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=== Agriculture ===
=== Agriculture ===
*[[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Jibans/sandbox/Jiban_Shrestha-Scientist_%26_Editor Jiban Shrestha]]]-Scientist, Editor at Nepal Agricultural Research Council
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Jibans/sandbox/Jiban_Shrestha-Scientist_%26_Editor Jiban Shrestha]-Scientist, Editor at Nepal Agricultural Research Council


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 22:31, 26 December 2018

Shresthas
Srēṣṭha श्रेष्ठ
Total population
25% of total Newar population; 1.2% of total Nepal population (2001 census)[1]
Regions with significant populations
   Nepal,  India
Languages
Nepal Bhasa, Nepali
Religion
Hindu
Related ethnic groups
Newar peoples; Indo-Aryan peoples; Kshatriya clans; Nepali people; Nepal Mandala peoples

The Srēṣṭa or Shrēṣṭha (Template:Lang-ne) or (Template:Lang-new) is the second largest Newar caste-class group, occupying around 25% of overall Newar population, or about 1.2% of Nepal’s total population.[2] It is believed that the word Srēṣṭha is derived from the Newar word Śeśyah, which itself is derivation of a Sanskrit word Sista meaning 'noble', although literal meaning of the word also translated to 'best or important.'[3] "Shrestha" itself was later adopted as the specific family surname by members of this high-caste Hindu group, although there are over 50 other recognized surnames of Srēṣṭhas.[4]

Prior to Nepal’s unification, Srēṣṭha was a collective high-status title given to those Hindu clans referred to as 'Bhāju' (from Sanskrit bhadralok) who served as the key non-Brahmin class of ruling, administrative and merchant class of the Malla courts. From within this broad Srēṣṭha groups are two distinct caste groups. First, they count among them the high-caste aristocratic Kshatriyas, locally pronounced as Chatharīya, who are descended from the nobles and courtiers of the Malla period and consist of the ruling, land-owning and literate Hindu caste group of the Nepal Mandala, which later formed the core of government bureaucracy during the Shah and Rana period.[5] Second, Srēṣṭha title is also attributed to the Pāñchthariya, who now mostly write their surnames as 'Shrestha', who were historically the Hindu merchant clans of the Valley, as opposed to the Buddhist merchant caste of Urāy. These Pāñchthariyas have Vaishya status in the traditional varna framework.[6] Srēṣṭha group has also incorporated in it the socially upward Jyapu farmers and other peasants especially outside the Valley as a means of the Sanskritisation process, although their status is not accepted by the upper-level Srēṣṭha castes.

Religion and Caste status

In traditional Hindu Newar society, the Srēṣṭha caste ranks second to the priestly Rājopadhyāyā Brāhman in ritual hierarchy.[7] In the Malla era, together with the Rājopadhyāyā Brāhman priests, the Sréṣṭhas controlled key posts of the administration and gained vested interest in the land by acquiring feudal rights over holdings. As descending from the noble houses of the Malla courts, the Kshatriya-status Chatharīyas are second in line in the traditional caste-bound view, their social superiority evidenced through their strict endogamous marriage relations within Chatharīyas, disallowing marriages with the Pāñchthariya-status Srēṣṭhas and other lower groups. Similarly, they have historically been strict adherents of the Brahmānic social norms and rituals (like following the custom of Upanayana, performing the Śrāddha ceremony, and being much closer to the mainstream North-Indian Hindu virtues in comparison to other Newars). They have also maintained their higher-status through dining restrictions, as they do not partake cooked rice from the hands of anyone except their Chatharīya-status clans and/or the Brāhmans, suggesting their higher-caste status than all other Newars. The Pāñchthariyas, although are lower in rank to the Chatharīyas, nonetheless have socio-cultural and religious affinities with them and as the chief materially-endowed trading caste group, enjoy a considerable position of high-status in the eyes of other Newar castes. Both the Srēṣṭha caste groups are traditionally Hindus, often termed as Sivamargi in local parlance. However, there are few exceptions to this norm; few notable families like the Pradhān aristocrats of Bhagavan Bahāl in Thamel[8] and Amatyas of Indrachok have been traditional patrons of Buddhist viharas and temples, suggesting reverence towards Buddhist shrines as well.

Patrons of the society as Newar Kṣatriyas

The particular position of the dominant caste that Srēṣṭhas hold in relation to religious, cultural and spatial organization of the Newars can be viewed through their traditional occupational work as the patron caste to all other caste groups, most importantly as patrons to their Rājopadhyāyā Brāhman priests. Among Hindu Newars, as in traditional Hindu societies, the position of Srēṣṭhas, particularly of the Kșatriya-status Chatharīyas, in the society can be viewed through the dichotomy between their role as the sacrificer who organizes religious functions, the yajamāna, to the Brāhman priest who performs the solemn rituals. Like other North Indian societies, this dichotomy is between the Brāhman and the Kṣatriya.[9] The former is the specialist of ritual Vedic texts, the guardian of the sacred science, the repository of the knowledge of the dharma, the ultimate authority on religious affairs. The latter represents the king, the warriors, the military and administrators, and he has a peculiar affinity with all matters pertaining to material goods, and economic or political action. It is his duty to perform his dharma, his duties as the provider and protector of the Brāhman, his society and his nation. Their relationship is complimentary; a priest must have a patron, a patron must have a priest. This quintessential Brahmānic Hindu tradition is the basis of which in local Newar customs, the Rājopadhyāyā Brāhman is given superior status to the Kșatriya Srēṣṭha even though the societal functions entirely depend on the Srēṣṭha's role as patrons.[10]

The dichotomy between the patron-patronized relationship that defines the functional role of the Srēṣṭha extends beyond the Brāhman. Although in terms of ritual purity, the Brāhmans rank above Kșatriyas, they represent transcendental values, not local ones. It is the Kșatriyas, i.e. the Srēṣṭhas, who are the paradigmatic Newars on the traditional caste-bound view.[11] This places Srēṣṭhas as the central caste of the entire Newar society. All other castes revolve around they, as they preside over as the patron of all other caste groups. In many traditional socio-religious events or festivals (jatras), they act as chief performer and leader of the rituals. Among the 'pure' castes, a Srēṣṭha invites the Brāhman to perform Vedic rituals, the Karmācharya Achāju for Tantric rituals, Jyāpus to till his land, Nāu barbers to perform ritual cleaning, Chitrakārs to paint his deities and house, the Tāmrākārs to make ritual utensils, Halwāis to make ritual confections, etc. He also has to take the services of the 'impure' castes in historically purity definiling tasks; he utilises the Nāy/Khadgi butchers to perform ritual sacrifices of animals to please the Gods and Goddesses, the Bhā/Karanjits funeral priests to perform the "katto" death ritual of eating a portion of the skull, the Jogi/Kapāli to accept the offerings during the 13-day mourning period after a death, etc.[12]

‘Srēṣṭha’ in Modern Times

Many belonging to Srēṣṭha caste began to adopt ‘Shrestha’ as their caste name as early as the 18th century. Srēṣṭhas are considered to be the most educated caste. They are employed in various organizations, banks, schools, universities, industries and other private sectors. Many of them also occupy high-ranking administrative positions at governmental and non-governmental organizations.[13] They also rank among the most astute businessmen in Nepal.[14] Srēṣṭhas have also traditionally been the patrons of various temples of the Valley, including the famous Pasupatinath temple where traditionally Rājbhandārīs and Karmāchāryas serve as caretakers and assistant priests to the chief priest. Many Srēṣṭha clans also act as chief patrons of various local deities and temples.[15]

Srēṣṭha sub-caste groups

Although to outsiders they remain as a single non-hierarchical group, to Srēṣṭha themselves there are two major divisions within the caste which in theory and till recent times practiced caste-endogamy, non-commensality, dining restrictions, and other caste-status denoting activities between each other.[16][17] Although researchers have found up to four broad divisions, the two main historically categorized groups of the Srēṣṭha caste are: Chatharīya and Pāñchthariya.[18]

Chatharīya

The Chatharīya (छथरिय/क्षत्रीय) (also referred to as Chatharī or Chatharé) are regarded as the Newar aristocracy[19] and contain several subgroups within the caste, which are now treated as ritually equal. The term Chatharīya is believed to be the derivative of the word ‘Kshatriya’, the second varna of the traditional Hindu varnashrama comprising kings, warriors and administrators. The Chatharīyas consider themselves as the Raghuvanshi Kṣatriya descendants of the Karnat king Hari Simha Dev (14th century CE) and the entourage that came along with him to Kathmandu Valley with the attack of the Tirhut kingdom by Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq of Tughluq dynasty in 1324 CE.[20] The presence of notable present-day Chatharīya clan titles non-indigenous to the Newars that are still prevalent among the present-day Rajputs of India has been suggested as evidence of the Chatharīya's claim to their ancestry. The Rajput clans that have been transformed as surnames among the Chatharīyas include Raghuvanshi, Rawal, Raithor, Chauhan, Chandel, and Hada.[21] Similarly, presence of notable Bengali clans Raya, Baidya and Kayastha among Chatharīya also suggests that today's Newar Chatharīya caste is a result of the amalgamation of mostly Kṣatriya, or equivalent status, clans of heterogenous roots who immigrated to Nepal and became the ruling elite of the Malla courts. Other evidences of their non-indigenous roots compared to other Newar castes point out to their generally more defined Indic-Aryan roots; their Brahmanic traditions, phenotype characteristics, and written historical genealogies.[22] Being absorbed in the Newar society, all these groups retained their Kṣatriya varna-status while acquiring the local title of Srēṣṭha to the new populace. Although native speakers of Maithili, which was spoken as the language of the Malla courts, they adopted the Newari language and customs over the generations, and divided themselves among various sub-clans and new local names. At present, they are part of the larger Newar nation, where they inter-marry with other Chatharīya status clans.[23]

The use of the word Chatharīya seems to have been derived only since the 16th/17th century from the attempts of few powerful and highly influential Kṣatriya lineages of the time, like the Pradhān and Raithor nobles, to demarcate themselves as a separate, higher group from other high-caste Srēṣṭhas. Notably, the Pradhāns of Patan were a very powerful courtier clan which made and unmade Malla and early Shah kings on their whim. Throughout the centuries, many clans have been 'included' or 'dropped' from Chatharīya status as a result of economic and social prowess or impure and mixed-caste marriages respectively.[24] Although several other clans associated with the nobility of the late Malla court were successful in integrating themselves into the Chatharīya fold, it is widely believed that a small number of families are the 'original' Chatharīya clans.[25] Family names which demonstrate an alliance with the old Malla courts (post 14th century) are commonly cited as evidence of this. These include Malla, the ritual kings and descendants of Mallas; Amātya/Rathor, the ministers; Pradhān and Māhāpātra, the chief ministers and military chiefs; Rājbhandāri, the royal treasurers and chamberlains; Kāyastha, the scribes; Rāj Lawat and Pātra Vaṃśh, of royal mixed descent; Rājvaṃśī/Raghuvamśī, of royal lineage; Māské, royal functionaries; and Rāj Vaidhya, royal ayurvedic physicians. These Chatharīya are unequivocal in their association with the Mallas and they claim descent of former rulers, and that many of them have an ancestry tied to India.[26][27] Presently, they claim direct descent from the previous ruling dynasties of Malla, Lichhavi, Karnat, among others.[28] This group also consist of the "fallen" Brahmins - Joshī, the astrologers; and Karmāchārya, the Tantric priests - both of which once part of Rājopadhyāyā Brāhmin caste but due to their disregard of Brahmanical percepts (like marrying non-Brahmin brides) are now “degraded” to Kshatriya status - are regarded as non-Brahmins performing the duties of Hindu priests in the various shrines of the Valley.[29]

Chatharīyas differ from most Newars in that they, along with Rājopadhyāyā Brāhmans, are the only Newar castes entitled to wear the sacred-thread (Jwanā/Janāi/Yajñopavītam) to mark their twice-born status.[30]

Surnames of Chatharīyas:[31] -

  • A अ – Amatya (अमात्य) also called Mahaju (महाजु)
  • Bh भ – Bhadel** (भडेल), Bharo (भारो)
  • CH च - Chandela (चंदेल), Chauhan (चौहान)
  • Dh ढ – Dhaubhadel (ढौभडेल), Daiwagya (दैवग्य), Dwa (द्वा)
  • G ग – Gonga: (गोँग), Guruwacharya (गुरुवाचार्य), Gorkhaly (गोर्खाली)
  • H ह – Hada (हाडा)
  • J ज – Joshi (जोशी), Jonchhe (जोँछे)
  • K क – Kasaju (कसजु), Kayastha (कायस्थ), Karmacharya** (कर्माचार्य)
  • Kh ख – Khyargoli (ख्यर्गोली), Khwakhali (ख्वखली)
  • L ल- Lakhey (लाखे), Lacoul (लकौल), Layeku (लएकु)
  • M म- Malla (मल्ल), Munankarmi (मुनंकर्मी), Mulepati (मुलेपती), Maskey (मास्के), Malekoo (मलेकू), Mathema (माथेमा), Mool (मूल), Mahapatra(महापात्र), Mulmi(मुल्मी)
  • O व - WantOnta (ओन्त), Ojhathanchhe (ओझथंछेँ)
  • P प - Pradhananga (प्रधानाङ्ग), Pradhan (प्रधान) also called Pamahju (पमाजु), Patrabansh (पात्रबंश), Piya (पिया), Palikhe (पालिखे)
  • R र – Rajbhandari (राजभण्डारी), Raya (राय), Rajbanshi (राजबंशी), Raghuvanshi (रघुबंशी), Rawal (रावल), Raithor (राइठौर), Rajbaidya (राजवैद्य), Rajlawat** (राजलवट)
  • S स – Sainju (सैंजु), Shrestha** (श्रेष्ठ)
  • T त – Talchabhadel (ताल्चाभडेल), Timila (तिमीला)
  • Th थ- Thaiba (थैव), Thakoo(थकू)**
  • V व – Vaidya (वैद्य), Varman (बर्मन)

** Also belonging to Pancthariya sub-clans

Pāñchthariya

The Pāñchthariya (or called Panchthari/Panchthare) are less elevated but along with Chatharīya form the other half of the larger Srēṣṭha caste. While the Chatharīya were the aristocrats and administrators in Malla society, the Pāñchthariya’s traditional occupations have been mostly in trade and business.[32] Together with their high-caste Buddhist merchants counterparts, the Urāy (Tuladhars and others), they were the primary carriers of trade between Nepal and Tibet till the 1950s. With modern times, many Pāñchthariya families adopted the name ‘Shrestha’ as their common surname instead of their traditional and archaic family-names.[33] But this group also has had an influx of Jyapus and other lower castes who claim the status of Shrestha by changing their surnames.[34][35] Believed to be of Vaishya origin, well-renowned and traditional Pāñchthariya families include -

sweetmakers Madhika:mi(माधि:कर्मी); metal-workers Nyāchhyoñ(न्याछोँ); money-lenders and tenants Kācchipati(काछिपती); traditional merchant clan Shahukahala (शाहुखल); others include Bhaju (भाजु), Deoju (देउजु), Nāeju (नायजु), Chhipi (छिपी), Bhocchibhoya (भोचिभोया), Duwal (दुवल), Singh (सिंह), Sakhakarmi (साख:कर्मी), Syāyabaji (स्याबजी). These and other general traders and mercantile groups have now simply adopted their caste name "Shrestha(श्रेष्ठ)".[36]

Among the Pāñchthariyas also include the Karmachāryā or ‘Achaju(आचजु)’, who unlike in Kathmandu and Patan, is regarded as the highest segment of Pāñchthariya caste in Bhaktapur.[37] In Kathmandu this group also include the descendants of the pre-Malla era Vaishya-Thakuri dynasty who stylise themselves as Thakoo(थकू). In Bhaktapur, this group consists of 'degraded' Malla-status groups with surnames Malla Lawat(मल्ल लवट), who are the descendants of Ranajit Malla (1722–1769) and one of his mistresses.

‘Shrestha’ surname popularity

Unlike other Newar castes, the surname "Shrestha" is found in every district of Nepal.[38] One of the reasons behind it is the adoption of Shrestha as one’s surname once a family belonging to any of the Newar caste moves to settle far off places from the Kathmandu Valley. Shrestha surname is equated to all the Newars in the areas outside of Kathmandu Valley.[39] Other castes like Sakya, Vajracharya, Prajapati, Jyapu and Jogi all adopted Shrestha as their caste name. Similarly, cross breed children begot from a Newar and any other caste/ethnicity also adopted Shrestha as their caste name.[40] Many lower castes have also adopted the name, Shrestha; the status they then assume tends to be expressed in the traditional idiom i.e., one moves up to a higher hierarchic (ascribed) position like well-to-do Jyapus assuming the name ‘Shrestha’.[41] Similarly, outside Nepal, for instance in Darjeeling and Sikkim, almost all the Newars used ‘Pradhān’, another high-caste Srēṣṭha surname, as their common name.[42] The Newars of Nepal however see the status and purity of these Pradhan from Sikkim and Darjeeling with doubt as they do with the Shrestha of Nepal.[43]

Notable Srēṣṭhas

Politics and Civil Leadership

Business & Trade

Literature & Arts

Music & Contemporary Culture

Agriculture

  • Jiban Shrestha-Scientist, Editor at Nepal Agricultural Research Council

References

  1. ^ Folklore of Nepal. p. 5.
  2. ^ Whelpton, John (2005). A History of Nepal. Cambridge University Press. p. 9.
  3. ^ Shrestha, Bal Gopal. "Castes Among Newars Status of Shrestha". Academia.edu. European Bulletin of Himalayan Research.
  4. ^ Shrestha, Bal Gopal. "Castes Among Newars Status of Shrestha". Academia.edu. European Bulletin of Himalayan Research.
  5. ^ Whelpton, John (2005). A History of Nepal. Cambridge University Press. p. 31.
  6. ^ Bista, Dor Bahadur (1991). Fatalism and Development: Nepal’s Struggle for Modernization (6th imprint ed.). Calcutta, India: Orient Longman. ISBN 8125001883.
  7. ^ Shrestha, Bal Gopal. "Castes Among Newars Status of Shrestha". Academia.edu. European Bulletin of Himalayan Research.
  8. ^ "http://web.comhem.se/~u18515267/CHAPTERIV.htm". {{cite web}}: External link in |title= (help); Missing or empty |url= (help)
  9. ^ Toffin, Gerard (2008). Newar Society: City, Village and Periphery (Second ed.). Lalitpur, Nepal: Himal Books. ISBN 789993343950. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: length (help)
  10. ^ Gellner, David N. Language, Caste, Religion and Territory Newar Identity Ancient and Modern. University of Cambridge. p. 138.
  11. ^ Fisher, James F. "Himalayan Anthropology: The Indo-Tibetan Interface". Mouton Publishers, The Hague.
  12. ^ Gellner, David N. Language, Caste, Religion and Territory Newar Identity Ancient and Modern. University of Cambridge. p. 138.
  13. ^ Gellner and Quigley. Contested Hierarchies A Collaborative Ethnography of Caste among the Newars of the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Clarendon Press: Oxford Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology. ISBN 978-0-19-827960-0.
  14. ^ Upadhyaya, Umesh (2001). The Big Business Houses in Nepal. Kathmandu, Nepal: GEFONT-Nepal. p. 13.
  15. ^ Pickett, Mark (30 Dec 2013). Caste and Kinship in a Modern Hindu Society: The Newar City of Lalitpur, Nepal. Bangkok, Thailand: Orchid Press. ISBN 978-9745241367.
  16. ^ Fisher, James F. "Himalayan Anthropology: The Indo-Tibetan Interface". Mouton Publishers, The Hague.
  17. ^ Gellner, David (1986). Language, caste, religion and territory: Newar identity ancient and modern. Cambridge University Press.
  18. ^ Rosser, Colin (1966). Social Mobility in the Newar Caste System. London, United Kingdom: Asia Publishing House.
  19. ^ Fisher, James F. "Himalayan Anthropology: The Indo-Tibetan Interface". Mouton Publishers, The Hague.
  20. ^ Richard M. Eaton (2005). A Social History of the Deccan, 1300-1761. Cambridge University Press. p. 21. ISBN 9780521254847.
  21. ^ "Mithila, Maithili and Maithil: the Field in Historical Context" (PDF). ShodhGanga. Inflibnet. pp. 88–89, 101–102.
  22. ^ Fisher, James F. "Himalayan Anthropology: The Indo-Tibetan Interface". Mouton Publishers, The Hague.
  23. ^ Fisher, James F. "Himalayan Anthropology: The Indo-Tibetan Interface". Mouton Publishers, The Hague.
  24. ^ Gellner and Quigley. Contested Hierarchies A Collaborative Ethnography of Caste among the Newars of the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Clarendon Press: Oxford Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology. ISBN 978-0-19-827960-0.
  25. ^ Gellner and Quigley. Contested Hierarchies A Collaborative Ethnography of Caste among the Newars of the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Clarendon Press: Oxford Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology. ISBN 978-0-19-827960-0.
  26. ^ Bista, Dor Bahadur (1967). People of Nepal. Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar.
  27. ^ Rosser, Colin (1966). Social Mobility in the Newar Caste System. In Furer-Haimendorf.
  28. ^ Gellner, David N.; et al. (1997). "Newars and Nepalese States" in Nationalism and Ethnicity in Hindu Kingdom : The Politics of Culture in Contemporary Nepal. Harwood Academic Publication.
  29. ^ I. Levy, Robert (1991). Mesocosm Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional Newar City in Nepal. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  30. ^ Gellner and Quigley. Contested Hierarchies A Collaborative Ethnography of Caste among the Newars of the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Clarendon Press: Oxford Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology. ISBN 978-0-19-827960-0.
  31. ^ Levy, Robert I. (1991). Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional Newar City in Nepal. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS.
  32. ^ http://web.comhem.se/~u18515267/CHAPTERIV.htm. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  33. ^ I. Levy, Robert (1991). Mesocosm Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional Newar City in Nepal. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  34. ^ Quigley, D. (1995). "Sresthas: Heterogeneity among Hindu Patron Lineages" (University of Cambridge). {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  35. ^ "Rosser 1966:90-104". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  36. ^ Pickett, Mark (30 Dec 2013). Caste and Kinship in a Modern Hindu Society: The Newar City of Lalitpur, Nepal. Bangkok: Orchid Press. ISBN 978-9745241367.
  37. ^ I. Levy, Robert (1991). Mesocosm Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional Newar City in Nepal. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  38. ^ Shrestha, Bal Gopal. "CastesAmong Newars Status of Shrestha". European Bulletin of Himalayan Research (Academia.edu).
  39. ^ Michaels, Axel (2008). Siva in Trouble: Festivals and Rituals at the Pasupatinatha Temple of Deopatan. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195343021.
  40. ^ Shrestha, Bal Gopal (2007). "CastesAmong Newars Status of Shrestha". EuropeanBulletin of Himalayan Research. 31: 10–29.
  41. ^ Pickett, Mary (30 Dec 2013). Caste and Kinship in a Modern Hindu Society: The Newar City of Lalitpur, Nepal. Bangkok: Orchid Press. ISBN 978-9745241367.
  42. ^ Subba, J. R. (2011). History, Culture and Customs of Sikkim. New Delhi, India: Gyan Publishing House. p. 418. ISBN 8121209641.
  43. ^ Shrestha, Bal Gopal. "Castes Among Newars Status of Shrestha". https://www.academia.edu/1434675/CastesAmong Newars_Status_of_Shrestha. European Bulletin of Himalayan Research. {{cite web}}: External link in |website= (help); Missing or empty |url= (help)
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