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However, there is a first generation of scholars from the 1970s who looked at science and technology generally from a Marxist perspective (and not from the purview of [[Thomas Kuhn|post-Kuhnian]] STS) such as [[Dharampal]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dharampal|title=Indian Science and Technology in the Eighteenth Century|date=1971|publisher=Impex India|location=Delhi}}</ref> Abdur Rahman,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rahman|first1=Abdur|title=Trimurti: Science, Technology and Society: A Collection of Essays|date=1972|publisher=People's Publishing House|location=Delhi}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Rahman|first1=Abdur|title=Triveni: Science, Democracy and Socialism|date=1977|publisher=Indian Institute of Advanced Studies|location=Simla}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Rahman|first1=Abdur|title=Science Polcy Studies in India: A Status Report|date=1977|publisher=CSIR|location=New Delhi}}</ref> [[Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Chattopadhyay|first1=Debiprasad|title=Science and Society in Ancient India|date=1977|publisher=Research India Publications|location=Calcutta}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Chattopadhyay|first1=Debiprasad|title=History of Science in India, Vol. 1 & 2|date=1982|publisher=Editorial Enterprises|location=New Delhi}}</ref> and SN Sen.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sen|first1=S.N.|title=Changing Perspectives in the History of Sciences|journal=Science and Culture|date=1966|volume=31|issue=5|pages=214–219}}</ref> Works of [[John Desmond Bernal|J.D. Bernal]] and [[Joseph Needham Professor of Chinese History, Science, and Civilization|Joseph Needham]] had a strong influence on the Indian STS in its formative years.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Raina|first1=Dhruv|title=Needham's Indian Network: The Search for a Home for the History of Science in India (1950-1970)|date=2015|publisher=Yoda Press|location=New Delhi}}</ref> The New Social Movements of the 1970s and 1980s in India contributed immensely to the emergence of the discipline, as these movements and activists groups influenced by Marxist, Gandhian and deep ecological perspectives could not avoid engaging with modern science and the modernization project in the post-colony. An important turning point was the creation of two institutions to study the social relations of science: Center for Interaction of Science and Society, Jawaharlal Nehru University,<ref>[http://www.jnu.ac.in/sss/cssp/default.htm Jawaharlal Nehru University]</ref> New Delhi (estd. 1970), and the [[National Institute of Science, Technology and Development Studies|National Institute for Science, Technology and Development Studies]] (NISTADS), New Delhi (estd: 1980). However, the Center for Interaction of Science and Society was closed in the late 1970s by the state, finding it too critical of the nuclear energy/weaponry policies of the [[Indira Gandhi]] regime.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bmartin.cc/pubs/96ce/7_Sharma.pdf|title=Confronting the nuclear power structure in India|last=Sharma|first=Dhirendra|access-date=2016-04-17}}</ref> In the 1990s, the field became vibrant with the intervention of a group of social historians of science inspired by postcolonial studies such as [[David Arnold]], [[Deepak Kumar]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kumar|first1=Deepak|title=Science and the Raj:|date=1995|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New Delhi}}</ref> [[Dhruv Raina]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Raina|first1=Dhruv|title=Images and Contexts: The Historiography of Science and Modernity in India|date=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New Delhi}}</ref> [[S. Irfan Habib]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Raina|first1=Dhruv|last2=Habib|first2=S. Irfan|title=Situating the History of Science: Dialogues with Joseph Needham|date=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New Delhi}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Raina|first1=Dhruv|last2=Habib|first2=S. Irfan|title=Domesticating Modern Science: A Social History of Science and Culture in Colonial India|date=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New Delhi}}</ref> Itty Abraham,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Abraham|first1=Itty|title=The Making of Indian Atomic Bomb: Science, Security and the Postcolonial State'|date=1998|publisher=Zed Books|location=London}}</ref> [[Gyan Prakash]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Prakash|first1=Gyan|title=Another Reason: Science and the Imagination of Modern India|date=1999|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton}}</ref> and Zaheer Baber.<ref>Zaheer Baber 1996. ''The Science of Empire''. State University of New York Press, New york.</ref> Works of sociologists like Harish Naraindas,<ref>{{cite book|last=Naraindas|first=Harish|title="Poisons, putrescence and the weather: A genealogy of the advent of Tropical Medicine", in Contributions to Indian Sociology|date=1996|publisher=Sage|location=New Delhi}}</ref> VV Krishna,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Krishna|first1=Venni Venkita|title=S.S.Bhatnagar on Science, Technology and Development, 1938-54|date=1994|publisher=Wiley Eastern Ltd|location=New Delhi}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Krishna|first1=Venni Venkita|last2=Shinn|first2=Terry|last3=Spaapen|first3=J.|title=Science and Technology in a Developing World (Sociology of Sciences Year Book 1995),|date=1995|publisher=Kluwer Publications|location=The Netherlands}}</ref> E. Haribabu and Binaykumar Patnaik<ref>{{cite book|last1=Patnaik|first1=Binaykumar|title=The Scientific Temper: An Empirical Study|date=1992|publisher=Rawat Publications|location=New Delhi}}</ref> also are significant to the development of the field, along with the philosophical enquiries of Prajit K. Basu and Sunder Sarukkai.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sarukkai|first1=Sunder|title=Translating the World: Science and Language|date=2002|publisher=University Press of America|location=Lanham}}</ref> Extensive research carried out by Rajeseswari S. Raina<ref>[http://snu.edu.in/humanitiessocialsciences/rajeswari_s_raina_profile.aspx Rajeseswari S. Raina]</ref> on agricultural knowledge systems and developmental practices, and Neelam Kumar's work on women and science also must be noted.
However, there is a first generation of scholars from the 1970s who looked at science and technology generally from a Marxist perspective (and not from the purview of [[Thomas Kuhn|post-Kuhnian]] STS) such as [[Dharampal]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dharampal|title=Indian Science and Technology in the Eighteenth Century|date=1971|publisher=Impex India|location=Delhi}}</ref> Abdur Rahman,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rahman|first1=Abdur|title=Trimurti: Science, Technology and Society: A Collection of Essays|date=1972|publisher=People's Publishing House|location=Delhi}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Rahman|first1=Abdur|title=Triveni: Science, Democracy and Socialism|date=1977|publisher=Indian Institute of Advanced Studies|location=Simla}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Rahman|first1=Abdur|title=Science Polcy Studies in India: A Status Report|date=1977|publisher=CSIR|location=New Delhi}}</ref> [[Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Chattopadhyay|first1=Debiprasad|title=Science and Society in Ancient India|date=1977|publisher=Research India Publications|location=Calcutta}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Chattopadhyay|first1=Debiprasad|title=History of Science in India, Vol. 1 & 2|date=1982|publisher=Editorial Enterprises|location=New Delhi}}</ref> and SN Sen.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sen|first1=S.N.|title=Changing Perspectives in the History of Sciences|journal=Science and Culture|date=1966|volume=31|issue=5|pages=214–219}}</ref> Works of [[John Desmond Bernal|J.D. Bernal]] and [[Joseph Needham Professor of Chinese History, Science, and Civilization|Joseph Needham]] had a strong influence on the Indian STS in its formative years.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Raina|first1=Dhruv|title=Needham's Indian Network: The Search for a Home for the History of Science in India (1950-1970)|date=2015|publisher=Yoda Press|location=New Delhi}}</ref> The New Social Movements of the 1970s and 1980s in India contributed immensely to the emergence of the discipline, as these movements and activists groups influenced by Marxist, Gandhian and deep ecological perspectives could not avoid engaging with modern science and the modernization project in the post-colony. An important turning point was the creation of two institutions to study the social relations of science: Center for Interaction of Science and Society, Jawaharlal Nehru University,<ref>[http://www.jnu.ac.in/sss/cssp/default.htm Jawaharlal Nehru University]</ref> New Delhi (estd. 1970), and the [[National Institute of Science, Technology and Development Studies|National Institute for Science, Technology and Development Studies]] (NISTADS), New Delhi (estd: 1980). However, the Center for Interaction of Science and Society was closed in the late 1970s by the state, finding it too critical of the nuclear energy/weaponry policies of the [[Indira Gandhi]] regime.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bmartin.cc/pubs/96ce/7_Sharma.pdf|title=Confronting the nuclear power structure in India|last=Sharma|first=Dhirendra|access-date=2016-04-17}}</ref> In the 1990s, the field became vibrant with the intervention of a group of social historians of science inspired by postcolonial studies such as [[David Arnold]], [[Deepak Kumar]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kumar|first1=Deepak|title=Science and the Raj:|date=1995|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New Delhi}}</ref> [[Dhruv Raina]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Raina|first1=Dhruv|title=Images and Contexts: The Historiography of Science and Modernity in India|date=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New Delhi}}</ref> [[S. Irfan Habib]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Raina|first1=Dhruv|last2=Habib|first2=S. Irfan|title=Situating the History of Science: Dialogues with Joseph Needham|date=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New Delhi}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Raina|first1=Dhruv|last2=Habib|first2=S. Irfan|title=Domesticating Modern Science: A Social History of Science and Culture in Colonial India|date=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New Delhi}}</ref> Itty Abraham,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Abraham|first1=Itty|title=The Making of Indian Atomic Bomb: Science, Security and the Postcolonial State'|date=1998|publisher=Zed Books|location=London}}</ref> [[Gyan Prakash]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Prakash|first1=Gyan|title=Another Reason: Science and the Imagination of Modern India|date=1999|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton}}</ref> and Zaheer Baber.<ref>Zaheer Baber 1996. ''The Science of Empire''. State University of New York Press, New york.</ref> Works of sociologists like Harish Naraindas,<ref>{{cite book|last=Naraindas|first=Harish|title="Poisons, putrescence and the weather: A genealogy of the advent of Tropical Medicine", in Contributions to Indian Sociology|date=1996|publisher=Sage|location=New Delhi}}</ref> VV Krishna,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Krishna|first1=Venni Venkita|title=S.S.Bhatnagar on Science, Technology and Development, 1938-54|date=1994|publisher=Wiley Eastern Ltd|location=New Delhi}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Krishna|first1=Venni Venkita|last2=Shinn|first2=Terry|last3=Spaapen|first3=J.|title=Science and Technology in a Developing World (Sociology of Sciences Year Book 1995),|date=1995|publisher=Kluwer Publications|location=The Netherlands}}</ref> E. Haribabu and Binaykumar Patnaik<ref>{{cite book|last1=Patnaik|first1=Binaykumar|title=The Scientific Temper: An Empirical Study|date=1992|publisher=Rawat Publications|location=New Delhi}}</ref> also are significant to the development of the field, along with the philosophical enquiries of Prajit K. Basu and Sunder Sarukkai.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sarukkai|first1=Sunder|title=Translating the World: Science and Language|date=2002|publisher=University Press of America|location=Lanham}}</ref> Extensive research carried out by Rajeseswari S. Raina<ref>[http://snu.edu.in/humanitiessocialsciences/rajeswari_s_raina_profile.aspx Rajeseswari S. Raina]</ref> on agricultural knowledge systems and developmental practices, and Neelam Kumar's work on women and science also must be noted.
[[File:NISTADS team.jpeg|thumb|[[S. Irfan Habib]], [[Deepak Kumar]], [[Dhruv Raina]], and V.V. Krishna]]
[[File:NISTADS team.jpeg|thumb|[[S. Irfan Habib]], [[Deepak Kumar]], [[Dhruv Raina]], and V.V. Krishna]]
In the wake of the 'Soakal Hoax' in the western academia, a similar debate was triggered in India also, mainly in the pages of [http://www.epw.in/articles-sokal-debate ''Economic and Political Weekly'']. This is known as the 'Indian science wars'. Another episode of the science wars was in the wake of the publication of a renowned philosopher of science, [[Meera Nanda]]'s books on the cultural relativist position on post colonial studies of science. Her defense of science and the Enlightenment values in a series of books and journal articles played a central role in sustaining teh Indian Science War in the 2000s. Following the publication of her book, ''The Prophets Facing Backwards'', the journal, ''[[Social Epistemology]]'' published a special issue([https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/tsep20/19/1 Volume 19, no.1, 2005]) that discussed the responses of STS scholars like [[Sandra Harding]] on the arguments in Nanda's book.

Scholars such as Abha Sur,<ref>Abha Sur. 2011. ''Dispersed Radiance: Caste, Gender, and Modern Science in India''. Navayana, New Delhi</ref> Amit Prasad,<ref>Amit Prasad. 2014. ''Imperial Technoscience: Transnational Histories of MRI in the United States, Britain, and India''. MIT Press.</ref> Esha Shah,<ref>Esha Shah, 2017. ''Who is the Science Subject?: Affective History of the Gene''. Routledge, New York.</ref> Gita Chaddha, Indira Chowdhury<ref>Indira Chowdhury 2015. ''Growing the Tree of Science: Homi Bhabha and the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research.'' Oxford University press, New Delhi</ref> Jahnavi Phalkey,<ref>Jahnavi Phalkey 2013. ''Atomic State: Big Science in Twentieth Century India''. Sonepat, Permamnet Black</ref> Kaushik Sunder Rajan,<ref>Kaushik Sunder Rajan. 2006. ''Biocapital: The Constitution of Post-Genomic Life''. Duke University Press.</ref> Kavitha Philip,<ref>Kavita Philip. 2003. ''Civilizing Natures: Race, Resources and Modernity in Colonial South India'', Rutgers University Press; Orient Longman (Asia/UK edition) 2004</ref> and Pratik Chakrabarti<ref>Pratik Chakrabarti. 2004. ''Western Science in Modern India: Metropolitan Methods, Colonial Practices''. Permanent Black, Sonepat.</ref> represent the next generation of scholars in the field who became active in the 2000s. There is also a new generation of scholars who is actively involved in developing the field in the second decade of the millennium, ensuring that Indian STS has a bright future ahead.<ref>See for example, the works of Sambit Mallick, Aparajit Ramnath, Biswanath Dash, Girija K.P., Naveen K. Thayyil, Nupur Chowdhury, Pankaj Sekhsaria, Richa Kumar, [https://global.oup.com/academic/product/contested-knowledge-9780199469123?cc=gb&lang=en Shiju Sam Varughese], Sunandan N., Sunita Raina, and Suvobrata Sarkar.</ref>
Scholars such as Abha Sur,<ref>Abha Sur. 2011. ''Dispersed Radiance: Caste, Gender, and Modern Science in India''. Navayana, New Delhi</ref> Amit Prasad,<ref>Amit Prasad. 2014. ''Imperial Technoscience: Transnational Histories of MRI in the United States, Britain, and India''. MIT Press.</ref> Esha Shah,<ref>Esha Shah, 2017. ''Who is the Science Subject?: Affective History of the Gene''. Routledge, New York.</ref> Gita Chaddha, Indira Chowdhury<ref>Indira Chowdhury 2015. ''Growing the Tree of Science: Homi Bhabha and the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research.'' Oxford University press, New Delhi</ref> Jahnavi Phalkey,<ref>Jahnavi Phalkey 2013. ''Atomic State: Big Science in Twentieth Century India''. Sonepat, Permamnet Black</ref> Kaushik Sunder Rajan,<ref>Kaushik Sunder Rajan. 2006. ''Biocapital: The Constitution of Post-Genomic Life''. Duke University Press.</ref> Kavitha Philip,<ref>Kavita Philip. 2003. ''Civilizing Natures: Race, Resources and Modernity in Colonial South India'', Rutgers University Press; Orient Longman (Asia/UK edition) 2004</ref> and Pratik Chakrabarti<ref>Pratik Chakrabarti. 2004. ''Western Science in Modern India: Metropolitan Methods, Colonial Practices''. Permanent Black, Sonepat.</ref> represent the next generation of scholars in the field who became active in the 2000s. There is also a new generation of scholars who is actively involved in developing the field in the second decade of the millennium, ensuring that Indian STS has a bright future ahead.<ref>See for example, the works of Sambit Mallick, Aparajit Ramnath, Biswanath Dash, Girija K.P., Naveen K. Thayyil, Nupur Chowdhury, Pankaj Sekhsaria, Richa Kumar, [https://global.oup.com/academic/product/contested-knowledge-9780199469123?cc=gb&lang=en Shiju Sam Varughese], Sunandan N., Sunita Raina, and Suvobrata Sarkar.</ref>


Revision as of 11:26, 24 April 2018

Science and Technology Studies (STS), also known as Science, Technology and Society Studies, is a fast growing field of academic inquiry in India since the 1980s. STS has developed in the country from the science movements of the 1970s and 1980s as well as the scholarly criticism of science and technology policies of the Indian state. Now the field is established with at least five generations of scholars and several departments and institutes specialising in science, technology and innovation policy studies/STS.

Origin and development

The field has a long history in India that goes back to the late 1970s, with the works of J.P.S. Uberoi,[1][2] Ashis Nandy,[3][4] Vandana Shiva,[5] Claude Alvares[6][7] and Shiv Visvanathan.[8][9] However, there is a first generation of scholars from the 1970s who looked at science and technology generally from a Marxist perspective (and not from the purview of post-Kuhnian STS) such as Dharampal,[10] Abdur Rahman,[11][12][13] Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya,[14][15] and SN Sen.[16] Works of J.D. Bernal and Joseph Needham had a strong influence on the Indian STS in its formative years.[17] The New Social Movements of the 1970s and 1980s in India contributed immensely to the emergence of the discipline, as these movements and activists groups influenced by Marxist, Gandhian and deep ecological perspectives could not avoid engaging with modern science and the modernization project in the post-colony. An important turning point was the creation of two institutions to study the social relations of science: Center for Interaction of Science and Society, Jawaharlal Nehru University,[18] New Delhi (estd. 1970), and the National Institute for Science, Technology and Development Studies (NISTADS), New Delhi (estd: 1980). However, the Center for Interaction of Science and Society was closed in the late 1970s by the state, finding it too critical of the nuclear energy/weaponry policies of the Indira Gandhi regime.[19] In the 1990s, the field became vibrant with the intervention of a group of social historians of science inspired by postcolonial studies such as David Arnold, Deepak Kumar,[20] Dhruv Raina,[21] S. Irfan Habib,[22][23] Itty Abraham,[24] Gyan Prakash.[25] and Zaheer Baber.[26] Works of sociologists like Harish Naraindas,[27] VV Krishna,[28][29] E. Haribabu and Binaykumar Patnaik[30] also are significant to the development of the field, along with the philosophical enquiries of Prajit K. Basu and Sunder Sarukkai.[31] Extensive research carried out by Rajeseswari S. Raina[32] on agricultural knowledge systems and developmental practices, and Neelam Kumar's work on women and science also must be noted.

S. Irfan Habib, Deepak Kumar, Dhruv Raina, and V.V. Krishna

In the wake of the 'Soakal Hoax' in the western academia, a similar debate was triggered in India also, mainly in the pages of Economic and Political Weekly. This is known as the 'Indian science wars'. Another episode of the science wars was in the wake of the publication of a renowned philosopher of science, Meera Nanda's books on the cultural relativist position on post colonial studies of science. Her defense of science and the Enlightenment values in a series of books and journal articles played a central role in sustaining teh Indian Science War in the 2000s. Following the publication of her book, The Prophets Facing Backwards, the journal, Social Epistemology published a special issue(Volume 19, no.1, 2005) that discussed the responses of STS scholars like Sandra Harding on the arguments in Nanda's book. Scholars such as Abha Sur,[33] Amit Prasad,[34] Esha Shah,[35] Gita Chaddha, Indira Chowdhury[36] Jahnavi Phalkey,[37] Kaushik Sunder Rajan,[38] Kavitha Philip,[39] and Pratik Chakrabarti[40] represent the next generation of scholars in the field who became active in the 2000s. There is also a new generation of scholars who is actively involved in developing the field in the second decade of the millennium, ensuring that Indian STS has a bright future ahead.[41]

Institutes and departments

Several departments of science policy studies were launched in the new millennium with a strong foundation in STS such as Center for Knowledge Culture and Innovation Studies (CKCIS),[42] University of Hyderabad (2006), and Centre for Studies in Science, Technology & Innovation Policy,[43] Central University of Gujarat, Gandhinagar (2009). The revamping of the Centre for Interaction of Science and Society at the Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, under the new name of Centre for Studies in Science Policy (CSSP)[44] in 2000 was the first.[45] The Humanities of Social Sciences departments of many of the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) and Indian Institutes of Science Education and Research (IISER) have several faculty members trained in the field, and the number of scholars specializing on STS is steadily increasing in the country.

Academic programs

  • MPhil-PhD Programme in Science Policy Studies, Center for Studies in Science Policy, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi[46]
  • MPhil-PhD Programme in Studies in Science, Technology and Innovation Policy, Central University of Gujarat, Gandhinagar[47]
  • PhD Programme in Science, Technology and Society Studies, Centre for Knowledge Culture and Innovation Studies, University of Hyderabad[48]
  • MPhil-PhD Programme in Education (History of science and technical education), Zakir Husain Centre for Educational Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi[49]
  • PhD programme in Policy Studies, Indian Institute of Technology-Delhi[50]

See also

References

  1. ^ Uberoi, J.P.S. (1978). Science and Culture. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
  2. ^ Uberoi, J.P.S. (1984). The other mind of Europe : Goethe as a Scientist. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
  3. ^ Nandy, Ashis (1980). Alternative Sciences: Creativity and Authenticity in Two Indian Scientists. New Delhi: Allied Publishers.
  4. ^ Nandy, Ashis (1988). Science, Hegemony and Violence: A Requiem for Modernity. Tokyo: United Nations University.
  5. ^ Shiva, Vandana (1988). Staying Alive: Women, Ecology and Survival in India. New Delhi: Kali for Women.
  6. ^ Alvares, Claude (1980). Homo faber : Technology and Culture in India, China and the West from 1500 to the Present Day. The Hague: Nijhoff.
  7. ^ Alvares, Claude (1992). Science, Development and Violence: The Revolt against Modernity. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
  8. ^ Visvanathan, Shiv (1985). Organizing for Science: The Making of an Industrial Research Laboratory. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
  9. ^ Visvanathan, Shiv (1985). A Carnival for Science: Essays on Science, Technology and Development. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
  10. ^ Dharampal (1971). Indian Science and Technology in the Eighteenth Century. Delhi: Impex India.
  11. ^ Rahman, Abdur (1972). Trimurti: Science, Technology and Society: A Collection of Essays. Delhi: People's Publishing House.
  12. ^ Rahman, Abdur (1977). Triveni: Science, Democracy and Socialism. Simla: Indian Institute of Advanced Studies.
  13. ^ Rahman, Abdur (1977). Science Polcy Studies in India: A Status Report. New Delhi: CSIR.
  14. ^ Chattopadhyay, Debiprasad (1977). Science and Society in Ancient India. Calcutta: Research India Publications.
  15. ^ Chattopadhyay, Debiprasad (1982). History of Science in India, Vol. 1 & 2. New Delhi: Editorial Enterprises.
  16. ^ Sen, S.N. (1966). "Changing Perspectives in the History of Sciences". Science and Culture. 31 (5): 214–219.
  17. ^ Raina, Dhruv (2015). Needham's Indian Network: The Search for a Home for the History of Science in India (1950-1970). New Delhi: Yoda Press.
  18. ^ Jawaharlal Nehru University
  19. ^ Sharma, Dhirendra. "Confronting the nuclear power structure in India" (PDF). Retrieved 2016-04-17.
  20. ^ Kumar, Deepak (1995). Science and the Raj:. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
  21. ^ Raina, Dhruv (2003). Images and Contexts: The Historiography of Science and Modernity in India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
  22. ^ Raina, Dhruv; Habib, S. Irfan (1999). Situating the History of Science: Dialogues with Joseph Needham. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
  23. ^ Raina, Dhruv; Habib, S. Irfan (2004). Domesticating Modern Science: A Social History of Science and Culture in Colonial India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
  24. ^ Abraham, Itty (1998). The Making of Indian Atomic Bomb: Science, Security and the Postcolonial State'. London: Zed Books.
  25. ^ Prakash, Gyan (1999). Another Reason: Science and the Imagination of Modern India. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
  26. ^ Zaheer Baber 1996. The Science of Empire. State University of New York Press, New york.
  27. ^ Naraindas, Harish (1996). "Poisons, putrescence and the weather: A genealogy of the advent of Tropical Medicine", in Contributions to Indian Sociology. New Delhi: Sage.
  28. ^ Krishna, Venni Venkita (1994). S.S.Bhatnagar on Science, Technology and Development, 1938-54. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
  29. ^ Krishna, Venni Venkita; Shinn, Terry; Spaapen, J. (1995). Science and Technology in a Developing World (Sociology of Sciences Year Book 1995),. The Netherlands: Kluwer Publications.
  30. ^ Patnaik, Binaykumar (1992). The Scientific Temper: An Empirical Study. New Delhi: Rawat Publications.
  31. ^ Sarukkai, Sunder (2002). Translating the World: Science and Language. Lanham: University Press of America.
  32. ^ Rajeseswari S. Raina
  33. ^ Abha Sur. 2011. Dispersed Radiance: Caste, Gender, and Modern Science in India. Navayana, New Delhi
  34. ^ Amit Prasad. 2014. Imperial Technoscience: Transnational Histories of MRI in the United States, Britain, and India. MIT Press.
  35. ^ Esha Shah, 2017. Who is the Science Subject?: Affective History of the Gene. Routledge, New York.
  36. ^ Indira Chowdhury 2015. Growing the Tree of Science: Homi Bhabha and the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research. Oxford University press, New Delhi
  37. ^ Jahnavi Phalkey 2013. Atomic State: Big Science in Twentieth Century India. Sonepat, Permamnet Black
  38. ^ Kaushik Sunder Rajan. 2006. Biocapital: The Constitution of Post-Genomic Life. Duke University Press.
  39. ^ Kavita Philip. 2003. Civilizing Natures: Race, Resources and Modernity in Colonial South India, Rutgers University Press; Orient Longman (Asia/UK edition) 2004
  40. ^ Pratik Chakrabarti. 2004. Western Science in Modern India: Metropolitan Methods, Colonial Practices. Permanent Black, Sonepat.
  41. ^ See for example, the works of Sambit Mallick, Aparajit Ramnath, Biswanath Dash, Girija K.P., Naveen K. Thayyil, Nupur Chowdhury, Pankaj Sekhsaria, Richa Kumar, Shiju Sam Varughese, Sunandan N., Sunita Raina, and Suvobrata Sarkar.
  42. ^ Center for Knowledge Culture and Innovation Studies (CKCIS)
  43. ^ Centre for Studies in Science, Technology & Innovation Policy
  44. ^ Centre for Studies in Science Policy (CSSP)
  45. ^ Sen, Nirupa (25 June 2001). "Revival of the Center for Studies in Science Policy at Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi" (PDF). Current Science. Retrieved 2016-04-17.
  46. ^ MPhil-PhD Programme in Science Policy Studies, Center for Studies in Science Policy, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
  47. ^ MPhil-PhD Programme in Studies in Science, Technology and Innovation Policy, Central University of Gujarat, Gandhinagar
  48. ^ University of Hyderabad
  49. ^ MPhil-PhD Programme in Education (History of science and technical education), Zakir Husain Centre for Educational Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
  50. ^ PhD programme in Policy Studies, Indian Institute of Technology-Delhi

Further reading

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