psychotherapy sessions and less than 100 children received therapy. These sessions were applied sparingly and deemed as largely unnecessary by most organizations working with child soldiers on the ground.

Reintegration centered on easing former child soldiers back into their communities. Parents and family members were often eager to welcome back children who had been child soldiers. To help them, various NGOs provided local family classes on how to deal with children who had been traumatized by the troubles of war. The local community, on the other hand, was less accepting of these children and often even attacked aid workers for being associated with child soldiers. This did not apply to children who were part of the pro-government Civil Defense Force, which was widely seen as helpful to local communities. Wider social acceptance is shown in studies to have been crucial in easing trauma from child soldiers. To this end, communities were educated as to the traumas experienced by child soldiers as well as given help to organize traditional cleansing ceremonies. Additionally, children who were branded with symbols of the groups who abducted them were given plastic surgery to remove scars or tattoos. Beyond this, schools received additional funding in order to incentivize the intake of former child soldiers.

92% of the participants in UNICEF’s formal DDR program were males. Former female child soldiers were often not included out of personal shame or due to not being combatants. Many female children were used for sex or married off in bush marriages. These marriages tended to keep females isolated and their husbands often would not allow them to engage in rehabilitation programs. Additionally, ICCs were often integrated between genders leading to female former child soldiers reporting instances of harassment or assault by males.

South Sudan

The Second Sudanese Civil War (1983-2002) was fought between the central Sudanese Government and the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA). In 2005, a Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) was signed by both parties. The immediate release of all child soldiers was supposed to occur after the signage of the CPA, but due to lingering tensions, this did not occur. Some, but not all child soldiers were released form the SPLA. DDR policies were developed to help former soldiers and create a more stable infrastructure aimed at ensuring human safety for the future. Creating the DDR policies was difficult because neither the government nor the SPLA shared exact numbers or demographics of their soldiers.

Child soldiers were labeled a ‘special group’ and in the drafting of the Interim Disarmament Demobilization and Reintegration Program (IDDRP), they were given special protections. After the signing of the CPA, policy-makers began working on a multi-year DDR program. The DDR programs included health checks, education opportunities, employment opportunities, bundles of supplies, and other services. After DDR began to be implemented, it was discovered that most of the people who were being chosen to participate were not actually active members of the military. Therefore, many of the people who had left the ranks of the military were being drawn back in order to take part in the DDR program. Largely, the DDR efforts for child soldiers in South Sudan failed, mainly due to remaining tensions and a likelihood of continued war.

In 2013, the conflicts resumed after the president and vice president declared war on each other and the warfare is still ongoing. In 2015, there was a reported 16,000 children being used by armed groups in South Sudan. Due to the armed conflict, more than half of elementary and primary school-aged children were not receiving an education. Researchers have argued that education is vital in preventing re-recruitment, but accessing education is difficult for demobilized former child soldiers because of the effects of war, socioeconomic status, and a lack of educational structures. Children in South Sudan who have participated in or been involved with the conflict report feelings of isolation, stigma, and exclusion.