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'''Bibliography'''
'''Bibliography'''
{{refbegin|2}}
{{refbegin|2}}
*{{citation |title=Aryans, Jews, Brahmins: Theorizing Authority Through Myths of Identity |first=Dorothy Matilda |last=Figueira |publisher=SUNY Press |year=2012 |isbn= 978-0-79148-783-9 |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LTU0fszp33YC}}
*{{citation |title=Aryans, Jews, Brahmins: Theorizing Authority Through Myths of Identity |first=Dorothy Matilda |last=Figueira |publisher=SUNY Press |pages=|year=2012 |isbn= 978-0-79148-783-9 |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LTU0fszp33YC|volume=}}
*{{citation |last=Keer |first=Dhananjay |authorlink=Dhananjay Keer |title=Mahatma Jotirao Phooley: Father of the Indian Social Revolution |year=1974 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |location=Mumbai, India |isbn=978-81-7154-066-2 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=PFY9fz68KEsC&pg=PA1}}
*{{citation |last=Keer |first=Dhananjay |authorlink=Dhananjay Keer |title=Mahatma Jotirao Phooley: Father of the Indian Social Revolution |pages=|year=1974 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |location=Mumbai, India |isbn=978-81-7154-066-2 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=PFY9fz68KEsC&pg=PA1|volume=}}
*{{citation |chapter=Issues of Widowhood in Colonial Western India |first=Rosalind |last=O'Hanlon |title=Contesting Power: Resistance and Everyday Social Relations in South Asia |editor1-first=Douglas E. |editor1-last=Haynes |editor2-first=Gyan |editor2-last=Prakash |publisher=University of California Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-52007-585-6 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fmLgwzHwmtoC}}
*{{citation |chapter=Issues of Widowhood in Colonial Western India |first=Rosalind |last=O'Hanlon |title=Contesting Power: Resistance and Everyday Social Relations in South Asia |volume=|editor1-first=Douglas E. |editor1-last=Haynes |editor2-first=Gyan |editor2-last=Prakash |publisher=University of California Press |pages=|year=1992 |isbn=978-0-52007-585-6 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fmLgwzHwmtoC}}
*{{citation |title=Caste, Conflict and Ideology: Mahatma Jotirao Phule and Low Caste Protest in Nineteenth-Century Western India |first=Rosalind |last=O'Hanlon |edition=Revised |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2002 |origyear=1985 |isbn=978-0-52152-308-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kMrsTj1NeYC}}
*{{citation |title=Caste, Conflict and Ideology: Mahatma Jotirao Phule and Low Caste Protest in Nineteenth-Century Western India |first=Rosalind |last=O'Hanlon |edition=Revised |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=|year=2002 |origyear=1985 |isbn=978-0-52152-308-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kMrsTj1NeYC|volume=}}
*{{citation |first=Sumit |last=Sarkar |authorlink=Sumit Sarkar |title=Bibliographical Survey of Social Reform Movements in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries |year=1975 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass/Indian Council of Historical Research}}
*{{citation |first=Sumit |last=Sarkar |authorlink=Sumit Sarkar |title=Bibliographical Survey of Social Reform Movements in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries |volume=|pages=|year=1975 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass/Indian Council of Historical Research}}
*{{citation |author1-first=Srividya |author1-last=Natarajan |author2-first=Aparajita |author2-last=Ninan |title=A Gardener in the Wasteland: Jotiba Phule's Fight for Liberty |volume=|pages=|year=2011 |publisher=Navayana |isbn=8189059467 |url=https://navayana.org/products/a-gardener-in-the-wasteland/}}
{{refend}}
{{refend}}


Revision as of 07:24, 20 October 2019

Jyotirao Govindrao Phule
Born(1827-04-11)11 April 1827
Katagun , khatav, satara District, Maharashtra, India
Died28 November 1890(1890-11-28) (aged 63)
Pune, British India (present-day Maharashtra, India)
Other namesMahatma Phule / Jyotiba Pule/ Jotiba Phule / Jotirao Phule
SpouseSavitribai Phule
Era19th century
Main interests
Ethics, humanism , Education ,Social Reformation.

Jyotirao Govindrao Phule[a] (11 April 1827 – 28 November 1890), also known as Jotiba Phule was an Indian social activist, thinker, anti-caste social reformer and writer from Maharashtra.He did many things for the upliftment of women and Dalits. He was a strong proponent of providing education to all sections of the society. He was against caste-based division and discrimination prevalent in Indian society. The title of Mahatma was given to him by the people. He received his degree in this year 1888 .

His work extended to many fields including eradication of untouchability and the caste system, and women's emancipation. On 24 September 1873, Phule, along with his followers, formed the Satyashodhak Samaj (Society of Seekers of Truth) to attain equal rights for people from lower castes. People from all religions and castes could become a part of this association which worked for the uplift of the oppressed classes. Phule is regarded as an important figure of the social reform movement in Lagrange. He and his wife, Savitribai Phule, were pioneers of women education in India. He is most known for his efforts to educate women and lower caste people. Phule Started the first school for girls in 1848 at Poona. He also founded a home for the widows. The couple was among the first native Indians to open a school for girls of India. He was also the first reformer who advocated universalization of education.

Early life

Phule was born in 1827 into a family that belonged to the agricultural Mali caste , traditionally occupied as gardeners and considered to be one of the Shudra varna in the ritual ranking system of Hinduism.[1] The original surname of the family had been Gorhe and had its origins in the village of Katgun, in present day Satara District, Maharashtra. Phule's great-grandfather worked as a chaugula, a lowly type of village servant, in that village but had to move to Khanwadi in Pune district after exploitation by Brahmin with whom he had a dispute. He prospered there but his only son, Shetiba, who was of poor intelligence, subsequently squandered what had been gained. Shetiba moved himself and his family, including three boys, to Poona in search of some form of income. The boys were taken under the wing of a florist, who taught them his trade. Their proficiency in growing and arranging became well known and they adopted the name of Phule (flower-man) in place of Gorhe.[2] Their fulfilment of commissions from the Peshwa, Baji Rao II, for flower mattresses and other goods for the rituals and ceremonies of the royal court so impressed him that he granted them 35 acres (14 ha) of land on the basis of the inam system, whereby no tax would be payable upon it.[1] The oldest brother machinated to take sole control of the property, leaving the younger two siblings, including Jyotirao Phule's father, Govindrao, to continue farming and also flower-selling.[2]

Govindrao married Chimnabai and had two sons, of whom Jyotirao was the younger. Chimnabai died before he was aged one.[2] The Mali community did not set much store by education, and after attending primary school to learn the basics of reading, writing and arithmetic, Jyotirao was withdrawn from school. He joined the menfolk of his family at work, both in the shop and the farm. However, a Christian convert from the same Mali caste as Phule recognised his intelligence and persuaded Phule's father to allow Phule to attend the local Scottish Mission High School.[3][4][b] Phule completed his English schooling in 1847. As was customary, he was married young, at the age of 13, to a girl of his own community, chosen by his father.[6]

The turning point in his life was in 1848, when he attended the wedding of a Brahmin friend. Phule participated in the customary marriage procession, but was later rebuked and insulted by his friend's parents for doing that. They told him that he being from a lower caste should have had the sense to keep away from that ceremony. This incident profoundly affected Phule on the injustice of the caste system.[7]

Social activism

In 1848, aged 23, Phule visited the first girls' school in Ahmadnagar, run by Christian missionaries. It was also in 1848 that he read Thomas Paine's book Rights of Man and developed a keen sense of social justice. He realised that lower castes and women were at a disadvantage in Indian society, and also that education of these sections was vital to their emancipation.[8]

To this end and in the same year, Phule first taught reading and writing to his wife, Savitribai, and then the couple started the first indigenously-run school for girls in Pune .[9][c]In his book Gulamgiri, Phule says that the first school was for brahmin and upper caste girls, however Phule's biographer says it was for low caste girls.[10]Ostracised for this by their family and community, their friend Usman Sheikh and his sister Fatima Sheikh provided them their home to stay. They also helped to start the school in their premises.[11] Later, the Phules started schools for children from the then untouchable castes such as Mahar and Mang.[citation needed] In 1852, there were three Phule schools in operation but by 1858 they had all ended. Eleanor Zelliot blames the closure on private European donations drying up due to the Mutiny of 1857, withdrawal of government support, and Jyotirao resigning from the school management committee because of disagreement regarding the curriculum.[12] He championed widow remarriage and started a home for pregnant Brahmin widows to give birth in a safe and secure place in 1863.[13] His orphanage was established in an attempt to reduce the rate of infanticide.[14] Phule tried to eliminate the stigma of social untouchability surrounding the lower castes by opening his house and the use of his water-well to the members of the lower castes.[citation needed]

Views on religion and caste

Phule recast the prevailing Aryan invasion theory of history, proposing that the Aryan conquerors of India, whom the theory's proponents considered to be racially superior, were in fact barbaric suppressors of the indigenous people. He believed that they had instituted the caste system as a framework for subjugation and social division that ensured the pre-eminence of their Brahmin successors. He saw the subsequent Muslim conquests of the Indian subcontinent as more of the same sort of thing, being a repressive alien regime, but took heart in the arrival of the British, whom he considered to be relatively enlightened and not supportive of the varnashramadharma system instigated and then perpetuated by those previous invaders.[15][d] In his book, Gulamgiri, he thanked Christian missionaries and the British colonists for making the lower castes realise that they are worthy of all human rights.[17] The book, whose title transliterates as slavery and which concerned women, caste and reform, was dedicated to the people in the US who were working to end slavery.[18]

Phule saw Rama, the hero of the Indian epic Ramayana, as a symbol of oppression stemming from the Aryan conquest.[19][page needed] His critique of the caste system began with an attack on the Vedas, the most fundamental texts of upper-caste Hindus.[20] He considered them to be a form of false consciousness.[21]

He is credited with introducing the Marathi word dalit (broken, crushed) as a descriptor for those people who were outside the traditional varna system. The terminology was later popularised in the 1970s by the Dalit Panthers.[22]

At an education commission hearing in 1884, Phule called for help in providing education for lower castes. To implement it, he advocated making primary education compulsory in villages. He also asked for special incentives to get more lower-caste people in high schools and colleges.[citation needed]

Sathyashodhak Samaj

On 24 September 1873, Phule formed Satyashodhak Samaj to focus on rights of depressed groups such women, the Shudra, and the Dalit.[13][23][24] Through this the samaj he opposed idolatry and denounced the caste system. Satyashodhak Samaj campaigned for the spread of rational thinking and rejected the need for priests.

Phule established Satyashodhak Samaj with the ideals of human well-being, happiness, unity, equality, and easy religious principles and rituals.[24] A Pune-based newspaper, Deenbandhu, provided the voice for the views of the Samaj.[25]

The membership of the samaj included Muslims, Brahmans, and government officials.However,non-Brahman castes dominated. Phule's own Mali caste provided the leading members and financial supporters for the organization.[23]

Occupation

Apart from his role as a social activist, Phule was a businessman too. In 1882 he styled himself as a merchant, cultivator and municipal contractor.[26] He owned 60 acres (24 ha) of farmland at Manjri, near Pune.[27] For period of time, he worked as a contractor for the government and supplied building materials required for the construction of a dam on the Mula-Mutha river near Pune in the 1870s.[citation needed] He also received contracts to provide labour for the construction of the Katraj Tunnel and the Yerawda Jail near Pune.[28] One of Phule's businesses, established in 1863, was to supply metal-casting equipment.[13]

Phule was appointed commissioner (municipal council member) to the then Poona municipality in 1876 and served in this unelected position until 1883.[29]

Published works

Phule's akhandas were organically linked to the abhangs of Marathi Varkari saint Tukaram.[30] Among his notable published works are:

  • Tritiya Ratna, 1855
  • Brahmananche Kasab,1869
  • Powada : Chatrapati Shivajiraje Bhosle Yancha, [English: Life Of Shivaji, In Poetical Metre], June 1869
  • Powada: Vidyakhatyatil Brahman Pantoji, June 1869
  • Manav Mahammand (Muhammad) (Abhang)
  • Gulamgiri, 1873
  • Shetkarayacha Aasud (Cultivator's Whipcord), July 1881
  • Satsar Ank 1, June 1885
  • Satsar Ank 2, October 1885
  • Ishara, October 1885
  • Gramjoshya sambhandi jahir kabhar, (1886)
  • Satyashodhak Samajokt Mangalashtakasah Sarva Puja-vidhi, 1887
  • Sarvajanik Satya Dharma Poostak, April 1889
  • Sarvajanic Satya Dharmapustak, 1891
  • Akhandadi Kavyarachana
  • Asprashyanchi Kaifiyat

Recognition

A statue of Jyotiba Phule in the town of Karad, Satara district
Phule on a 1977 stamp of India

According to Dhananjay Keer, Phule was bestowed with the title of Mahatma on 11 May 1888 by another social reformer from Bombay, Vithalrao Krishnaji Vandekar.[31]

An early biography of Phule was the Marathi-language Mahatma Jotirao Phule yanche charitra (P. S. Patil, Chikali: 1927), which has to be treated with caution because its author was an activist.[32] Two others are Mahatma Phule. Caritra Va Kriya (Mahatma Phule. Life and Work) (A. K. Ghorpade, Poona: 1953), which is also in Marathi, and Mahatma Jyotibha Phule: Father of Our Social Revolution (Dhananjay Keer, Bombay: 1974). Unpublished material relating to him is held by the Bombay State Committee on the History of the Freedom Movement.[33]

Phule inspired B. R. Ambedkar, the first minister of law of India and the architect of the Indian Constitution. Ambedkar had acknowledged Phule as one of his three gurus or masters.[34][35][36]

There are many structures and places commemorating Phule. These include:

References

Notes

  1. ^ There are numerous variant spellings of Phule's name. These include Jotirao, Jotiba, and Phuley.
  2. ^ The Scottish Mission school was operated by the Free Church of Scotland and educated pupils from a wide range of castes.[5]
  3. ^ The American missionary Cynthia Farrar had started a girl's school in Bombay in . In 1847, the Students' literary and scientific society started the Kamalabai high school for girls in the Girgaon neighborhood of Bombay. The school is still operational in 2016. Peary Charan Sarkar started a school for girls called Kalikrishna Girls' High School in the Bengali town of Barasat in 1847. The Parsi community Mumbai had also established a school for girls in 1847)
  4. ^ Varnashramadharma has been described by Dietmar Rothermund as the Indian societal system that "regulates the duty (dharma) of every man according to his caste (varna) and age-grade (ashrama)".[16]

Citations

  1. ^ a b O'Hanlon (2002), pp. 105–106 sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFO'Hanlon2002 (help)
  2. ^ a b c Keer (1974), pp. 1–3
  3. ^ Rowena Robinson; Joseph Marianus Kujur (17 August 2010). Margins of Faith: Dalit and Tribal Christianity in India. SAGE Publishing India. ISBN 978-93-86042-93-4.
  4. ^ O'Hanlon (2002), p. 110 sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFO'Hanlon2002 (help)
  5. ^ O'Hanlon (2002), p. 105 sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFO'Hanlon2002 (help)
  6. ^ Phule, Jotirao (1991). Selections: Collected Works of Mahatma Jotirao Phule Vol II. Mumbai: Government of Maharashtra. pp. xv.
  7. ^ Phule, Jotirao (1991). Selections: Collected Works of Mahatma Jotirao Phule Vol II. Mumbai: Government of Maharashtra. pp. xvi.
  8. ^ O'Hanlon (2002), pp. 110–113 sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFO'Hanlon2002 (help)
  9. ^ O'Hanlon, Rosalind (2002). Caste, Conflict and Ideology: Mahatma Jotirao Phule and Low Caste Protest in Nineteenth-Century Western India (Revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-521-52308-0.
  10. ^ Rajmohan Gandhi (6 November 2009). A Tale of Two Revolts. Penguin Books Limited. p. 111. ISBN 978-81-8475-825-2.
  11. ^ Mohan, Siddhant (7 April 2017). "Remembering Fatima Sheikh, the first Muslim teacher who laid the foundation of Dalit-Muslim unity". Two Circles.
  12. ^ Bhattacharya, Sabyasachi; Zelliot, Eleanor (author) (2002). Education and the disprivileged : nineteenth and twentieth century India (1. publ. ed.). Hyderabad: Orient Longman. pp. 35–37. ISBN 9788125021926. {{cite book}}: |first2= has generic name (help)
  13. ^ a b c O'Hanlon (2002), p. 135 sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFO'Hanlon2002 (help)
  14. ^ Figueira (2012), p. 147
  15. ^ Figueira (2012), pp. 147–148
  16. ^ Rothermund, Dietmar (1968). "Emancipation or Re-integration". In Low, D. A. (ed.). Soundings in Modern South Asian History. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 132.
  17. ^ Doctor, Adi H. (1994). "Missionary Teachings and Social Reformers in 19th Century India". In de Souza, Teotonio R. (ed.). Discoveries, Missionary Expansion and Asian Cultures. Concept Publishing. pp. 110–111. ISBN 978-8-17022-497-6.
  18. ^ Foole, Mahatma Jyatorao (2007). Gulamgiri (in Hindi). Gautam Book Center. p. 7. ISBN 978-8-18773-373-7.
  19. ^ Sharad Pawar, the Making of a Modern Maratha By P. K. Ravindranath
  20. ^ O'Hanlon (2002), p. 147-149 sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFO'Hanlon2002 (help)
  21. ^ Figueira (2012), p. 149
  22. ^ Nisar, M.; Kandasamy, Meena (2007). Ayyankali — Dalit Leader of Organic Protest. Other Books. p. 8. ISBN 978-8-19038-876-4.
  23. ^ a b Bhadru, G. (2002). "Contribution of Shatyashodhak Samaj to the Low Caste Protest Movement in 19th Century". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 63: 845–854. JSTOR 44158153.
  24. ^ a b "Life & Work of Mahatma Jotirao Pule". University of Pune. Archived from the original on 11 March 2009.
  25. ^ Charlesworth, Neil (2002). Peasants and Imperial Rule: Agriculture and Agrarian Society in the Bombay Presidency 1850–1935 (Revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 277. ISBN 978-0-52152-640-1.
  26. ^ Keer (1974), p. 172
  27. ^ Gavaskar, Mahesh (1999). "Phule's critique of Brahmin power". In Michael, S. M. (ed.). Untouchable: Dalits in Modern India. Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner. p. 45. ISBN 978-155587-697-5.
  28. ^ Bhadru, G. (2002). "CONTRIBUTION OF SHATYASHODHAK SAMAJ TO THE LOW CASTE PROTEST MOVEMENT IN 19TH CENTURY". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 63: 845–854. JSTOR 44158153.
  29. ^ Keer (1974), p. 143
  30. ^ Thakkar, Usha (Editor); Kamala Ganesh, Kamala (Editor); Bhagwat, Vidyut (Author) (2005). Culture and the making of identity in contemporary India. New Delhi: Sage Publications. p. 169. ISBN 9780761933816. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help)
  31. ^ Keer (1974), p. 247
  32. ^ O'Hanlon (1992), p. 107
  33. ^ Sarkar (1975), pp. 32–33, 40
  34. ^ Teltumbde, Anand; Yengde, Suraj (2 November 2018). "The Radical in Ambedkar: Critical Reflections". Penguin Random House India Private Limited. Retrieved 24 April 2019 – via Google Books.
  35. ^ "The Greatness of Mahatma Jotiba Phule". 11 April 2015. Retrieved 24 April 2019.
  36. ^ "मेरा जीवन तीन गुरुओं और तीन उपास्यों से बना है- बाबासाहब डॉ बीआर अम्बेडकर". Retrieved 24 April 2019.
  37. ^ "Life As Message". Tehelka Magazine, Vol 9, Issue 24. 16 June 2012.

Bibliography

Further reading

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