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The '''Massacre Canyon''' battle took place in Nebraska on August 5, 1873 near the republican river . It was one of the last hostilities between the [[Pawnee people|Pawnee]] and the [[Sioux]] (or [[Lakota people|Lakota]]) and the last battle/massacre between Great Plains indians in North America.<ref>The Nebraska Indian Wars reader, 1865-1877 By R. Eli Paul p.88 Publisher: University of Nebraska Press (April 1, 1998) Language: English {{ISBN|0-8032-8749-6}}</ref> The massacre occurred when a large [[Oglala Lakota|Oglala]]/[[Brulé]] Sioux war party of over 1,500 warriors led by [[Two Strike]], [[Little Wound]] and [[Spotted Tail]] attacked a band of [[Pawnee people|Pawnee]] during their summer [[Bison|buffalo]] hunt, in the ensuing route more than 75-100 Pawnees were killed, men with mostly women and children, the victims suffering mutilation and some set on fire. The Quaker agent John W. Williamson stated that 156 [[Pawnee]] were killed . Along with the attack on [[The Battle at Pawnee Chief Blue Coat's Village, 1843|Pawnee chief Blue Coat's village in 1843]], this Massacre ranged among "the bloodiest attacks by the Sioux" in Pawnee history.<ref>Dunlay, Thomas W.: Wolves for the Blue Soldiers. Indian Scouts and Auxiliaries with the United States Army, 1860-90. Lincoln and London, 1982, p. 154.</ref> Cruel and violent warfare like this had been practiced against the [[Pawnee people|Pawnee]] by the [[Lakota Sioux]] for centuries since the mid-1700s and through the 1840s, attacks increased further in the 1850s until 1875. Historically the [[Pawnee people|Pawnee]] chose to give up what remained of their [[Nebraska]] homeland to the US Government after the incident and moved away because of it, the [[Pawnee people|Pawnee]] villages and Quaker agency near Genoa were attacked by the [[Lakota]] months and years prior
The '''Massacre Canyon''' battle took place in Nebraska on August 5, 1873 near the republican river . It was one of the last hostilities between the [[Pawnee people|Pawnee]] and the [[Sioux]] (or [[Lakota people|Lakota]]) and the last battle/massacre between Great Plains indians in North America.<ref>The Nebraska Indian Wars reader, 1865-1877 By R. Eli Paul p.88 Publisher: University of Nebraska Press (April 1, 1998) Language: English {{ISBN|0-8032-8749-6}}</ref> The massacre occurred when a large [[Oglala Lakota|Oglala]]/[[Brulé]] Sioux war party of over 1,500 warriors led by [[Two Strike]], [[Little Wound]] and [[Spotted Tail]] attacked a band of [[Pawnee people|Pawnee]] during their summer [[Bison|buffalo]] hunt, in the ensuing route more than 75-100 Pawnees were killed, men with mostly women and children, the victims suffering mutilation and some set on fire. The Quaker agent John W. Williamson stated that 156 [[Pawnee people|Pawnee]] were killed . Along with the attack on [[The Battle at Pawnee Chief Blue Coat's Village, 1843|Pawnee chief Blue Coat's village in 1843]], this Massacre ranged among "the bloodiest attacks by the Sioux" in Pawnee history.<ref>Dunlay, Thomas W.: Wolves for the Blue Soldiers. Indian Scouts and Auxiliaries with the United States Army, 1860-90. Lincoln and London, 1982, p. 154.</ref> Cruel and violent warfare like this had been practiced against the [[Pawnee people|Pawnee]] by the [[Lakota Sioux]] for centuries since the mid-1700s and through the 1840s, attacks increased further in the 1850s until 1875. Historically the [[Pawnee people|Pawnee]] chose to give up what remained of their [[Nebraska]] homeland to the US Government after the incident and moved away because of it, the [[Pawnee people|Pawnee]] villages and Quaker agency near Genoa were attacked by the [[Lakota people|Lakota]] months and years prior


According to Indian agent John W. Williamson of the [[Genoa, Nebraska|Genoa]] Agency, who accompanied the hunting party, "On the 2d [in fact the 3d<ref>Indian Office Documents on Sioux-Pawnee Battle. ''Nebraska History Magazine'', vol. 16, No.3 (1935), pp. 147-155, p. 147.</ref>] day of July, 1873, the Indians, to the number of 700, left Genoa for the hunting grounds. Of this number 350 were men, the balance women and children."
According to Indian agent John W. Williamson of the [[Genoa, Nebraska|Genoa]] Agency, who accompanied the hunting party, "On the 2d [in fact the 3d<ref>Indian Office Documents on Sioux-Pawnee Battle. ''Nebraska History Magazine'', vol. 16, No.3 (1935), pp. 147-155, p. 147.</ref>] day of July, 1873, the Indians, to the number of 700, left Genoa for the hunting grounds. Of this number 350 were men, the balance women and children."

Revision as of 04:10, 26 April 2018

Massacre Canyon Battlefield
View looking southwest from the Massacre Canyon monument
Massacre Canyon is located in Nebraska
Massacre Canyon
Massacre Canyon is located in the United States
Massacre Canyon
Nearest cityTrenton, Nebraska
Coordinates40°12′23″N 100°57′53″W / 40.206443°N 100.964598°W / 40.206443; -100.964598
Area3,680 acres (1,490 ha)
NRHP reference No.74001118[1]
Added to NRHPJuly 25, 1974

The Massacre Canyon battle took place in Nebraska on August 5, 1873 near the republican river . It was one of the last hostilities between the Pawnee and the Sioux (or Lakota) and the last battle/massacre between Great Plains indians in North America.[2] The massacre occurred when a large Oglala/Brulé Sioux war party of over 1,500 warriors led by Two Strike, Little Wound and Spotted Tail attacked a band of Pawnee during their summer buffalo hunt, in the ensuing route more than 75-100 Pawnees were killed, men with mostly women and children, the victims suffering mutilation and some set on fire. The Quaker agent John W. Williamson stated that 156 Pawnee were killed . Along with the attack on Pawnee chief Blue Coat's village in 1843, this Massacre ranged among "the bloodiest attacks by the Sioux" in Pawnee history.[3] Cruel and violent warfare like this had been practiced against the Pawnee by the Lakota Sioux for centuries since the mid-1700s and through the 1840s, attacks increased further in the 1850s until 1875. Historically the Pawnee chose to give up what remained of their Nebraska homeland to the US Government after the incident and moved away because of it, the Pawnee villages and Quaker agency near Genoa were attacked by the Lakota months and years prior

According to Indian agent John W. Williamson of the Genoa Agency, who accompanied the hunting party, "On the 2d [in fact the 3d[4]] day of July, 1873, the Indians, to the number of 700, left Genoa for the hunting grounds. Of this number 350 were men, the balance women and children."

The Pawnee were traveling along the west bank of the canyon, which runs south to the Republican River, when they were attacked. "A census taken at the Pawnee Agency in September, according [to] Agent Burgess. . ." (see "Massacre Canyon Monument" article in External Links section) found that "71 Pawnee warriors were killed, and 102 women and children killed", the victims brutally mutilated and scalped and others even set on fire"[5] although Trail Agent John Williamson's account states 156 Pawnee died (page 388). It is likely the death toll would have been higher, for Williamson noted ". . . a company of United States cavalry emerge[d] from the timber. When the Sioux saw the soldiers approaching they beat a hasty retreat." (page 387), although "Recently discovered military documents disproved the old theory" per the "Massacre Canyon Monument" article. This massacre is by some considered one of the factors that led to the Pawnees' decision to move to a reservation in Indian Territory in what is today Oklahoma.[6] The Pawnee disagree.[7]

Principal chiefs at the battle were:

Among the Pawnee dead were Sky Chief (Tirawahut Lesharo) who was surrounded and killed by the Sioux while skinning a buffalo, the wife and four children of Traveling Bear, a former sergeant in the Pawnee Scouts who served under Maj. Frank North and a Medal of Honor recipient.[9]

Massacre Canyon Battle
DateAugust 5, 1873
Location
Massacre Canyon, Hitchcock County, Nebraska
Result Lakota victory
Belligerents
Brule Lakota Indians Oglala Lakota Indians Pawnee Indians
Commanders and leaders
Little Wound, Two Strike Sky Chief, Fighting Bear, Ruling His Son
Strength
Around 1,000 Lakotas Around 400 all in all, children, women and men
Casualties and losses
Unknown, but few Unknown, but likely between 65 and 100, mostly women and children

History

The Pawnee Indians had a long tradition of living in present-day Nebraska.[10] Their first land cession to the United States took place in 1833 when they sold land south of the Platte River.[11] The Massacre Canyon battlefield near Republican River is located within this area. Forty years and two land cessions later, the tribe lived in a small reservation on old Pawnee land, present-day Nance County. The Pawnees had kept a right to hunt buffalo on their vast, ancient range between the Loup, Platte and Republican rivers in Nebraska and south into northern Kansas, now territory of the United States. They had suffered continual attacks by the Sioux that increased violently in the early 1840s. [12]

The Sioux lived north of the Pawnee. In 1868 they had entered into a treaty with the United States and agreed to live in the Great Sioux Reservation in present-day South Dakota. By Article 11 they (also) received a right to hunt along the Republican, almost 200 miles south of the reservation.[13]

Both the Pawnee and the Sioux complained regularly over attacks by the other tribe.[14] An attempt to make peace in 1871 with the United States as intermediary came to nothing.[15]

Map with Massacre Canyon battlefield (1873), Nebraska. Pawnee reservation and relevant Lakota territories.

Lead-up to the battle

A Pawnee hunting group—roughly 400 men, women and children[16]—were located in camp near present-day Trenton on August 4, 1873. Trail Agent John W. Williamson stayed in the camp, and with him the younger Lester Beach Platt, a visitor from the east. All were homeward-bound for the reservation after a fine hunt.

Sioux chiefs Little Wound and Pawnee Killer and their followers of Cut-off Oglalas had hunted along tributaries to the Republican further west. In July the sub-agent in camp, Antoine Janis, banned an expedition against the Utes to avenge the loss of a man and some horses. The camp moved closer to the Republican.[17]

About 700 Brule-Sioux Indians sought out buffalo on these Nebraska hunting grounds in early August, in addition. Chief Two Strikes was in the camp and Sub-agent Stephen F. Eastes.[18]

Some Oglalas brought news of the big Pawnee camp on August 3. Chief Little Wound told Antoine Janis that he had stopped them from going against the Utes. Now, "the young men had determined to fight" the Pawnees, not to lose men and horses again.[19] Janis said he had no order to keep them from fighting the Pawnee here. His suggestion to meet and talk with their enemy was turned down.[20] Later he told his sister, Susan Bordeaux Bettelyoun, that to restrain the warriors "... you might as well stop an avalanche".[21]

All Sioux tipis in the area got the news. A boy eyewitness recalled many years later that "instantly all the warriors began to get ready to go on the warpath ...". In his understanding, the braves defended their hunting grounds.[22] During the day around 1000 warriors set off for the Pawnee to make a joint, quick attack and prevent the enemy from striking first.[23]

Trail Agent Williamson's account

John Williamson, 23, was assigned as the Pawnee trail-agent at the Genoa Agency, the Pawnee reservation, and accompanied the Pawnee on their hunt. He wrote his recollections of the battle decades after the incident.[24]

"On the fourth day of August we reached the north bank of the Republican River and went into camp. At 9 o'clock that evening, three white men came into camp and reported to me that a large band of Sioux warriors [was] camped 25 miles [40 km] northwest, waiting for an opportunity to attack the Pawnees for several days, anticipating that we would move up the river where buffaloes were feeding. Previous to this, white men visited us and warned us to be on our guard against Sioux attacks, and I was a trifle skeptical as to the truth of the story told by our white visitors. But one of the men, a young man about my age at the time, appeared to be so sincere in his efforts to impress upon me that the warning should be heeded, that I took him to Sky Chief who was in command that day, for a conference. Sky Chief said the men were liars; that they wanted to scare the Pawnees away from the hunting grounds so that white men could kill buffaloes for hides. He told me I was squaw and a coward. I took exception to his remarks, and retorted: 'I will go as far as you dare go. Don't forget that.'

"The following morning August 5, we broke camp and started north, up the divide between the Republican and the Frenchman Rivers. Soon after leaving camp, Sky Chief rode up to me and extending his hand said, 'Shake, brother.' He recalled our little unpleasantness the night previous and said he did not believe there was cause for alarm, and was so impressed with the belief that he had not taken the precaution to throw out scouts in the direction the Sioux were reported to be. A few minutes later a buffalo scout signaled that buffaloes had been sighted in the distance, and Sky Chief rode off to engage in the hunt. I never saw him again. He had killed a buffalo and was skinning it when the advance guard of the Sioux shot and wounded him. The Chief attempted to reach his horse, but before he was able to mount, several of the enemy surrounded him. He died fighting. A Pawnee, who was skinning a buffalo a short distance away but managed to escape, told me how Sky Chief died."

The battle

The morning of August 5 the Pawnees went up a canyon. Men looking for game took the lead and the families followed with loaded down packhorses. Soon after the battle was on.

Cloud-Shield's Lakota Winter Count for the years 1873-74. Massacre Canyon battle, Nebraska. "They killed many Pawnees on the Republican River."[25]

A number of the Pawnee huntsmen in front seem to have been the first fatalities, lured into a Sioux trap by a decoy.[26]

The Pawnee prepared for defense. Williamson with either Platt or the schooled Pawnee Ralph Weeks rode out to arrange a peace council, but bullets forced them back.[27]

The Pawnees say that Sky Chief lived during the first part of the battle. He fought for his tribe, shouting words of encouragement to it. He killed his own little son with his knife, telling the Sioux that they would not get his child.[28]

The Pawnee version of the Massacre Canyon battle tells of a few individuals' fate and relates some peculiar incidents.[29]

The Sioux proved too strong. Women threw hides, dried meat and saddles from the packhorses and the Pawnee started a disorganized retreat. "The withdrawal was a rout as the Sioux shot from both banks of the canyon into the fleeing Pawnee".[30] In Culbertson, ten miles east of the battlefield, the residents heard the sound of gunfire.[31]

East of Culbertson camped Capt. Charles Meinhold with his small command from Fort McPherson, by twist of fate. All through the morning Pawnee survivors found the camp as well as Williamson and Platt, who had made his escape early during the fight. The Pawnees got instructions to proceed further east.[32]

The next hours and days

The whites rode up the canyon in the afternoon. "The first body we came upon was that of a woman", remembered Platt.[33] Army Dr. David Franklin Powell described the march up the battleground: "We advanced from the mouth of the ravine to its head and found fifty-nine dead Pawnees ...".[34] A number of the dead women lay naked. "Although the Pawnees made a stand and fought through the day, over a hundred were wounded, killed, or raped and mutilated".[35]

Chief Luther Standing Bear. As a boy he saw the victorious Lakota warriors return to the camp after the Massacre Canyon battle.

Sometime after the battle the Sioux warriors rode into camps. "One of the men in advance was waving a scalp. This caused great excitement. The men paraded around the village ... Everybody appeared to be happy and rejoicing".[36] Later well-known Sioux Indian Luther Standing Bear got the impression that "about three hundred Pawnees were killed".[37] Eastes reported one Sioux killed and some badly wounded.[38] The Cut-off Oglalas had suffered no casualties at all, according to their sub-agent.[39] This is at odds with narratives of what happened in the canyon that day.[40]

People from the nearest communities visited the scene of the battle over the following days. Royal Buck wrote to the readers of Nebraska City News that "It was a massacre and nothing more, and near 100 victims are lying on the ground and full two thirds are squaws and pappooses [small Indian children]".[41]

News of the defeat reached the remaining Pawnees in the reservation on August 8 through a runner. "This produced intense excitement in the village, sorrowful wailings were heard all day".[42]

The Pawnee survivors made the 80 miles or so to Plum Creek near the Platte. Here Dr. William M. Bancroft gave professional assistance to the wounded. By train they arrived at Silver Creek, around ten miles south of the Pawnee Agency. The last tribal buffalo hunt of the Pawnee in Nebraska ended soon after.[43]

Afterwards

The last week of August, Williamson was back in Massacre Canyon. He covered the dead with dirt broken down from the banks.[44]

The number of Pawnee victims on the battlefield range from at least 50 to "156".[45] A source often quoted is Agent William Burgess, who stated that "20 men, 39 women and 10 children" were killed.[46]

Pawnees taken captive were let loose after a request from the whites. Before long they joined their tribe.[47]

The Pawnee received $9,000 for the loss of more than 100 horses, 20 tons of dried meat and all sorts of equipment.[48] The money came from the annuities of the Sioux, as stipulated in the 1868 Sioux Treaty, Article 1.[49]

This incident, in particular, caused the government nationwide to intensify "its efforts to keep the Indians confined to their reservation" in an endeavor to curtail intertribal warfare.[50] On a local level, Maj. Gen. George Crook "dispatched a small force" to protect the Pawnee Agency. The presence of troops did not stop the Sioux raids.[51]

In the Lakota winter count of Cloud-Shield, the victory is remembered as the winter "they killed many Pawnees on the Republican river."[52] The Pawnee Indians talk about "The hunters that were massacred".[53]

It was half a century after the battle before the Pawnee and the Sioux smoked the pipe of peace during the Massacre Canyon Pow Wow in 1925.[54]

Monument

Massacre Canyon Monument.

The Massacre Canyon Monument was dedicated on Sept. 26, 1930. It was the first historical monument erected in Nebraska by federal grant. It stands on a three-acre (1.2 ha) plot, three miles (4.8 km) east of Trenton off U.S. Route 34, after having been moved from its original location overlooking the Republican River valley. The monument was constructed from Minnesota pink granite from a quarry in St. Cloud by R.P. Colling, Indianola, Nebraska.[55] The shaft of the obelisk is 35 feet (11 m) high. The base measures 9 feet (2.7 m) by 9.5 feet (2.9 m) across; the bottom of the shaft is five feet (1.5 m) across, tapering to 32 inches (81 cm) near the top. The entire monument weighs 91 tons (83,000 kg).

The monument is located in a small park area with picnic tables and a visitor center that features exhibits about early pioneers, the tribal customs of the Sioux and the Pawnee people and a gift shop.

See also

References

  1. ^ "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. March 13, 2009.
  2. ^ The Nebraska Indian Wars reader, 1865-1877 By R. Eli Paul p.88 Publisher: University of Nebraska Press (April 1, 1998) Language: English ISBN 0-8032-8749-6
  3. ^ Dunlay, Thomas W.: Wolves for the Blue Soldiers. Indian Scouts and Auxiliaries with the United States Army, 1860-90. Lincoln and London, 1982, p. 154.
  4. ^ Indian Office Documents on Sioux-Pawnee Battle. Nebraska History Magazine, vol. 16, No.3 (1935), pp. 147-155, p. 147.
  5. ^ The Chicago Tribune, Saturday, August 30, 1873; New York Times, August 21, 1873 (reported by William Burgess, Pawnee Indian agent)
  6. ^ Massacre Along the Medicine Road: A Social History of the Indian War of 1864, p. 389, By Ronald Becher. Publisher: Caxton Press (March 1, 1999) Language: English ISBN 0-87004-387-0
  7. ^ Blaine, Garland James and Martha Royce Blaine: Pa-Re-Su A-Ri-Ra-Ke: The Hunters that were massacred. Nebraska History, Vol. 58, No. 3 (1977), pp. 342-358, pp. 356-357.
  8. ^ Indian Office Documents on Sioux-Pawnee Battle. Nebraska History Magazine, vol. 16, No.3 (1935), pp. 147-155, p. 158.
  9. ^ Medal of honor: historical facts & figures By Ron Owens p.52
  10. ^ Ludwickson, John: Historic Indian Tribes. Ethnohistory and Archaeology. Nebraska History, Vol. 75, No. 1 (1994), pp. 132-157, p. 140.
  11. ^ Kappler, Charles J.: Indian Affairs. Laws and Treaties. Washington, 1904. Vol. 2, pp. 416-418.
  12. ^ Kappler, Charles J.: Indian Affairs. Laws and Treaties. Washington, 1904. Vol. 2, pp. 416.
  13. ^ Kappler, Charles J.: Indian Affairs. Laws and Treaties. Washington, 1904. Vol. 2, pp. 1002.
  14. ^ See e.g. Blaine, Royce Martha: Pawnee Passage, 1870-1875. Norman and London, 1990, pp. 82-142. Poole, D.C.: Among the Sioux of Dakota. Eighteen Months' Experience as an Indian Agent, 1868-1870. St. Paul, 1988, pp. 58,62 and 131.
  15. ^ Riley, Paul D.: The Battle of Massacre Canyon. Nebraska History, Vol. 54, No. 2 (1973), pp. 221-249, p. 223.
  16. ^ Indian Office Documents on Sioux-Pawnee Battle. Nebraska History Magazine, vol. 16, No.3 (1935), pp. 147-155, p. 147.
  17. ^ Riley, Paul D.: The Battle of Massacre Canyon. Nebraska History, Vol. 54, No. 2 (1973), pp. 221-249, p. 232.
  18. ^ Riley, Paul D.: The Battle of Massacre Canyon. Nebraska History, Vol. 54, No. 2 (1973), pp. 221-249, p. 232-233.
  19. ^ Riley, Paul D.: The Battle of Massacre Canyon. Nebraska History, Vol. 54, No. 2 (1973), pp. 221-249, p. 234.
  20. ^ Indian Office Documents on Sioux-Pawnee Battle. Nebraska History Magazine, vol. 16, No.3 (1935), pp. 147-155, p.155.
  21. ^ Bettelyoun, Susan Bordeaux and Josephine Waggoner: With My Own Eyes. A Lakota Woman Tells her People's History. Lincoln and London, 1998, p. 80.
  22. ^ Standing Bear, Luther: My People, the Sioux. Lincoln, 1975, p. 53.
  23. ^ Riley, Paul D.: The Battle of Massacre Canyon. Nebraska History, Vol. 54, No. 2 (1973), pp. 221-249, p. 234.
  24. ^ Paul, R. Eli (Ed.): Lester Beach Platt's Account of the Battle of Massacre Canyon. Nebraska History, Vol. 67, No. 4 (1986), pp. 381-407, p. 405, note 3.
  25. ^ Mallory, Gerrick: The Corbusier Winter Counts. Smithsonian Institution. Fourth Annual Report to the Bureau of Ethnology. G.P.O.1886. Page facing p. 145.
  26. ^ Standing Bear, Luther: My People, the Sioux. Lincoln, 1975, p. 56.
  27. ^ Paul, R. Eli (Ed.): Lester Beach Platt's Account of the Battle of Massacre Canyon. Nebraska History, Vol. 67, No. 4 (1986), pp. 381-407, p. 388. Blaine, Garland James and Martha Royce Blaine: Pa-Re-Su A-Ri-Ra-Ke: The Hunters that were massacred. Nebraska History, Vol. 58, No. 3 (1977), pp. 342-358, p. 348.
  28. ^ Blaine, Garland James and Martha Royce Blaine: Pa-Re-Su A-Ri-Ra-Ke: The Hunters that were massacred. Nebraska History, Vol. 58, No. 3 (1977), pp. 342-358, p. 353.
  29. ^ Blaine, Garland James and Martha Royce Blaine: Pa-Re-Su A-Ri-Ra-Ke: The Hunters that were massacred. Nebraska History, Vol. 58, No. 3 (1977), pp. 342-358.
  30. ^ Riley, Paul D.: The Battle of Massacre Canyon. Nebraska History, Vol. 54, No. 2 (1973), pp. 221-249, p. 237.
  31. ^ Riley, Paul D.: The Battle of Massacre Canyon. Nebraska History, Vol. 54, No. 2 (1973), pp. 221-249, p. 238.
  32. ^ Riley, Paul D.: The Battle of Massacre Canyon. Nebraska History, Vol. 54, No. 2 (1973), pp. 221-249, p. 238.
  33. ^ Paul, R. Eli (Ed.): Lester Beach Platt's Account of the Battle of Massacre Canyon. Nebraska History, Vol. 67, No. 4 (1986), pp. 381-407, p. 393.
  34. ^ Riley, Paul D. (Ed.): Dr. David Franklin Powell and Fort McPherson. Nebraska History, Vol. 51, No. 2 (1970), pp. 153-170, p. 163.
  35. ^ Blaine, Royce Martha: Pawnee Passage, 1870-1875. Norman and London, 1990, p. 91.
  36. ^ Standing Bear, Luther: My People, the Sioux. Lincoln, 1975, p. 55.
  37. ^ Standing Bear, Luther: Land of the Spotted Eagle. Lincoln and London, 1978. p. 41.
  38. ^ Indian Office Documents on Sioux-Pawnee Battle. Nebraska History Magazine, vol. 16, No.3 (1935), pp. 147-155, p. 151.
  39. ^ Indian Office Documents on Sioux-Pawnee Battle. Nebraska History Magazine, vol. 16, No.3 (1935), pp. 147-155, p. 155.
  40. ^ Blaine, Garland James and Martha Royce Blaine: Pa-Re-Su A-Ri-Ra-Ke: The Hunters that were massacred. Nebraska History, Vol. 58, No. 3 (1977), pp. 342-358, see e.g. p. 348.
  41. ^ Riley, Paul D. (Ed.): Red Willow County Letters of Royal Buck, 1872-1873. Nebraska History, Vol. 47, No. 4 (1966), pp. 371-397, p. 391.
  42. ^ Indian Office Documents on Sioux-Pawnee Battle. Nebraska History Magazine, vol. 16, No.3 (1935), pp. 147-155, p. 148.
  43. ^ Riley, Paul D.: The Battle of Massacre Canyon. Nebraska History, Vol. 54, No. 2 (1973), pp. 221-249, p. 242.
  44. ^ Riley, Paul D.: The Battle of Massacre Canyon. Nebraska History, Vol. 54, No. 2 (1973), pp. 221-249, p. 245.
  45. ^ Shellenberger, A. C.: The last Pawnee-Sioux Indian Battle and Buffalo Hunt. Nebraska History Magazine, Vol. 16, No. 3 (1935), pp. 132-145, p. 142.
  46. ^ Massacre Canyon Fight August 5, 1873. Nebraska History Magazine, Vol. 16, No. 3 (1935), p. 141.
  47. ^ Blaine, Garland James and Martha Royce Blaine: Pa-Re-Su A-Ri-Ra-Ke: The Hunters that were massacred. Nebraska History, Vol. 58, No. 3 (1977), pp. 342-358, p. 351. Standing Bear, Luther: My People, the Sioux. Lincoln, 1975, p. 56-57.
  48. ^ Indian Office Documents on Sioux-Pawnee Battle. Nebraska History Magazine, vol. 16, No.3 (1935), pp. 147-155, p. 154. Blaine, Royce Martha: Pawnee Passage, 1870-1875. Norman and London, 1990, p. 139.
  49. ^ Kappler, Charles J.: Indian Affairs. Laws and Treaties. Washington, 1904. Vol. 2, p. 998.
  50. ^ McGinnis, Anthony: Counting Coup and Cutting Horses. Intertribal Warfare on the Northern Plains, 1738-1889. Evergreen, 1990, p. 129.
  51. ^ Blaine, Royce Martha: Pawnee Passage, 1870-1875. Norman and London, 1990, p. 277.
  52. ^ Mallory, Gerrick: Picture-writing of the American Indians. Tribal Designations. Tenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1888-'89. Washington, 1893, pp. 377-388, p. 386, fig. 509.
  53. ^ Blaine, Garland James and Martha Royce Blaine: Pa-Re-Su A-Ri-Ra-Ke: The Hunters that were massacred. Nebraska History, Vol. 58, No. 3 (1977), pp. 342-358.
  54. ^ Riley, Paul D.: The Battle of Massacre Canyon. Nebraska History, Vol. 54, No. 2 (1973), pp. 221-249, p. 246.
  55. ^ Tayler, A. L.: Building the Massacre Canyon Monument, Nebraska History Magazine, Vol. 16, No, 3 (1935), pp. 171-177, p. 176.

Bibliography

  • Boughter, Judith A. The Pawnee Nation: An Annotated Research Bibliography (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press), 2004. ISBN 0-8108-4990-9
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