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Coordinates: 35°52′00″S 145°07′05″E / 35.86667°S 145.11806°E / -35.86667; 145.11806
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== Environmental threats ==
== Environmental threats ==
Following European settlement of the area, land was extensively cleared to allow for farming and agriculture. Sheep and cattle grazing was a common sight around the Barmah region from the mid to late 1800s.<ref name="Kenyon" /><ref name="Bren" /><ref name=Bennett>{{cite journal |last=Bennett |first=J |title=Defining and managing environmental flows: inputs from society|journal=Economic Papers|year=2008|volume=27|issue=2|pages=167–183 |doi=10.1111/j.1759-3441.2008.tb01035.x}}</ref> The periodic burning previously undertaken by Indigenous Australians was also halted.<ref name="Di Stefano" /><ref name="Bren" /> Logging of the River Red Gum forests was an important part of the late 1800s and early 1900s.<ref name="Kenyon" /><ref name="Bren" />
Following European settlement of the area, land was extensively cleared to allow for farming and agriculture. Sheep and cattle grazing was a common sight around the Barmah region from the mid to late 1800s.<ref name="Kenyon" /><ref name="Bren" /><ref name=Bennett>{{cite journal |last=Bennett |first=J |title=Defining and managing environmental flows: inputs from society|journal=Economic Papers|year=2008|volume=27|issue=2|pages=167–183 |doi=10.1111/j.1759-3441.2008.tb01035.x}}</ref> The periodic burning previously undertaken by Indigenous Australians was also halted.<ref name="Di Stefano" /><ref name="Bren" /> Logging of the River Red Gum forests was an important part of the late 1800s and early 1900s.<ref name="Kenyon" /><ref name="Bren" />

The construction of dams upstream from the Barmah National Park, from the 1920s onwards, have had a vast impact on the water flowing in the Murray River and instances of flooding.<ref name=Thoms>{{cite journal|last=Thoms|first=M. C.|title=The impact of catchment development on a semiarid wetland complex: the Barmah Forest, Australia|journal=IAHS Publications-Series of Proceedings and Reports-Intern Assoc Hydrological Sciences|year=1995|volume=230|pages=121–130}}</ref> The [[Hume Dam]] was operational from 1936, the [[Yarrawonga Weir]] in 1939, and the [[Dartmouth Dam]] from 1979.<ref name="Di Stefano" /><ref name="Bren" /><ref name="Leslie" /><ref name="Thoms" />

Since clearing for agriculture, and the subsequent dam construction took place, the Murray River has undergone some form of flow regulation.<ref name="Thoms" /><ref name=McGinness>{{cite journal|last=McGinness|first=H. A.|author2=Arthur A. D|author3= Reid, J. R. W|title=Woodland bird declines in the Murray-Darling Basin: are there links with floodplain change?|journal=The Rangeland Journal|year=2010|volume=32 |pages=315–327}}</ref> The Barmah National Park and surrounding River Red Gum forests should naturally flood in spring and winter, due to the water catchment of the Murray River. However, due to flow regulation, the floods now occur in summer and autumn and are less frequent and of shorter duration than previously.<ref name="Chong" /><ref name=Glazebrook>{{cite journal |last=Glazebrook|first=H. S.|author2=Robertson A. I.|title=The effect of flooding and flood timing on leaf litter breakdown rates and nutrient dynamics in a river red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) forest|journal=Australian Journal of Ecology|year=1999|volume=24|pages=625–635|doi=10.1046/j.1442-9993.1999.00992.x}}</ref>


A significant decrease in breeding and occurrence of waterbirds, particular woodland bird species and species of migratory birds has been reported in the Barmah National Park.<ref name="McGinness" /> This decrease has been attributed to the changes to the flood regimes occurring in the area.<ref name="McGinness" />
A significant decrease in breeding and occurrence of waterbirds, particular woodland bird species and species of migratory birds has been reported in the Barmah National Park.<ref name="McGinness" /> This decrease has been attributed to the changes to the flood regimes occurring in the area.<ref name="McGinness" />
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Though the future impact of climate change on River Red Gum forests is unknown, there has already been a significant dieback of trees in the area due to ongoing [[evapotranspiration]] deficits.<ref>{{cite journal |title = Eucalypts face increasing climate stress |first1 = Nathalie |last1 = Butt |first2 = Laura J. |last2 = Pollock |first3 = Clive A. |last3 = McAlpine |journal = Ecology and Evolution |date = December 2013 |volume = 3 |issue = 15 |pages = 5011–5022 |doi=10.1002/ece3.873 |pmc=3892364 |pmid=24455132}}</ref>
Though the future impact of climate change on River Red Gum forests is unknown, there has already been a significant dieback of trees in the area due to ongoing [[evapotranspiration]] deficits.<ref>{{cite journal |title = Eucalypts face increasing climate stress |first1 = Nathalie |last1 = Butt |first2 = Laura J. |last2 = Pollock |first3 = Clive A. |last3 = McAlpine |journal = Ecology and Evolution |date = December 2013 |volume = 3 |issue = 15 |pages = 5011–5022 |doi=10.1002/ece3.873 |pmc=3892364 |pmid=24455132}}</ref>


⚫
The extent of the Spiny Mudgrass [[Pseudoraphis spinescens|Moira grass]] plains, dominated by [[Pseudoraphis spinescens|Moira grass]] (''[[Pseudoraphis spinescens]]'') has declined by 96 per cent over the last 80 years in the Barmah Forest, and the [[Pseudoraphis spinescens|Moira grass]] plains are predicted to be extinct in the Barmah Forest by 2026 without management intervention.<ref name="Colloff et al. 2014">{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1002/aqc.2390| volume = 24| issue = 2| pages = 238–255| last1 = Colloff| first1 = Matthew J.| last2 = Ward| first2 = Keith A.| last3 = Roberts| first3 = Jane| title = Ecology and conservation of grassy wetlands dominated by spiny mud grass ''Pseudoraphis spinescens'' in the southern Murray-Darling Basin, Australia| journal = Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems| date = 2014}}</ref> Reductions in duration and depth of natural flooding due to regulation of the [[Murray River]], grazing and trampling pressure by introduced animals, and invasive plant species are a minor cause of this decline.<ref name="Barmah National Park Draft Strategic Action Plan 2019">{{cite web |title=Barmah National Park Draft Strategic Action Plan |url=https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/explore/parks/barmah-national-park/plans-and-projects/barmah-national-park-draft-strategic-action-plan |website=Parks Victoria |accessdate=14 April 2019 |language=en}}</ref>
In the [[Murray–Darling basin|Murray-Darling Basin]], prior to regulation of the [[Murray River]], extensive [[Pseudoraphis spinescens|Moira grass]] (''[[Pseudoraphis spinescens]]'') dominated floodplain marshes existed in areas that were typically seasonally flooded for 5-9 months duration in most years, to a minimum water depth of 0.5 m, and completely dry during late summer and autumn.<ref name="MDBC 2006">{{Cite| last = Murray-Darling Basin Commission| title = The Barmah-Millewa Forest Icon Site Envronmental Management Plan 2006-2007| date = 2006| url = https://www.mdba.gov.au/sites/default/files/archived/mdbc-tlm-reports/2083_Env_Man_Plan_Barmah_Millewa_2006-07.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Bren 1986">{{Cite journal| volume = 16| pages = 357–370| last1 = Bren| first1 = L. J.| last2 = Gibbs| first2 = N. L.| title = Relationships between flood frequency, vegetation and topography in a river red gum forest| journal = Australian Forest Research| date = 1986}}</ref> Floodplain areas previously dominated by aquatic species such as Moira grass (''Pseudoraphis spinescens''), [[Phragmites australis|Common Reed]] (''[[Phragmites australis]]'') and [[Typha|cumbungi]] ([[Typha|''Typha'' spp.]]) are now covered with species adapted to lower levels of flooding, mainly [[Eucalyptus camaldulensis|River Red Gums]] (''[[Eucalyptus camaldulensis]]'') and [[Juncus ingens|Giant Rush]] (''[[Juncus ingens]]'').<ref name="Dexter 1978">{{cite journal |last1=Dexter |first1=B.D. |title=Silviculture of the river red gum forests of the central Murray floodplain |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria |date=1978 |volume=90 |issue=1 |pages=175-192}}</ref><ref name="Chesterfield 1986">{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1080/00049158.1986.10674458| volume = 49| issue = 1| pages = 4–15| last = Chesterfield| first = E. A.| title = Changes in the vegetation of the river red gum forest at Barmah, Victoria| journal = Australian Forestry| date = 1986-01-01}}</ref><ref name="Bren 1992">{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1111/j.1442-9993.1992.tb00822.x| volume = 17| issue = 4| pages = 395–408| last = Bren| first = L. J.| title = Tree invasion of an intermittent wetland in relation to changes in the flooding frequency of the River Murray, Australia| journal = Austral Ecology| date = 1992}}</ref>

⚫
The extent of the [[Pseudoraphis spinescens|Moira grass]] plains, dominated by [[Pseudoraphis spinescens|Moira grass]] (''[[Pseudoraphis spinescens]]'') has declined by 96 per cent over the last 80 years in the Barmah Forest, and the [[Pseudoraphis spinescens|Moira grass]] plains are predicted to be extinct in the Barmah Forest by 2026 without management intervention.<ref name="Colloff et al. 2014">{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1002/aqc.2390| volume = 24| issue = 2| pages = 238–255| last1 = Colloff| first1 = Matthew J.| last2 = Ward| first2 = Keith A.| last3 = Roberts| first3 = Jane| title = Ecology and conservation of grassy wetlands dominated by spiny mud grass ''Pseudoraphis spinescens'' in the southern Murray-Darling Basin, Australia| journal = Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems| date = 2014}}</ref> Reductions in duration and depth of natural flooding due to regulation of the [[Murray River]], grazing and trampling pressure by introduced animals, particularly by [[Feral horse|feral horses]] (and previously, cattle), and invasive plant species are the main causes of this decline.<ref name="PV SAP Draft 2019">{{Cite| publisher = State Government of Victoria| last = Parks Victoria| title = Strategic Action Plan: Protection of Floodplain Marshes in Barmah National Park and Barmah Forest Ramsar Site: Draft| date = 2019| url = https://s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/hdp.au.prod.app.vic-engage.files/2815/5432/8413/Barmah_FloodplainMarshes_ActionPlan_Draft_April_2019.pdf}}</ref>

== Management ==
The Barmah Forest was declared as a national park by the Victorian Government in 2010 <ref name="PV CoP 2014">{{Cite| publisher = Parks Victoria| last = Parks Victoria| title = Creation of Parks 1882-2014| date = 2014| url = https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/639857/Creation-of-Parks.pdf}}</ref> under the National Parks Act 1975.<ref name="NP Act 1975">{{Cite| publisher = State Government of Victoria| last = Parliament of Victoria| title = National Parks Act 1975| date = 1975| url = http://classic.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/npa1975159/}}</ref> The park is managed as part of a collaboration between [[Parks Victoria]] and the Traditional Owners of the area, including the [[Yorta Yorta people]].<ref name="PV Visitor Guide">{{cite journal |last1=Parks Victoria |title=Barmah National Park Visitor Guide |date=2014 |url=https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/315732/Barmah-National-Park-Visitor-Guide.pdf |accessdate=2 May 2019}}</ref>

Flow regulation of the Murray River to benefit the surrounding agricultural land, has been undertaken for many years. However, more recently the importance of environmental flows is becoming increasingly acknowledged.<ref name="Bennett" /> Scientific study has shown that [[Eucalyptus camaldulensis|River Red Gums]] rely on specific levels and durations of floods in order to survive and regenerate, similarly waterbird species also have very specific flood-related conditions in order to successfully breed and fledge chicks.<ref name="Leslie" /><ref name=Briggs>{{cite journal |last=Briggs|first=S. V.|author2=Thornton S. A|author3= Lawler W. G|title=Relationships between hydrological control of [[Eucalyptus camaldulensis|River Red Gum]] wetlands and waterbird breeding |journal=Emu|year=1997|volume=97|pages=31–42|doi=10.1071/mu97003}}</ref> Flow regimes are also very important for native fish species populations.<ref name="King" /> Therefore, the alterations to the management of River Red Gum forests and regulation of water flows within the Murray River will be a very important area of study into the future.<ref name="Bennett" />

The timing and frequency of ecological burns will also need to be carefully monitored for future management of the park, as the increase in fire frequency predicted under climate change models may adversely impact bird habitat and may favour invasive plant and animal species.<ref>{{cite book |title = Assessment of Australia’s Terrestrial Biodiversity 2008 |chapter = Chapter 5: Threats to Australian biodiversity |page = 158 |year = 2007 |url = https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/e9f0d376-78eb-45cc-9359-797c6b0f72ff/files/chapter5.pdf |publisher = Commonwealth of Australia: Department of Environment, Water, Heritage, and the Arts}}</ref>.

[[Parks Victoria]]'s plan to reverse environmental degradation and definitively improve management of Barmah National Park prioritises timing of seasonal flooding to promote the growth of floodplain vegetation and provides habitat for breeding waterbirds, control of invasive plants, and the eradication of introduced grazing animals including [[Feral horse|horses]], deer, pigs and goats. The aims of management plans are to protect the floodplain marshes, including increasing the extent of [[Pseudoraphis spinescens|Moira grass]] plains, and to improve the quality of habitat for native flora and fauna in the Barmah National Park.<ref name="PV horses">{{cite web |title = Feral horse management planning: Barmah |url = https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/explore/parks/barmah-national-park/plans-and-projects/feral-horse-management-planning-barmah |publisher = Parks Victoria |access-date = 13 December 2018}}</ref><ref name="PV SAP Draft 2019">{{Cite| publisher = State Government of Victoria| last = Parks Victoria| title = Strategic Action Plan: Protection of Floodplain Marshes in Barmah National Park and Barmah Forest Ramsar Site: Draft| date = 2019| url = https://s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/hdp.au.prod.app.vic-engage.files/2815/5432/8413/Barmah_FloodplainMarshes_ActionPlan_Draft_April_2019.pdf}}</ref>


== In the news ==
== In the news ==

Revision as of 06:31, 7 May 2019

Barmah National Park
Victoria
River Red Gums along the Murray River, adjacent to the national park
Barmah National Park is located in Victoria
Barmah National Park
Barmah National Park
Nearest town or cityBarmah
Coordinates35°52′00″S 145°07′05″E / 35.86667°S 145.11806°E / -35.86667; 145.11806
Established2010
Area285.21 km2 (110.1 sq mi)[1]
Managing authoritiesParks Victoria
WebsiteBarmah National Park
See alsoProtected areas of Victoria

The Barmah National Park is a national park located in the Hume region of the Australian state of Victoria.[2] The 28,500-hectare (70,000-acre) park is located adjacent to the Murray River near the town of Barmah, approximately 220 kilometres (140 mi) north of Melbourne. The park consists of River Red Gum floodplain forest (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) forest and interspersed with treeless freshwater marshes.[3] The area is subject to seasonal flooding from natural and irrigation water flows.

The Barmah National Park is an internationally recognised wetland, listed under the Ramsar Convention,[4][5] and a number of bird species that utilise the Barmah National Park are part of the Japan-Australia Migratory Bird Agreement (JAMBA) and the China-Australia Migratory Bird Agreement (CAMBA).[6][7]

The Barmah National Park is a camping, fishing, bird watching and recreation destination.[1]

History

The Barmah Forest was originally utilised by Indigenous Australians, including the Yorta Yorta people, to find food, shelter and materials. Following the settlement of Europeans into the area, Barmah Forest became an important fishing and logging area, with surrounding land cleared for agriculture and grazing. Rabbits, foxes, sheep, cattle and horses were introduced into the area.[8][9] Hardwood timber was harvested from the Barmah region from around 1870,[9] and logging of River Red Gum and seasonal cattle grazing were important local industries until recently, ceasing when the national park was created.[10][11] The Barmah muster yards, located in the southern end of the park, and used for management of cattle grazed in the surrounding River Red Gum forests, were heritage listed in 2009.[12] Cattle grazing was banned in all River Red Gum national parks in 2015.[13] The park contains a large population of wild horses, which mainly originate from free roaming horses that either escaped or were purposely released for breeding stock in the mid 1800s. Stock released by a local trotting horse breeder after 1952 bolstered their population after the last great roundup of 1949 where approximately 70 wild horses remained in the Barmah Forest.[14]

Barmah State Park was established in 1987,[11] and was legislated as Barmah National Park in 2010.[11] The park is one of four River Red Gum national parks [13] established by the Victorian Government in 2010 [11] to protect remnant River Red Gum forest.[10] The other River Red Gum national parks are the Gunbower National Park (created 2009), Hattah-Kulkyne National Park (1978), Lower Goulburn National Park (2009), Murray-Sunset National Park (1991) and the Warby-Ovens National Park (2009).[11]

In July 2010, the Government of New South Wales declared the Millewa Forest, on the northern banks of the Murray River, as a national park. The 41,601-hectare (102,800-acre) forest was renamed as the Murray Valley National Park, making the combined reserves a 70,000-hectare (170,000-acre) cross–border national park, managed by both governments and the Traditional Owners.[15][1] The combined parks are the largest continuous red gum forest in the world.[16][6][17]

Climate

The Barmah National Park is known as a temperate semi-arid region, with low rainfall and high evaporation.[7] Average temperature maximums for the year are around 30 °C (86 °F) in January and February, with average minimum temperatures down to 4 °C (39 °F) in July. Average rainfall for the year is 400 millimetres (16 in), with the most rain falling in winter with an average monthly rainfall of 40 millimetres (1.6 in).[18]

Changes to flooding

The construction of dams upstream from the Barmah National Park, from the 1920s onwards, have had a vast impact on the water flowing in the Murray River and instances of flooding.[19] The Hume Dam was operational from 1936, the Yarrawonga Weir in 1939, and the Dartmouth Dam from 1979.[8][16][7][19]

Since clearing for agriculture, and the subsequent dam construction took place, the Murray River has undergone some form of flow regulation.[19][20] The Barmah National Park and surrounding River Red Gum forests should naturally flood in spring and winter, due to the water catchment of the Murray River. However, due to flow regulation, the floods now occur in summer and autumn and are less frequent and of shorter duration than previously.[6][21]

Ecology

The Barmah National Park is a River Red Gum forest, consisting of an upper storey of red gums, no shrub layer or middle storey, and a ground storey of native grasses, sedges and rushes.[8][9][16] The edges of the forest merge into a eucalypt-box woodland.

The park is a large flood plain and wetland area, with flooding of the Murray River occurring sporadically, both naturally and due to flow regulation of the river.[22] The main fauna type found within the park are waterbirds. The area is a rich breeding, nesting and foraging area for over 200 bird species. It is also one of the largest breeding grounds of water birds in Victoria.[1] Reptiles and amphibians are also found within the river red gum forest, as well as many native fish species in the river, including the Murray Cod. The main native mammals found include the grey kangaroo, koala, emu and possum species.[1] Introduced animals such as rabbits, foxes and horses can also be seen throughout the park.

Environmental threats

Following European settlement of the area, land was extensively cleared to allow for farming and agriculture. Sheep and cattle grazing was a common sight around the Barmah region from the mid to late 1800s.[9][16][23] The periodic burning previously undertaken by Indigenous Australians was also halted.[8][16] Logging of the River Red Gum forests was an important part of the late 1800s and early 1900s.[9][16]

The construction of dams upstream from the Barmah National Park, from the 1920s onwards, have had a vast impact on the water flowing in the Murray River and instances of flooding.[24] The Hume Dam was operational from 1936, the Yarrawonga Weir in 1939, and the Dartmouth Dam from 1979.[8][16][7][24]

Since clearing for agriculture, and the subsequent dam construction took place, the Murray River has undergone some form of flow regulation.[24][20] The Barmah National Park and surrounding River Red Gum forests should naturally flood in spring and winter, due to the water catchment of the Murray River. However, due to flow regulation, the floods now occur in summer and autumn and are less frequent and of shorter duration than previously.[6][21]

A significant decrease in breeding and occurrence of waterbirds, particular woodland bird species and species of migratory birds has been reported in the Barmah National Park.[20] This decrease has been attributed to the changes to the flood regimes occurring in the area.[20]

A number of marsupial species are also no longer found within the park, including the rufous bettong, bridled nailtail wallaby, western barred bandicoot and lesser stick-nest rat.[8] Their absence has been attributed to the introduction of rabbits and foxes.[8]

Though the future impact of climate change on River Red Gum forests is unknown, there has already been a significant dieback of trees in the area due to ongoing evapotranspiration deficits.[25]

The extent of the Spiny Mudgrass Moira grass plains, dominated by Moira grass (Pseudoraphis spinescens) has declined by 96 per cent over the last 80 years in the Barmah Forest, and the Moira grass plains are predicted to be extinct in the Barmah Forest by 2026 without management intervention.[26] Reductions in duration and depth of natural flooding due to regulation of the Murray River, grazing and trampling pressure by introduced animals, and invasive plant species are a minor cause of this decline.[27]

In the news

In late 2018 and early 2019, during a nationwide drought, news reports began circulating about starving feral horses across Australia,[28][29][30][31][32][33][34] including in Kosciuszko National Park,[28][29][34] Guy Fawkes River National Park,[31] and Barmah National Park.[30][32] At Barmah, which at the time was flooded with environmental water, local activists the Barmah Brumby Preservation Group began feeding feral horses on properties adjacent to the national park.[30][32] Within Barmah National Park, Parks Victoria began euthanising feral horses in very poor condition, under strict protocols, by shooting.[30]

In April 2019, Parks Victoria announced a four year plan to cull an estimated more than 500 feral horses within the national park, along with controlling and eradicating other introduced plants and animals.[3][35][36] Removal of 100-250 feral horses per year from the national park is proposed, with passive trapping and rehoming of some feral horses if homes can be pre-arranged, and the remainder to be shot by contracted professional shooters.[3][36] After the fourth year, the plan will be reassessed, with the ultimate aim of removal of all feral horses from the national park.[3][36]

Parks Victoria stated that:

"the Victorian National Parks Act 1975 [37] and other associated legislation does not allow for the ongoing presence of horses within the national park" [36]..."Failure to control and remove feral horses and other threats would fail to meet threatened species protection obligations under the Commonwealth Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act 1999 [38] and the state Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 [39]." [36] and "Difficult choices need to be made to reduce the severe degradation to the significant environmental values of Barmah National Park, and to address the animal welfare risks created by a burgeoning feral horse population that the park cannot sustain." [36]

The local activists disputed Parks Victoria's estimations of large numbers of feral horses within the national park,[40] and opposed the rehoming or culling of any horses, stating that environmental flooding, rather than overpopulation, was responsible for the problems with the feral horses in the national park.[35][40]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e Parks Victoria (2014). "Barmah National Park Visitor Guide" (PDF). Retrieved 2 May 2019. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  2. ^ "Barmah National Park". Parks Victoria. Government of Victoria. Retrieved 15 April 2013.
  3. ^ a b c d Parks Victoria (2019), Strategic Action Plan: Protection of Floodplain Marshes in Barmah National Park and Barmah Forest Ramsar Site: Draft (PDF), State Government of Victoria
  4. ^ Australian Wetlands Database (1982). "Australian Wetlands Database - Barmah Forest".
  5. ^ King, A. J.; Ward K. A; O’Connor P; Green D; Tonkin Z; Mahoney J. (2010). "Adaptive management of an environmental watering event to enhance native fish spawning and recruitment". Freshwater Biology. 55: 17–31. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2427.2009.02178.x.
  6. ^ a b c d Chong, J; Ladson (2003). "Analysis and management of unseasonal flooding in the Barmah-Millewa Forest, Australia". River Research and Applications. 19: 161–180. doi:10.1002/rra.705.
  7. ^ a b c d Leslie, D. J. (2001). "Effect of river management on colonially-nesting waterbirds in the Barmah-Millewa Forest, south-eastern Australia". Regulated Rivers: Research & Management. 17: 17–31. doi:10.1002/1099-1646(200101/02)17:1<21::aid-rrr589>3.0.co;2-v.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g Di Stefano, Julian (2002). "River red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis): a review of ecosystem processes, seedling regeneration and silvicultural practice". Australian Forestry. 65 (1): 14–22. doi:10.1080/00049158.2002.10674848.
  9. ^ a b c d e Kenyon, C; Rutherford (1999). "Preliminary evidence for pollen as an indicator of recent floodplain accumulation rates and vegetation changes: the Barmah-Millewa Forest, SE Australia". Environmental Management. 55: 359–367. doi:10.1007/s002679900239.
  10. ^ a b Government of Victoria, Parks and Crown Land Legislation Amendment (River Red Gums) Act 2009 (PDF)
  11. ^ a b c d e Parks Victoria (2014), Creation of Parks 1882-2014 (PDF), Parks Victoria
  12. ^ Heritage Council of Victoria (2009). "Barmah Muster Yards".
  13. ^ a b Premier of Victoria (17 March 2015). "Cattle banned from the Alpine National Park". Premier of Victoria.
  14. ^ Context Pty Ltd (2014). "History of Wild Horses in the Barmah National Park" (PDF). Retrieved 14 April 2019.
  15. ^ "River Red Gum forests and wetlands". Environment Victoria. Retrieved 21 April 2013.
  16. ^ a b c d e f g Bren, L. J. (1988). "Effects of river regulation on flooding of a riparian red gum forest on the River Murray, Australia". Regulated Rivers: Research & Management. 2: 65–77. doi:10.1002/rrr.3450020202.
  17. ^ "Murray Valley National Park". NSW National Parks & Wildlife Service. Government of New South Wales. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
  18. ^ "Echuca aerodrome". Bureau of Meteorology. Retrieved 21 April 2013.
  19. ^ a b c Thoms, M C (1995). "The impact of catchment development on a semiarid wetland complex: the Barmah Forest, Australia" (PDF). IAHS Publications-Series of Proceedings and Reports-Intern Assoc Hydrological Sciences. 230: 121–130.
  20. ^ a b c d McGinness, H. A.; Arthur A. D; Reid, J. R. W (2010). "Woodland bird declines in the Murray-Darling Basin: are there links with floodplain change?". The Rangeland Journal. 32: 315–327.
  21. ^ a b Glazebrook, H. S.; Robertson A. I. (1999). "The effect of flooding and flood timing on leaf litter breakdown rates and nutrient dynamics in a river red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) forest". Australian Journal of Ecology. 24: 625–635. doi:10.1046/j.1442-9993.1999.00992.x.
  22. ^ Argent, R. M.; McMahon T. A; Bowler J. M; Finlayson B. L. (2004). "The dendroecological Potential of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnhardt (River Red Gum) from the Barmah Forest, Victoria, Australia". Australian Geographical Studies. 42 (1): 89–102. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8470.2004.00245.x.
  23. ^ Bennett, J (2008). "Defining and managing environmental flows: inputs from society". Economic Papers. 27 (2): 167–183. doi:10.1111/j.1759-3441.2008.tb01035.x.
  24. ^ a b c Thoms, M. C. (1995). "The impact of catchment development on a semiarid wetland complex: the Barmah Forest, Australia". IAHS Publications-Series of Proceedings and Reports-Intern Assoc Hydrological Sciences. 230: 121–130.
  25. ^ Butt, Nathalie; Pollock, Laura J.; McAlpine, Clive A. (December 2013). "Eucalypts face increasing climate stress". Ecology and Evolution. 3 (15): 5011–5022. doi:10.1002/ece3.873. PMC 3892364. PMID 24455132.
  26. ^ Colloff, Matthew J.; Ward, Keith A.; Roberts, Jane (2014). "Ecology and conservation of grassy wetlands dominated by spiny mud grass Pseudoraphis spinescens in the southern Murray-Darling Basin, Australia". Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 24 (2): 238–255. doi:10.1002/aqc.2390.
  27. ^ "Barmah National Park Draft Strategic Action Plan". Parks Victoria. Retrieved 14 April 2019.
  28. ^ a b Becker, Joshua (8 October 2018). "Brumbies die of starvation in Snowy River as drought affects food, water supply". ABC Rural.
  29. ^ a b Cox, Lisa (26 October 2018). "Images of dead and starving brumbies prompt fresh calls for NSW cull". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077.
  30. ^ a b c d Caines, Kimberley (14 November 2018). "'It looks like a horse cemetery': Starving brumbies shot dead by authorities in Victoria's Barmah National Park". Nine News.
  31. ^ a b Martin, Melissa; Poole, Fiona (14 November 2018). "Dozens of brumbies found dead in national park". ABC News.
  32. ^ a b c Dobson, Mahalia (19 November 2018). "Preservation group claims brumbies have been left to starve in Barmah National Park". ABC Goulburn Murray.
  33. ^ Garrick, Matt (23 January 2019). "Dozens of feral horses found dead in dry Central Australian waterhole". ABC News.
  34. ^ a b Sanda, Dominica (2 May 2019). "Starving brumbies 'carving away' NSW park". The Canberra Times.
  35. ^ a b Mannix, Liam; Preiss, Benjamin (5 April 2019). "Parks Victoria plans to cull up to 600 wild horses in Barmah Forest". The Age.
  36. ^ a b c d e f Dobson, Mahalia (8 April 2019). "Barmah brumby numbers to be cut by Parks Victoria in four-year plan". ABC Goulburn Murray.
  37. ^ Parliament of Victoria (1975), National Parks Act 1975, State Government of Victoria
  38. ^ Australian Government (2018). "Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999". Federal Register of Legislation.
  39. ^ Government of Victoria (2017), Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 (PDF)
  40. ^ a b Johnson, Blake (15 April 2019). "Brumbies cull: Battle over plan to kill hundreds of wild horses in Victoria". Seven News.


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