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[[File:The cow pock.jpg|thumb|[[James Gillray]]'s 1802 caricature of Jenner vaccinating patients who feared it would make them sprout cowlike appendages.]]
[[File:The cow pock.jpg|thumb|[[James Gillray]]'s 1802 caricature of Jenner vaccinating patients who feared it would make them sprout cowlike appendages.]]
[[File:Jenner and his two colleagues seeing off three anti-vaccinat Wellcome V0011075.jpg|thumb|1808 cartoon showing Jenner, [[Thomas Dimsdale]] and [[George Rose (politician)|George Rose]] seeing off anti-vaccination opponents]]
[[File:Jenner and his two colleagues seeing off three anti-vaccinat Wellcome V0011075.jpg|thumb|1808 cartoon showing Jenner, [[Thomas Dimsdale]] and [[George Rose (politician)|George Rose]] seeing off anti-vaccination opponents]]
Jenner continued his research and reported it to the Royal Society, which did not publish the initial paper. After revisions and further investigations, he published his findings on the 23 cases, including his 11 months old son Robert.<ref>{{Literatur |Author=Gareth Williams |Titel=Angel of Death: The Story of Smallpox |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |Ort=Basingstoke |date=2010 |ISBN=9780230274716 |pages=198}}</ref> Some of his conclusions were correct, some erroneous; modern microbiological and microscopic methods would make his studies easier to reproduce. The medical establishment deliberated at length over his findings before accepting them. Eventually, vaccination was accepted, and in 1840, the British government banned variolation{{spaced ndash}}the use of smallpox to induce immunity{{spaced ndash}}and provided vaccination using cowpox free of charge. (See [[Vaccination/Vaccination acts|Vaccination acts]]).
Jenner continued his research and reported it to the Royal Society, which did not publish the initial paper. After revisions and further investigations, he published his findings on the 23 cases, including his 11 months old son Robert.<ref>{{cite book |last = Williams | first = Gareth |title = Angel of Death: The Story of Smallpox |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |date=2010 |ISBN=9780230274716 |page=198}}</ref> Some of his conclusions were correct, some erroneous; modern microbiological and microscopic methods would make his studies easier to reproduce. The medical establishment deliberated at length over his findings before accepting them. Eventually, vaccination was accepted, and in 1840, the British government banned variolation{{spaced ndash}}the use of smallpox to induce immunity{{spaced ndash}}and provided vaccination using cowpox free of charge. (See [[Vaccination/Vaccination acts|Vaccination acts]]).


The success of his discovery soon spread around Europe and was used ''en masse'' in the Spanish [[Balmis Expedition]] (1803–1806), a three-year-long mission to the Americas, the Philippines, Macao, China, led by Dr. [[Francisco Javier de Balmis]] with the aim of giving thousands the smallpox vaccine.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Carlos Franco-Paredes |author2=Lorena Lammoglia |author3=José Ignacio Santos-Preciado |title=The Spanish Royal Philanthropic Expedition to Bring Smallpox Vaccination to the New World and Asia in the 19th Century |publisher=Oxford Journals |volume=41 |issue=9 |pages=1285–1289 |year=2005 |journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases |url=http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/41/9/1285.full |doi= 10.1086/496930 |pmid=16206103}}</ref> The expedition was successful, and Jenner wrote, "I don’t imagine the annals of history furnish an example of philanthropy so noble, so extensive as this."<ref>"Andean Studies: New Trends and Library Resources : Papers of the Forty-Fifth Annual Meeting of the Seminar on the Acquisition of Latin American Library Materials", University of California, Los Angeles ... 27–31 May 2000". p. 46</ref> [[Napoleon]], who at the time was [[Napoleonic Wars|at war with Britain]], had all his French troops vaccinated, awarded Jenner a medal, and at the request of Jenner he released two English prisoners of war and permitted their return home.<ref name="Napoleon"/><ref>{{cite journal |title=The Jenner Society and the Edward Jenner Museum: Tributes to a physician-scientist |first1=A.J. |last1=Morgan |first2=Gregory A. |last2=Poland |journal=[[Vaccine (journal)|Vaccine]] |volume=29 |issue=Supplement 4 |date=30 December 2011 |pages=D152–D154 |doi=10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.08.128 |url=http://www.edwardjennersociety.org/wp-content/uploads/The-Jenner-Society-and.pdf}}</ref> Napoleon remarked he could not "refuse anything to one of the greatest benefactors of mankind."<ref name="Napoleon">{{cite journal |title=The relations between fellows of the Royal Society and French men of science when France and Britain were at war |last=De Beer |first=G. R. |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |date=May 1952 |volume=9 |issue=2 |page=297 {{^|Whole article is pp. 244–299}} |doi=10.1098/rsnr.1952.0016}}</ref>
The success of his discovery soon spread around Europe and was used ''en masse'' in the Spanish [[Balmis Expedition]] (1803–1806), a three-year-long mission to the Americas, the Philippines, Macao, China, led by Dr. [[Francisco Javier de Balmis]] with the aim of giving thousands the smallpox vaccine.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Carlos Franco-Paredes |author2=Lorena Lammoglia |author3=José Ignacio Santos-Preciado |title=The Spanish Royal Philanthropic Expedition to Bring Smallpox Vaccination to the New World and Asia in the 19th Century |publisher=Oxford Journals |volume=41 |issue=9 |pages=1285–1289 |year=2005 |journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases |url=http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/41/9/1285.full |doi= 10.1086/496930 |pmid=16206103}}</ref> The expedition was successful, and Jenner wrote, "I don’t imagine the annals of history furnish an example of philanthropy so noble, so extensive as this."<ref>"Andean Studies: New Trends and Library Resources : Papers of the Forty-Fifth Annual Meeting of the Seminar on the Acquisition of Latin American Library Materials", University of California, Los Angeles ... 27–31 May 2000". p. 46</ref> [[Napoleon]], who at the time was [[Napoleonic Wars|at war with Britain]], had all his French troops vaccinated, awarded Jenner a medal, and at the request of Jenner he released two English prisoners of war and permitted their return home.<ref name="Napoleon"/><ref>{{cite journal |title=The Jenner Society and the Edward Jenner Museum: Tributes to a physician-scientist |first1=A.J. |last1=Morgan |first2=Gregory A. |last2=Poland |journal=[[Vaccine (journal)|Vaccine]] |volume=29 |issue=Supplement 4 |date=30 December 2011 |pages=D152–D154 |doi=10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.08.128 |url=http://www.edwardjennersociety.org/wp-content/uploads/The-Jenner-Society-and.pdf}}</ref> Napoleon remarked he could not "refuse anything to one of the greatest benefactors of mankind."<ref name="Napoleon">{{cite journal |title=The relations between fellows of the Royal Society and French men of science when France and Britain were at war |last=De Beer |first=G. R. |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |date=May 1952 |volume=9 |issue=2 |page=297 {{^|Whole article is pp. 244–299}} |doi=10.1098/rsnr.1952.0016}}</ref>

Revision as of 12:41, 19 September 2018

For the New Zealand poet and translator, see Edward Jenner (writer).

Edward Jenner
Edward Jenner oil painting
Born17 May 1749
Berkeley, Gloucestershire, England
Died26 January 1823(1823-01-26) (aged 73)
Berkeley, Gloucestershire, England
NationalityEnglish
Alma mater
Known forSmallpox vaccine; Vaccination
Scientific career
FieldsMedicine/surgery, natural history
Academic advisorsJohn Hunter

Edward Jenner, FRS FRCPE[1] (17 May 1749 – 26 January 1823) was an English physician and scientist who was the pioneer of smallpox vaccine, the world's first vaccine.[2][3] The terms "vaccine" and "vaccination" are derived from Variolae vaccinae (smallpox of the cow), the term devised by Jenner to denote cowpox. He used it in 1796 in the long title of his Inquiry into the Variolae vaccinae known as the Cow Pox, in which he described the protective effect of cowpox against smallpox.[4]

Jenner is often called "the father of immunology", and his work is said to have "saved more lives than the work of any other human".[5][6][7] In Jenner’s time, smallpox killed around 10 percent of the population, with the number as high as 20 percent in towns and cities where infection spread more easily.[7] In 1821 he was appointed physician extraordinary to King George IV, and was also made mayor of Berkeley and justice of the peace. A member of the Royal Society, in the field of zoology he was the first person to describe the brood parasitism of the cuckoo. In 2002, Jenner was named in the BBC's list of the 100 Greatest Britons.

Early life

Jenner's handwritten draft of the first vaccination is held at the Royal College of Surgeons in London

Edward Anthony Jenner was born on 17 May 1749[8] (6 May Old Style) in Berkeley, Gloucestershire, as the eighth of nine children. His father, the Reverend Stephen Jenner, was the vicar of Berkeley, so Jenner received a strong basic education.[8]

He went to school in Wotton-under-Edge and Cirencester.[8] During this time, he was inoculated for smallpox, which had a lifelong effect upon his general health. (Crucially this meant that he underwent variolation and not vaccination.)[8] At the age of 14, he was apprenticed for seven years to Daniel Ludlow, a surgeon of Chipping Sodbury, South Gloucestershire, where he gained most of the experience needed to become a surgeon himself.[8]

Jenner's 1802 testimonial to the efficacy of vaccination, signed by 112 members of the Physical Society, London

In 1770, Jenner became apprenticed in surgery and anatomy under surgeon John Hunter and others at St George's Hospital.[9] William Osler records that Hunter gave Jenner William Harvey's advice, well-known in medical circles (and characteristic of the Age of Enlightenment), "Don't think; try."[10] Hunter remained in correspondence with Jenner over natural history and proposed him for the Royal Society. Returning to his native countryside by 1773, Jenner became a successful family doctor and surgeon, practising on dedicated premises at Berkeley.

Jenner and others formed the Fleece Medical Society or Gloucestershire Medical Society, so called because it met in the parlour of the Fleece Inn, Rodborough (in Gloucestershire). Members dined together and read papers on medical subjects. Jenner contributed papers on angina pectoris, ophthalmia, and cardiac valvular disease and commented on cowpox. He also belonged to a similar society which met in Alveston, near Bristol.[11]

He became a master mason on 30 December 1802, in Lodge of Faith and Friendship #449. From 1812–1813, he served as worshipful master of Royal Berkeley Lodge of Faith and Friendship.[12]

Zoology

Edward Jenner was elected fellow of the Royal Society in 1788, following his publication of a careful study of the previously misunderstood life of the nested cuckoo, a study that combined observation, experiment, and dissection.

Common cuckoo

He described how the newly hatched cuckoo pushed its host's eggs and fledgling chicks out of the nest (contrary to existing belief that the adult cuckoo did it).[13] Having observed this behaviour, Jenner demonstrated an anatomical adaptation for it—the baby cuckoo has a depression in its back, not present after 12 days of life, that enables it to cup eggs and other chicks. The adult does not remain long enough in the area to perform this task. Jenner's findings were published in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1788.[14][15]

"The singularity of its shape is well adapted to these purposes; for, different from other newly hatched birds, its back from the scapula downwards is very broad, with a considerable depression in the middle. This depression seems formed by nature for the design of giving a more secure lodgement to the egg of the Hedge-sparrow, or its young one, when the young Cuckoo is employed in removing either of them from the nest. When it is about twelve days old, this cavity is quite filled up, and then the back assumes the shape of nestling birds in general." [16] Jenner's nephew assisted in the study. He was born on 30 June 1737.

Jenner's understanding of the cuckoo's behaviour was not entirely believed until the artist Jemima Blackburn, a keen observer of bird life, saw a blind nestling pushing out a host's egg. Her description and illustration of this were enough to convince Charles Darwin to revise a later edition of On the Origin of Species.[17]

Marriage and human medicine

A lecturer's certificate of attendance given to Jenner. He attended many lectures on chemistry, medicine and physics.

Jenner married Catherine Kingscote (died 1815 from tuberculosis) in March 1788. He might have met her while he and other fellows were experimenting with balloons. Jenner's trial balloon descended into Kingscote Park, Gloucestershire, owned by Anthony Kingscote, one of whose daughters was Catherine.[18]

He earned his MD from the University of St Andrews in 1792.[19] He is credited with advancing the understanding of angina pectoris.[20] In his correspondence with Heberden, he wrote, "How much the heart must suffer from the coronary arteries not being able to perform their functions."[21]

Invention of the vaccine

Edward Jenner Advising a Farmer to Vaccinate His Family. Oil painting by an English painter, c. 1910

Inoculation was already a standard practice but involved serious risks, one of which was the fear that those inoculated would then transfer the disease to those around them due to their becoming carriers of the disease.[22] In 1721, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu had imported variolation to Britain after having observed it in Constantinople. Voltaire wrote that at this time 60% of the population caught smallpox and 20% of the population died of it.[23] Voltaire also states that the Circassians used the inoculation from times immemorial, and the custom may have been borrowed by the Turks from the Circassians.[24]

The steps taken by Edward Jenner to create vaccination, the first vaccine for smallpox. Jenner did this by inoculating James Phipps with cowpox, a virus similar to smallpox, to create immunity, unlike variolation, which used smallpox to create an immunity to itself.

By 1768, English physician John Fewster had realised that prior infection with cowpox rendered a person immune to smallpox.[25] In the years following 1770, at least five investigators in England and Germany (Sevel, Jensen, Jesty 1774, Rendell, Plett 1791) successfully tested in humans a cowpox vaccine against smallpox.[26] For example, Dorset farmer Benjamin Jesty[27] successfully vaccinated and presumably induced immunity with cowpox in his wife and two children during a smallpox epidemic in 1774, but it was not until Jenner's work that the procedure became widely understood. Jenner may have been aware of Jesty's procedures and success.[28] A similar observation had also been made in France by Jacques Antoine Rabaut-Pommier in 1780.[29]

Noting the common observation that milkmaids were generally immune to smallpox, Jenner postulated that the pus in the blisters that milkmaids received from cowpox (a disease similar to smallpox, but much less virulent) protected them from smallpox.

Jenner's Hypothesis:
The initial source of infection was a disease of horses, called "the grease", which was transferred to cattle by farm workers, transformed, and then manifested as cowpox.
Dr Jenner performing his first vaccination on James Phipps, a boy of age 8. 14 May 1796

On 14 May 1796, Jenner tested his hypothesis by inoculating James Phipps, an eight-year-old boy who was the son of Jenner's gardener. He scraped pus from cowpox blisters on the hands of Sarah Nelmes, a milkmaid who had caught cowpox from a cow called Blossom,[30] whose hide now hangs on the wall of the St George's medical school library (now in Tooting). Phipps was the 17th case described in Jenner's first paper on vaccination.[31]

Jenner inoculated Phipps in both arms that day, subsequently producing in Phipps a fever and some uneasiness, but no full-blown infection. Later, he injected Phipps with variolous material, the routine method of immunization at that time. No disease followed. The boy was later challenged with variolous material and again showed no sign of infection.

Known:
Smallpox is more dangerous than variolation and cowpox less dangerous than variolation.
Hypothesis:
If target is infected with cowpox, then target is immune to smallpox.
Test:
If variolation after infection with cowpox fails to produce a smallpox infection, immunity to smallpox has been achieved.
Consequence:
Immunity to smallpox can be induced much more safely than by variolation.

Donald Hopkins has written, "Jenner's unique contribution was not that he inoculated a few persons with cowpox, but that he then proved [by subsequent challenges] that they were immune to smallpox. Moreover, he demonstrated that the protective cowpox pus could be effectively inoculated from person to person, not just directly from cattle.[32] Jenner successfully tested his hypothesis on 23 additional subjects.

James Gillray's 1802 caricature of Jenner vaccinating patients who feared it would make them sprout cowlike appendages.
1808 cartoon showing Jenner, Thomas Dimsdale and George Rose seeing off anti-vaccination opponents

Jenner continued his research and reported it to the Royal Society, which did not publish the initial paper. After revisions and further investigations, he published his findings on the 23 cases, including his 11 months old son Robert.[33] Some of his conclusions were correct, some erroneous; modern microbiological and microscopic methods would make his studies easier to reproduce. The medical establishment deliberated at length over his findings before accepting them. Eventually, vaccination was accepted, and in 1840, the British government banned variolation – the use of smallpox to induce immunity – and provided vaccination using cowpox free of charge. (See Vaccination acts).

The success of his discovery soon spread around Europe and was used en masse in the Spanish Balmis Expedition (1803–1806), a three-year-long mission to the Americas, the Philippines, Macao, China, led by Dr. Francisco Javier de Balmis with the aim of giving thousands the smallpox vaccine.[34] The expedition was successful, and Jenner wrote, "I don’t imagine the annals of history furnish an example of philanthropy so noble, so extensive as this."[35] Napoleon, who at the time was at war with Britain, had all his French troops vaccinated, awarded Jenner a medal, and at the request of Jenner he released two English prisoners of war and permitted their return home.[36][37] Napoleon remarked he could not "refuse anything to one of the greatest benefactors of mankind."[36]

1873 sculpture of Jenner vaccinating his own son against smallpox by Italian sculptor Giulio Monteverde, Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna, Rome

Jenner's continuing work on vaccination prevented him from continuing his ordinary medical practice. He was supported by his colleagues and the King in petitioning Parliament,[38] and was granted £10,000 in 1802 for his work on vaccination.[39] In 1807, he was granted another £20,000 after the Royal College of Physicians confirmed the widespread efficacy of vaccination.[39]

Later life

Certificate of the Freedom of the City of London awarded to Jenner, 1803

Jenner was also elected a foreign honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1802, and a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1806.[40] In 1803 in London, he became president of the Jennerian Society, concerned with promoting vaccination to eradicate smallpox. The Jennerian ceased operations in 1809. Jenner became a member of the Medical and Chirurgical Society on its founding in 1805 (now the Royal Society of Medicine) and presented several papers there. In 1808, with government aid, the National Vaccine Establishment was founded, but Jenner felt dishonoured by the men selected to run it and resigned his directorship.[41]

Returning to London in 1811, Jenner observed a significant number of cases of smallpox after vaccination. He found that in these cases the severity of the illness was notably diminished by previous vaccination. In 1821, he was appointed physician extraordinary to King George IV, and was also made mayor of Berkeley and justice of the peace.[39] He continued to investigate natural history, and in 1823, the last year of his life, he presented his "Observations on the Migration of Birds" to the Royal Society.[39]

Death

Jenner was found in a state of apoplexy on 25 January 1823, with his right side paralysed. He never fully recovered and eventually died of an apparent stroke, his second, on 26 January 1823, aged 73. He was buried in the Jenner family vault at the Church of St. Mary, Berkeley.[42] He was survived by his son Robert Fitzharding (* 1797; † 1854) and his daughter Catherine (* 1794; † 1833), his elder son Edward (* 1789; † 1810) having died of tuberculosis aged 21.[43]

Religious views

1825 memorial to Jenner by Robert William Sievier, Gloucester Cathedral

Neither fanatic nor lax,[44] Jenner was a Christian who in his personal correspondence showed himself quite spiritual; he treasured the Bible.[45] Some days before his death, he stated to a friend: "I am not surprised that men are not grateful to me; but I wonder that they are not grateful to God for the good which he has made me the instrument of conveying to my fellow creatures."[46] However, his contemporary Rabbi Israel Lipschitz in his classic commentary on the Mishna Tiferet Yisrael wrote that Jenner was one of the "righteous of the nations," deserving a lofty place in the World to Come, for having saved millions of people from smallpox.[47]

Legacy

In 1979, the World Health Organization declared smallpox an eradicated disease.[48] This was the result of coordinated public health efforts, but vaccination was an essential component. Although the disease was declared eradicated, some pus samples still remain in laboratories in Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta in the US, and in State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR in Koltsovo, Novosibirsk Oblast, Russia.[49]

Jenner's vaccine laid the foundation for contemporary discoveries in immunology.[50] In 2002, Jenner was named in the BBC's list of the 100 Greatest Britons following a UK-wide vote. The lunar crater Jenner is named in his honour. Jenner was recognized in the TV show The Walking Dead. In "TS-19", a CDC scientist is named Edwin Jenner.[51]

Monuments and buildings

Dr Jenner's House, The Chantry, Church Lane, Berkeley, Gloucestershire, England
Bronze statue of Jenner in Kensington Gardens, London
Edward Jenner's name as it appears on the Frieze of the LSHTM Keppel Street building
Edward Jenner's name as it appears on the Frieze of the LSHTM Keppel Street building

Publications

  • 1798 An Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of the Variolæ Vaccinæ[64]
  • 1799 Further Observations on the Variolæ Vaccinæ, or Cow-Pox.[65]
  • 1800 A Continuation of Facts and Observations relative to the Variolæ Vaccinæ 40pgs[66]
  • 1801 The Origin of the Vaccine Inoculation[67]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Jenner, Edward (1749 – 1823) | Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh". www.rcpe.ac.uk. Retrieved 26 June 2018.
  2. ^ Stefan Riedel, MD (January 2005). "Edward Jenner and the history of smallpox and vaccination". Proceedings (Baylor University. Medical Center). 18 (1). Baylor University Medical Center: 21–25. doi:10.1080/08998280.2005.11928028. PMC 1200696. PMID 16200144.
  3. ^ Baxby, Derrick. "Jenner, Edward (1749–1823)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 14 February 2014.
  4. ^ Baxby, Derrick (1999). "Edward Jenner's Inquiry; a bicentenary analysis". Vaccine. 17 (4): 301–7. doi:10.1016/s0264-410x(98)00207-2. PMID 9987167.
  5. ^ "Edward Jenner – (1749–1823)". Sundaytimes.lk. 1 June 2008. Retrieved 28 July 2009.
  6. ^ "History – Edward Jenner (1749–1823)". BBC. 1 November 2006. Retrieved 28 July 2009.
  7. ^ a b "How did Edward Jenner test his smallpox vaccine?". Telegraph. Retrieved 2 December 2017
  8. ^ a b c d e "About Edward Jenner". The Jenner Institute. Retrieved 12 January 2013.
  9. ^ "Young Edward Jenner, Born in Berkeley". Edward Jenner Museum. Archived from the original on 14 September 2012. Retrieved 4 September 2012. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  10. ^ Loncarek K (April 2009). "Revolution or reformation". Croatian Medical Journal. 50 (2): 195–7. doi:10.3325/cmj.2009.50.195. PMC 2681061. PMID 19399955.
  11. ^ "Papers at the Royal College of Physicians summarised".
  12. ^ "Edward Jenner biography". Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon A.F. & A. M. Retrieved 22 August 2016
  13. ^ Jenner Museum: Cuckoo" Archived 23 September 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  14. ^ Observations on the Natural History of the Cuckoo. By Mr. Edward Jenner. In a Letter to John Hunter, Esq. F. R. S Jenner, E Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1776–1886). 1 January 1788. 78:219–237 (Text at https://archive.org/details/philtrans06624558)
  15. ^ Cuckoo chicks evicting their nest mates: coincidental observations by Edward Jenner in England and Antoine Joseph Lottinger in France, Spencer G. Sealy and Mélanie F. Guigueno Department of Biological Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2N2, Canada. Archives of natural history. Volume 38, Page 220-228 doi:10.3366/anh.2011.0030, ISSN 0260-9541, Available Online October 2011
  16. ^ (Letter to Hunter at the Royal Society, as above)
  17. ^ The Biographical Dictionary of Scottish Women. 2006.
  18. ^ Richard B. Fisher, Edward Jenner (Andre Deutsch, 1991) 40–42
  19. ^ "A brief history of the University". University of St Andrews. Retrieved 11 February 2018. Through the centuries many great minds have been attracted to St Andrews:...Edward Jenner, pioneer of the smallpox vaccine (MD, 1792)
  20. ^ Journal of the Royal College of Physicians Edinburgh 2011; 41:361–5 doi:10.4997/JRCPE.2011.416
  21. ^ Valentin Fuster, Eric J. Topol, Elizabeth G. Nabel (2005). "Atherothrombosis and Coronary Artery Disease". p. 8. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
  22. ^ "Lady Montagu and the Introduction of Smallpox Inoculation to England | Muslim Heritage". www.muslimheritage.com. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
  23. ^ François Marie Arouet de Voltaire (1778). "Letters on the English or Lettres Philosophiques".
  24. ^ "Voltaire on Circassian Medicine: Inoculation". Circassian World. from Voltaire (1733). The Works of Voltaire. Vol. Vol. XIX (Philosophical Letters). {{cite book}}: |volume= has extra text (help)
  25. ^ See:
  26. ^ Plett PC (2006). "Peter Plett and other discoverers of cowpox vaccination before Edward Jenner" [Peter Plett and other discoverers of cowpox vaccination before Edward Jenner]. Sudhoffs Archiv (in German). 90 (2): 219–32. PMID 17338405.
  27. ^ Hammarsten J. F.; et al. (1979). "Who discovered smallpox vaccination? Edward Jenner or Benjamin Jesty?". Transactions of the American Clinical and Climatological Association. 90: 44–55. PMC 2279376. PMID 390826.
  28. ^ Grant, John (2007). Corrupted Science: Fraud, Ideology and Politics in Science. London: Facts, Figures & Fun. p. 24. ISBN 978-1-904332-73-2.
  29. ^ Théodoridès J (1979). "Rabaut-Pommier, a neglected precursor of Jenner". Med Hist. 23: 479–80. doi:10.1017/s0025727300052121. PMC 1082587. PMID 390274.
  30. ^ "Edward Jenner & Smallpox". The Edward Jenner Museum. Archived from the original on 28 June 2009. Retrieved 13 July 2009. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  31. ^ An Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of the Variolae Vaccinae, Edward Jenner. Retrieved 17 November 2012
  32. ^ Hopkins, Donald R. (2002). The greatest killer: smallpox in history, with a new introduction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-226-35168-1. OCLC 49305765.
  33. ^ Williams, Gareth (2010). Angel of Death: The Story of Smallpox. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 198. ISBN 9780230274716.
  34. ^ Carlos Franco-Paredes; Lorena Lammoglia; José Ignacio Santos-Preciado (2005). "The Spanish Royal Philanthropic Expedition to Bring Smallpox Vaccination to the New World and Asia in the 19th Century". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 41 (9). Oxford Journals: 1285–1289. doi:10.1086/496930. PMID 16206103.
  35. ^ "Andean Studies: New Trends and Library Resources : Papers of the Forty-Fifth Annual Meeting of the Seminar on the Acquisition of Latin American Library Materials", University of California, Los Angeles ... 27–31 May 2000". p. 46
  36. ^ a b De Beer, G. R. (May 1952). "The relations between fellows of the Royal Society and French men of science when France and Britain were at war". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 9 (2): 297. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1952.0016.
  37. ^ Morgan, A.J.; Poland, Gregory A. (30 December 2011). "The Jenner Society and the Edward Jenner Museum: Tributes to a physician-scientist" (PDF). Vaccine. 29 (Supplement 4): D152–D154. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.08.128.
  38. ^ Commons, Great Britain Parliament House of (18 July 2018). "Reports from Committees of the House of Commons which Have Been Printed by Order of the House: And are Not Inserted in the Journals [1715-1801" – via Google Books.
  39. ^ a b c d J. N. Hays (2009). "The Burdens of Disease: Epidemics and Human Response in Western History". p. 126. Rutgers University Press
  40. ^ "Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter J" (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved 28 July 2014.
  41. ^ John Baron, Life of Edward Jenner (London, 1837), vol. 2, pp. 122–5.
  42. ^ "Edward Jenner – St Mary's Church, Berkeley, Gloucestershire". Archived from the original on 20 September 2011. Retrieved 15 December 2010. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  43. ^ Darren R. Flower (2008). "Bioinformatics for Vaccinology". p. 24ff. John Wiley & Sons
  44. ^ Horne, Charles F.. 1894. Dr. Edward Jenner (1749–1823) by John Timbs, F.S.A.. Gjenvick-Gjønvik Archives
  45. ^ Baron, John, 1838. The Life of Edward Jenner ...: With Illustrations of His Doctrines, and Selections from His Correspondence, Volume 2. Henry Colburn. See pages 141, 179, 221, 282, 295, 317, 416, 447–448
  46. ^ Nolie Mumey, Edward Jenner; 1949. Vaccination: bicentenary of the birth of Edward Jenner, Volume 1. Range Press, p. 37
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  64. ^ Edward Jenner. "An Inquiry Into the Causes and Effects of the Variolæ Vaccinæ, Or Cow-Pox. 1798". The Harvard Classics, 1909–1914.
  65. ^ Edward Jenner. "Further Observations on the Variolæ Vaccinæ, or Cow-Pox. 1799". The Harvard Classics, 1909–1914.
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  67. ^ "The origins of vaccination: no inoculation, no vaccination". James Lind Initiative, the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh and Minervation Ltd

Further reading

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