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In the course of human interaction, one party will say or do something that causes negative emotional feelings for another<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bippus|first=Amy M.|last2=Young|first2=Stacy L.|date=2012-12-19|title=Using Appraisal Theory to Predict Emotional and Coping Responses to Hurtful Messages|url=http://interpersona.psychopen.eu/article/view/99|journal=Interpersona: An International Journal on Personal Relationships|volume=6|issue=2|pages=176–190|doi=10.5964/ijpr.v6i2.99|issn=1981-6472}}</ref>. Hurtful communication occurs when the receiver perceives social interaction as upsetting or harmful emotionally<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Young|first=Stacy L.|last2=Bippus|first2=Amy M.|last3=Dunbar|first3=Norah E.|date=2015-1|title=Comparing Romantic Partners' Perceptions of Hurtful Communication During Conflict Conversations|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1041794X.2014.941113|journal=Southern Communication Journal|language=en|volume=80|issue=1|pages=39–54|doi=10.1080/1041794X.2014.941113|issn=1041-794X}}</ref>. Negative social interactions can be intentional where one or both parties are involved in [[Interpersonal relationship|interpersonal conflict]] or unintentional where misunderstandings occur. Actions such as failure to recognize accomplishments or significant dates can cause hurtful events within relationships<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vangelisti|first=Anita L.|last2=Young|first2=Stacy L.|last3=Carpenter-Theune|first3=Katy E.|last4=Alexander|first4=Alicia L.|date=2005-08|title=Why Does It Hurt?|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0093650205277319|journal=Communication Research|volume=32|issue=4|pages=443–477|doi=10.1177/0093650205277319|issn=0093-6502}}</ref>. Hurtful communication more commonly occurs in intimate relationships where parties have disclosed more information to one another than stranger interaction<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/962141064|title=Close encounters : communication in relationships|last=Guerrero, Laura K.,|others=Andersen, Peter A.,, Afifi, Walid A.,|isbn=9781506376721|edition=Fifth edition|location=Los Angeles|oclc=962141064}}</ref>. Hurtful communication has been studied in romantic relationship and parent-child relationships with findings having potential applications in sibling relationships, in-law relationships, work relationships, educator-student relationships, and friendships. In relation to other negative emotions such as anger or guilt, hurt is more often linked to interpersonal interaction<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vangelisti|first=Anita L.|last2=Young|first2=Stacy L.|last3=Carpenter-Theune|first3=Katy E.|last4=Alexander|first4=Alicia L.|date=2005-08|title=Why Does It Hurt?|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0093650205277319|journal=Communication Research|volume=32|issue=4|pages=443–477|doi=10.1177/0093650205277319|issn=0093-6502}}</ref>. Interactions are affected by hurtful communications<ref>{{Citation|last=Vangelisti|first=Anita L.|title=Hurtful Communication|date=2015-12-01|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/9781118540190.wbeic178|work=The International Encyclopedia of Interpersonal Communication|pages=1–9|editor-last=Berger|editor-first=Charles R|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|language=en|doi=10.1002/9781118540190.wbeic178|isbn=9781118540190|access-date=2019-09-28|editor2-last=Roloff|editor2-first=Michael E|editor3-last=Wilson|editor3-first=Steve R|editor4-last=Dillard|editor4-first=James Price}}</ref>. Hurtful communication negatively affects trust within a relation resulting in more defensive behavior by both parties<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Malachowski|first=Colleen C.|last2=Frisby|first2=Brandi N.|date=2015-03-15|title=The Aftermath of Hurtful Events: Cognitive, Communicative, and Relational Outcomes|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01463373.2015.1012218|journal=Communication Quarterly|language=en|volume=63|issue=2|pages=187–203|doi=10.1080/01463373.2015.1012218|issn=0146-3373}}</ref>. Hurtful [[communication studies]] can be found [[Interpersonal communication|interpersonal communications]] and relational communications research.
In the course of human interaction, one party will say or do something that causes negative emotional feelings for another<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bippus|first=Amy M.|last2=Young|first2=Stacy L.|date=2012-12-19|title=Using Appraisal Theory to Predict Emotional and Coping Responses to Hurtful Messages|url=http://interpersona.psychopen.eu/article/view/99|journal=Interpersona: An International Journal on Personal Relationships|volume=6|issue=2|pages=176–190|doi=10.5964/ijpr.v6i2.99|issn=1981-6472}}</ref>. Hurtful communication occurs when the receiver perceives social interaction as upsetting or harmful emotionally<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Young|first=Stacy L.|last2=Bippus|first2=Amy M.|last3=Dunbar|first3=Norah E.|date=2015-1|title=Comparing Romantic Partners' Perceptions of Hurtful Communication During Conflict Conversations|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1041794X.2014.941113|journal=Southern Communication Journal|language=en|volume=80|issue=1|pages=39–54|doi=10.1080/1041794X.2014.941113|issn=1041-794X}}</ref>. Negative social interactions can be intentional where one or both parties are involved in [[Interpersonal relationship|interpersonal conflict]] or unintentional where misunderstandings occur. Actions such as failure to recognize accomplishments or significant dates can cause hurtful events within relationships<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vangelisti|first=Anita L.|last2=Young|first2=Stacy L.|last3=Carpenter-Theune|first3=Katy E.|last4=Alexander|first4=Alicia L.|date=2005-08|title=Why Does It Hurt?|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0093650205277319|journal=Communication Research|volume=32|issue=4|pages=443–477|doi=10.1177/0093650205277319|issn=0093-6502}}</ref>. Hurtful communication more commonly occurs in intimate relationships where parties have disclosed more information to one another than stranger interaction<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/962141064|title=Close encounters : communication in relationships|last=Guerrero, Laura K.,|others=Andersen, Peter A.,, Afifi, Walid A.,|isbn=9781506376721|edition=Fifth edition|location=Los Angeles|oclc=962141064}}</ref>. Hurtful communication has been studied in romantic relationship and parent-child relationships with findings having potential applications in sibling relationships, in-law relationships, work relationships, educator-student relationships, and friendships. In relation to other negative emotions such as anger or guilt, hurt is more often linked to interpersonal interaction<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vangelisti|first=Anita L.|last2=Young|first2=Stacy L.|last3=Carpenter-Theune|first3=Katy E.|last4=Alexander|first4=Alicia L.|date=2005-08|title=Why Does It Hurt?|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0093650205277319|journal=Communication Research|volume=32|issue=4|pages=443–477|doi=10.1177/0093650205277319|issn=0093-6502}}</ref>. Interactions are affected by hurtful communications<ref>{{Citation|last=Vangelisti|first=Anita L.|title=Hurtful Communication|date=2015-12-01|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/9781118540190.wbeic178|work=The International Encyclopedia of Interpersonal Communication|pages=1–9|editor-last=Berger|editor-first=Charles R|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|language=en|doi=10.1002/9781118540190.wbeic178|isbn=9781118540190|access-date=2019-09-28|editor2-last=Roloff|editor2-first=Michael E|editor3-last=Wilson|editor3-first=Steve R|editor4-last=Dillard|editor4-first=James Price}}</ref>. Hurtful communication negatively affects trust within a relation resulting in more defensive behavior by both parties<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Malachowski|first=Colleen C.|last2=Frisby|first2=Brandi N.|date=2015-03-15|title=The Aftermath of Hurtful Events: Cognitive, Communicative, and Relational Outcomes|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01463373.2015.1012218|journal=Communication Quarterly|language=en|volume=63|issue=2|pages=187–203|doi=10.1080/01463373.2015.1012218|issn=0146-3373}}</ref>. Hurtful [[communication studies]] can be found [[Interpersonal communication|interpersonal communications]] and relational communications research.


== What defines hurtful communication? ==
== Defining hurtful communication ==
Types of hurtful verbal communications and actions<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/962141064|title=Close encounters : communication in relationships|last=Guerrero, Laura K.,|others=Andersen, Peter A.,, Afifi, Walid A.,|isbn=9781506376721|edition=Fifth edition|location=Los Angeles|oclc=962141064}}</ref>:
Types of hurtful verbal communications and actions<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/962141064|title=Close encounters : communication in relationships|last=Guerrero, Laura K.,|others=Andersen, Peter A.,, Afifi, Walid A.,|isbn=9781506376721|edition=Fifth edition|location=Los Angeles|oclc=962141064}}</ref>:


Revision as of 23:52, 29 September 2019

Article Draft

Background

In the course of human interaction, one party will say or do something that causes negative emotional feelings for another[1]. Hurtful communication occurs when the receiver perceives social interaction as upsetting or harmful emotionally[2]. Negative social interactions can be intentional where one or both parties are involved in interpersonal conflict or unintentional where misunderstandings occur. Actions such as failure to recognize accomplishments or significant dates can cause hurtful events within relationships[3]. Hurtful communication more commonly occurs in intimate relationships where parties have disclosed more information to one another than stranger interaction[4]. Hurtful communication has been studied in romantic relationship and parent-child relationships with findings having potential applications in sibling relationships, in-law relationships, work relationships, educator-student relationships, and friendships. In relation to other negative emotions such as anger or guilt, hurt is more often linked to interpersonal interaction[5]. Interactions are affected by hurtful communications[6]. Hurtful communication negatively affects trust within a relation resulting in more defensive behavior by both parties[7]. Hurtful communication studies can be found interpersonal communications and relational communications research.

Defining hurtful communication

Types of hurtful verbal communications and actions[8]:

  • Devaluation- the perception that one is not as close as thought. This can be a result of verbal or non-verbal communication where one party feels less important they they wish within the exchange. Often, devaluation is manifest through betrayal and/or rejection[9].
  • Relational transgressions- the violation of relationship norms which causes one party to feel betrayal.
  • Hurtful messages- words that result in pain. Commonly these messages are combinations of profanity, threats or attacks on appearance, competencies, origins or character[10]. The content of the message and the delivery play a part in how a hurtful message is interpreted[11].

Factors such as whether the hurtful communication was intentional and the frequency of occurrence has an impact on the meaning of the event[12] Vangelisti, Young, Carpenter-Theune, & Alexander (2005) contend an expanded view citing relational denigration, humiliation, aggression, intrinsic flaw, shock, tasteless humor, misunderstood intent, and discouragement as probable causes of hurt feelings[13][14].

The injured party most often is harmed by the undermining of self-concept[15] causing loss of self-worth resulting in estrangement within the relationship.

Responses to hurtful communication

Guerrero, Anderson & Afifi (2010) noted three ways people react and respond to hurtful communication[16]:

  • Active verbal responses- Verbally confronting the offending party.
  • Acquiescent responses- Acknowledging the offenders ability to inflict pain and surrendering. This action includes forgiveness.
  • Invulnerable responses- Avoidance of acceptance of a hurtful message often deflected through humor or ignoring. Rumination (over-focusing on the occurrence rather than solutions) may prevent one from moving past the infraction[17] .

It is probable that one or more (even all three) responses occur in when one is faced with hurtful communication. In cases where the injured party perceived the hurtful communication intentional relational distancing often occurred which complicates resolution [18]

Application

Hurtful communication studies falls under relational communications which is an interdisciplinary subject with connections to psychology, sociology, and communications fields. Researchers have produced various studies over past two decades relating to hurtful communications. Hoskins, Woszidlo, & Kunkel (2016) noted previous research that attempted to find a correlation between verbal aggression to biological and environmental factors like being in a stressful situation or lacking verbal or coping skills to deal with complex emotional issues[19] as hurtful communication negatively affects trust within a relation resulting in more defensive behavior by both parties. Interpersonal trust was negatively associated with verbal aggression.

Romantic Relationships

Scholarly research on the topic of hurtful communication in romantic relationships is more readily available than any other category. Perhaps due to the closeness and interdependency of these relationships, communication between romantic partners that is deemed hurtful has significant impact on current and future interaction. Young, Bippus, & Dunbar (2015) stated the intimate knowledge of the significant other's hopes, fears and insecurities enabled each party to inflict pain more deeply than others in one's life[20]. Intimate knowledge of all aspects of another's life gives access that can be used both positively and negatively. In conflict interaction, observations form one's partner may be processed differently than a non-conflict interaction[21]

Self-uncertainty often occurs after a negative exchange rather than partner-uncertainty[22]. When both self-uncertainty and partner-uncertainty occurs the relationship status is called into question[23]. Malachowski et al., (2015) found when self-uncertainty or partner-uncertainty occurred, it was more likely the parties would engage in forgiveness after a hurtful communication event theorizing it was part of the coping mechanism to reduce relationship-uncertainty[24].

Parent-Child Relationships

Relationships between parent and child is a deeply connected bond that evolves over time where familiarity and the changing dynamics can result in hurtful communications[25]. The responsibility of parents to nurture their offspring has been theorized to result in more hurt feelings for the parents than the child[26] when hurtful communications occur. While adolescence also feel pain from hurtful communications, adolescence may be less likely to verbalize their feeling perhaps due to the parent-child dependence that exists[27]. Perceived rejection or betrayal between parent-child results in doubts of self, other and relationship as questioning of honesty, intimacy and closeness often occurs[28]. Since the attachment between parent and child differs from that of a romantic relationship, there is a difference in how hurtful communication is processed.

Critique

Research in the field of relational communications has grown in volume and significance over the past three decades, yet there is still a need for exploration topics such as hurtful communicate including exploring variations in dyad relationships that are not comprised of a male and a female. Also, the works did not take into account cultural diversity which could impact perceptions regarding relationships.

As a contributor with limited experience in this platform, additional contributions to expand this topic are appreciated. Additional scholarly sources would add to the richness of information provided on this topic.

References

Bippus, A. M., & Young S.L. (2012). Using Appraisal Theory to Predict Emotional and Coping Responses to Hurtful Messages. Interpersona, 6(2), 176–190. https://doi-org.libdata.lib.ua.edu/10.5964/ijpr.v6i2.99

Guerrero, L.K., Andersen, P.A., & Afifi, W.A.(2010). Close encounters: Communication in relationships. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Hesse, C., Rauscher, E. A., Roberts, J. B., & Ortega, S. R. (2014). Investigating the Role of Hurtful Family Environment in the Relationship Between Affectionate Communication and Family Satisfaction. JOURNAL OF FAMILY COMMUNICATION, (2), 112. Retrieved from https://search-ebscohost-com.libdata.lib.ua.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsbl&AN=RN352950280&site=eds-live&scope=site

Hoskins, N. S., Woszidlo, A., & Kunkel, A. (2016). Words Can Hurt the Ones You Love: Interpersonal Trust as it Relates to Listening Anxiety and Verbal Aggression. Iowa Journal of Communication, 48(1/2), 96. Retrieved from https://search-ebscohost-com.libdata.lib.ua.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edb&AN=118459975&site=eds-live&scope=site

Malachowski, M.M. & Frisby, B.N.(2015). The Aftermath of Hurtful Events: Cognitive, Communicative, and Relational Outcomes. Communication Quarterly, 63(2), 187–203. https://doi-org.libdata.lib.ua.edu/10.1080/01463373.2015.1012218

McLauren, R.M. & Pederson, J.R. (2014). Relational Communication and Understanding in Conversations About Hurtful Events Between Parents and Adolescents. Journal of Communication, 64(1), 145–166. https://doi-org.libdata.lib.ua.edu/10.1111/jcom.12072

Vangelisti, A. L. (2015). Hurtful Communication. In The International Encyclopedia of Interpersonal Communication (eds C. R. Berger, M. E. Roloff, S. R. Wilson, J. P. Dillard, J. Caughlin and D. Solomon). doi:10.1002/9781118540190.wbeic178

Vangelisti, A. L., Young, S. L., Carpenter-Theune, K. E., & Alexander, A. L. (2005). Why does it hurt? The perceived causes of hurt feelings. Communication Research, (4), 443. Retrieved from https://search-ebscohost-com.libdata.lib.ua.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsgao&AN=edsgcl.134536875&site=eds-live&scope=site

Young, S. (2010). Positive Perceptions of Hurtful Communication: The Packaging Matters. Communication Research Reports, 27(1), 49–57. https://doi-org.libdata.lib.ua.edu/10.1080/08824090903526562

Young, S., Bippus, A., & Dunbar, N. (2015). Comparing Romantic Partners’ Perceptions of Hurtful Communication During Conflict Conversations. Southern Communication Journal, 80(1), 39–54. https://doi-org.libdata.lib.ua.edu/10.1080/1041794X.2014.941113

  1. ^ Bippus, Amy M.; Young, Stacy L. (2012-12-19). "Using Appraisal Theory to Predict Emotional and Coping Responses to Hurtful Messages". Interpersona: An International Journal on Personal Relationships. 6 (2): 176–190. doi:10.5964/ijpr.v6i2.99. ISSN 1981-6472.
  2. ^ Young, Stacy L.; Bippus, Amy M.; Dunbar, Norah E. (2015-1). "Comparing Romantic Partners' Perceptions of Hurtful Communication During Conflict Conversations". Southern Communication Journal. 80 (1): 39–54. doi:10.1080/1041794X.2014.941113. ISSN 1041-794X. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  3. ^ Vangelisti, Anita L.; Young, Stacy L.; Carpenter-Theune, Katy E.; Alexander, Alicia L. (2005-08). "Why Does It Hurt?". Communication Research. 32 (4): 443–477. doi:10.1177/0093650205277319. ISSN 0093-6502. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  4. ^ Guerrero, Laura K.,. Close encounters : communication in relationships. Andersen, Peter A.,, Afifi, Walid A., (Fifth edition ed.). Los Angeles. ISBN 9781506376721. OCLC 962141064. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ Vangelisti, Anita L.; Young, Stacy L.; Carpenter-Theune, Katy E.; Alexander, Alicia L. (2005-08). "Why Does It Hurt?". Communication Research. 32 (4): 443–477. doi:10.1177/0093650205277319. ISSN 0093-6502. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  6. ^ Vangelisti, Anita L. (2015-12-01), Berger, Charles R; Roloff, Michael E; Wilson, Steve R; Dillard, James Price (eds.), "Hurtful Communication", The International Encyclopedia of Interpersonal Communication, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 1–9, doi:10.1002/9781118540190.wbeic178, ISBN 9781118540190, retrieved 2019-09-28
  7. ^ Malachowski, Colleen C.; Frisby, Brandi N. (2015-03-15). "The Aftermath of Hurtful Events: Cognitive, Communicative, and Relational Outcomes". Communication Quarterly. 63 (2): 187–203. doi:10.1080/01463373.2015.1012218. ISSN 0146-3373.
  8. ^ Guerrero, Laura K.,. Close encounters : communication in relationships. Andersen, Peter A.,, Afifi, Walid A., (Fifth edition ed.). Los Angeles. ISBN 9781506376721. OCLC 962141064. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ^ Vangelisti, Anita L.; Young, Stacy L.; Carpenter-Theune, Katy E.; Alexander, Alicia L. (2005-08). "Why Does It Hurt?". Communication Research. 32 (4): 443–477. doi:10.1177/0093650205277319. ISSN 0093-6502. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  10. ^ Hoskins, Natalie (2016). "Words can hurt the ones you love: Interpersonal trust as it relates to listening anxiety and verbal aggression". Iowa Journal of Communication.
  11. ^ Young, Stacy L. (2010-02-09). "Positive Perceptions of Hurtful Communication: The Packaging Matters". Communication Research Reports. 27 (1): 49–57. doi:10.1080/08824090903526562. ISSN 0882-4096.
  12. ^ Bippus, Amy M.; Young, Stacy L. (2012-12-19). "Using Appraisal Theory to Predict Emotional and Coping Responses to Hurtful Messages". Interpersona: An International Journal on Personal Relationships. 6 (2): 176–190. doi:10.5964/ijpr.v6i2.99. ISSN 1981-6472.
  13. ^ Vangelisti, Anita L.; Young, Stacy L.; Carpenter-Theune, Katy E.; Alexander, Alicia L. (2005-08). "Why Does It Hurt?". Communication Research. 32 (4): 443–477. doi:10.1177/0093650205277319. ISSN 0093-6502. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  14. ^ Bippus, Amy M.; Young, Stacy L. (2012-12-19). "Using Appraisal Theory to Predict Emotional and Coping Responses to Hurtful Messages". Interpersona: An International Journal on Personal Relationships. 6 (2): 176–190. doi:10.5964/ijpr.v6i2.99. ISSN 1981-6472.
  15. ^ Vangelisti, Anita L.; Young, Stacy L.; Carpenter-Theune, Katy E.; Alexander, Alicia L. (2005-08). "Why Does It Hurt?". Communication Research. 32 (4): 443–477. doi:10.1177/0093650205277319. ISSN 0093-6502. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  16. ^ Guerrero, Laura K.,. Close encounters : communication in relationships. Andersen, Peter A.,, Afifi, Walid A., (Fifth edition ed.). Los Angeles. ISBN 9781506376721. OCLC 962141064. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ^ Malachowski, Colleen C.; Frisby, Brandi N. (2015-03-15). "The Aftermath of Hurtful Events: Cognitive, Communicative, and Relational Outcomes". Communication Quarterly. 63 (2): 187–203. doi:10.1080/01463373.2015.1012218. ISSN 0146-3373.
  18. ^ Vangelisti, Anita L.; Young, Stacy L.; Carpenter-Theune, Katy E.; Alexander, Alicia L. (2005-08). "Why Does It Hurt?". Communication Research. 32 (4): 443–477. doi:10.1177/0093650205277319. ISSN 0093-6502. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  19. ^ "E-Resource Login". login.libdata.lib.ua.edu. Retrieved 2019-09-28.
  20. ^ Young, Stacy L.; Bippus, Amy M.; Dunbar, Norah E. (2015-1). "Comparing Romantic Partners' Perceptions of Hurtful Communication During Conflict Conversations". Southern Communication Journal. 80 (1): 39–54. doi:10.1080/1041794X.2014.941113. ISSN 1041-794X. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  21. ^ Young, Stacy L.; Bippus, Amy M.; Dunbar, Norah E. (2015-1). "Comparing Romantic Partners' Perceptions of Hurtful Communication During Conflict Conversations". Southern Communication Journal. 80 (1): 39–54. doi:10.1080/1041794X.2014.941113. ISSN 1041-794X. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  22. ^ Malachowski, Colleen C.; Frisby, Brandi N. (2015-03-15). "The Aftermath of Hurtful Events: Cognitive, Communicative, and Relational Outcomes". Communication Quarterly. 63 (2): 187–203. doi:10.1080/01463373.2015.1012218. ISSN 0146-3373.
  23. ^ Malachowski, Colleen C.; Frisby, Brandi N. (2015-03-15). "The Aftermath of Hurtful Events: Cognitive, Communicative, and Relational Outcomes". Communication Quarterly. 63 (2): 187–203. doi:10.1080/01463373.2015.1012218. ISSN 0146-3373.
  24. ^ Malachowski, Colleen C.; Frisby, Brandi N. (2015-03-15). "The Aftermath of Hurtful Events: Cognitive, Communicative, and Relational Outcomes". Communication Quarterly. 63 (2): 187–203. doi:10.1080/01463373.2015.1012218. ISSN 0146-3373.
  25. ^ McLaren, Rachel M.; Pederson, Joshua R. (2014-2). "Relational Communication and Understanding in Conversations About Hurtful Events Between Parents and Adolescents: Relational Communication and Understanding". Journal of Communication. 64 (1): 145–166. doi:10.1111/jcom.12072. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  26. ^ McLaren, Rachel M.; Pederson, Joshua R. (2014-2). "Relational Communication and Understanding in Conversations About Hurtful Events Between Parents and Adolescents: Relational Communication and Understanding". Journal of Communication. 64 (1): 145–166. doi:10.1111/jcom.12072. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  27. ^ McLaren, Rachel M.; Pederson, Joshua R. (2014-2). "Relational Communication and Understanding in Conversations About Hurtful Events Between Parents and Adolescents: Relational Communication and Understanding". Journal of Communication. 64 (1): 145–166. doi:10.1111/jcom.12072. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  28. ^ Vangelisti, Anita L.; Young, Stacy L.; Carpenter-Theune, Katy E.; Alexander, Alicia L. (2005-08). "Why Does It Hurt?". Communication Research. 32 (4): 443–477. doi:10.1177/0093650205277319. ISSN 0093-6502. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
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