Roman Empire: Difference between revisions
Content deleted Content added
Revert to revision 92222000 dated 2006-12-05 14:05:38 by MarkThomas using popups |
yeah! |
||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{otheruses}} |
|||
{{Roman Empire infobox}} |
|||
The '''Roman Empire''' is the name given to both the imperial domain developed by the city-state of [[ancient Rome|Rome]] and also the corresponding phase of that civilization, characterized by an [[autocratic]] form of government. It succeeded the 500 year-old [[Roman Republic]] (510 BC – 1st century BC), which had been weakened by the conflict between [[Gaius Marius]] and [[Sulla]] and the [[civil war]] of [[Julius Caesar]] against [[Pompey]].<ref>During these struggles hundreds of senators were killed or died, and the [[Roman Senate]] had been refilled with loyalists of the [[First Triumvirate]] and later those of the [[Second Triumvirate]].</ref> Several dates are commonly proposed to mark the transition from Republic to Empire, including the date of Julius Caesar's appointment as perpetual [[roman dictator|dictator]] ([[44 BC]]), the victory of Caesar's heir [[Augustus|Octavian]] at the [[Battle of Actium]] ([[September 2]], [[31 BC]]), and the Roman Senate's granting to Octavian the [[honorific]] ''[[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]]'' ([[January 16]], [[27 BC]]).<ref>Octavian/Augustus officially proclaimed that he had saved the Roman Republic and carefully disguised his power under republican forms; [[consul]]s continued to be elected, [[tribune]]s of the plebeians continued to offer legislation, and senators still debated in the [[curia|Roman Curia]]. However, it was Octavian who influenced everything and controlled the final decisions, and in final analysis, had the [[Roman legions|legions]] to back him up, if it ever became necessary.</ref> |
|||
From the time of Augustus to the [[Decline of the Roman Empire|Fall of the Western Empire]], Rome dominated [[History of West Eurasia|Western Eurasia]], comprising the majority of its population. At its territorial peak after the conquest of Dacia, the Roman Empire controlled approximately 5 900 000 km² (2,300,000 sq.mi.) of land surface, and being a few percentile larger than Alexander's conquests and considerably larger than the contemporary Han Chinese empire, even without the temporary conquest of Armenia and Mesopotamia it is still the largest empire in history up to that time. The expansion of this Roman territory beyond the borders of the initial [[city-state]] of Rome had started long before the state organization turned into an Empire. The greatest extent of the expansion came after the conquest of [[Dacia]] by [[Trajan]] in 116. The [[Latin (language)|Latin]] term [[Imperium#Territories|''Imperium Romanum'']] ("Roman Empire"), probably the best-known Latin expression where the word "''imperium''" denotes a territory, indicates the part of the world under Roman rule. Rome's influence on the culture, law, technology, arts, language, religion, government, military, and architecture of [[Western civilization]] is a continuing legacy more than one thousand, five hundred years after the Empire ceased to exist. |
|||
The end of the Roman Empire is traditionally placed on [[4 September]] [[476]], when the [[Western Roman Empire]] fell to [[Germanic]] invaders, although the major power centre of the Empire had by then transferred to the Eastern Roman Empire. Known to modern-day historians as the [[Byzantine Empire]], it maintained Roman legal and cultural traditions within a distinctly [[Greek Orthodox]] form for another thousand years until it finally succumbed to Latins in 1204, and then the [[Ottoman Empire]] on [[29 May]] [[1453]]. |
|||
===Evolution of Imperial Rome=== |
|||
Because the Roman Empire lasted such a long time, historians use various names to distinguish different periods or eras. Such names include [[Western Roman Empire]], [[Eastern Roman Empire]] and [[Byzantine Empire]], which are used throughout this article to refer to the Roman Empire or the Western or Eastern part thereof. |
|||
Traditionally, historians make a distinction between the [[Principate]], the period following Augustus until the [[Crisis of the Third Century]], and the [[Dominate]], the period from [[Diocletian]] until the end of the Empire in the West. According to this distinction, during the Principate (from the [[Latin]] word ''princeps'', meaning "first citizen") the realities of absolutism were formally concealed behind Republican forms; while during the Dominate (from the word ''dominus'', meaning "lord") imperial power was clearly shown, with golden crowns and ornate imperial ritual. More recently historians have established that the situation was far more nuanced: certain historical forms continued until the Byzantine period, more than one thousand years after they were created, and displays of imperial majesty were common from the earliest days of the Empire. |
|||
[[Image:RomanEmpire Phases.png|thumb|right|300px|The extent of the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in 218 BC (dark red), 133 BC (light red), 44 BC (orange), AD 14 (yellow), after AD 14 (green), and maximum extension under Trajan 117 (light green).]] |
|||
==First emperor== |
|||
The question about who was the first emperor has never found a definitive answer. Under a purely technical point of view there is no clear ''first emperor'', as the title itself was not an official post in the Roman constitutional system—rather, it was an [[amalgam]] of separate roles. |
|||
[[Julius Caesar]] was a ''[[Dictator Perpetuus]]'' ("life-long [[Roman dictator|dictator]]"), which was a highly irregular form of dictator, an official position in the Roman republic. According to law, the rule of a dictator would normally never exceed 6 months. The form created by Caesar was therefore quite contrary to the basic principles of the Roman Republic. Nevertheless, officially his authority rested upon this republican title, however irregular it might have been, and therefore he is considered a republican official. At the very least he pretended to be one. Several senators, among them many former enemies who had been "graciously" pardoned by him, grew fearful that he would crown himself and try to establish a monarchy. Accordingly, they conspired to assassinate him, and on the [[Ides of March]], on the [[15 March]] [[44 BC]], the life-long dictator perished under the blades of his assassins before he could be crowned. |
|||
[[Augustus|Octavian]], his grand-nephew, adopted son and political heir, is widely accepted as the first emperor. He had learned from the mistake of his predecessor and never claimed the widely feared title ''dictator'', disguising his power under republican forms much more carefully. All this was intended to foster the illusion of a restoration of the Republic. He received several titles like ''[[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]]—the honorable one'', and ''[[Princeps]]''—translated as ''first citizen of the Roman republic'' or as ''first leader of the Roman Senate''. The latter had been a title awarded for those who had served the state well; Pompey had held that title. |
|||
In addition, Augustus (as he is named thereafter) was granted the right to wear the [[Civic Crown]] of laurel and oak. However, it must be noted that officially, none of these titles or the Civic Crown, granted Augustus any additional powers or authority; officially he was simply a highly-honored Roman citizen, holding the consulship. Augustus also became ''[[Pontifex Maximus]]'' after the death of [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (49 BC)|Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]] in [[13 BC]]. He also received several additional and extraordinary powers without claiming too many titles. In the end he only needed the authority itself, not necessarily all the respective titles. |
|||
==From the Republic to the Principate (31 BC–AD 14)== |
|||
{{See|Praetorian Guard|Roman triumph|Battle of the Teutoburg Forest|Arminius|Publius Quinctilius Varus}} |
|||
[[Image:Acaugustus.jpg|thumb|130px|Octavian, widely known as [[Augustus]], learned from the fate of Julius Caesar and avoided his mistake.]] |
|||
The [[Battle of Actium]] resulted in the defeat and subsequent suicides of Mark Antony and [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]]. Octavian also had executed Cleopatra's young son and co-ruler, [[Caesarion]]. Caesarion may have been the (only) son of Julius Caesar. Therefore, by killing Caesarion, Octavian removed any possibility of a male rival emerging with closer blood ties to Julius Caesar. Octavian, now sole ruler of Rome, began a fullscale reformation of military, fiscal and political matters. These reforms were intended to stabilize and to pacify the Roman world and would also cement the acceptance of the new regime. |
|||
Upon Octavian's accedance as ruler of the Roman world, the Roman Senate gave Octavian the name "Augustus." He had adopted the title "imperator," commander-in-chief, as his [[praenomen|first name]] already earlier. It was a term that dated back to the days of the Republic and later evolved into "emperor." |
|||
As adopted heir of Caesar, Augustus preferred to be called by this name. This usage was different from later usages of the word. "Caesar" was a component of his family name. Julio-Claudian rule lasted for almost a century (from Julius Caesar in the mid 1st century BC to the emperor Nero in the mid 1st century AD). By the time of the Flavian Dynasty, and the reign of Vespasian, and that of his two sons, Titus and Domitian, the term "Caesar" evolved, almost ''de facto'', from a family name into a formal title. Derivatives of this title (such as czar and kaiser) last to this day. |
|||
The Roman legions, which had reached an unprecedented number (around sixty) because of the civil wars, were reduced to twenty-eight. Several legions, particularly those with members of doubtful loyalties, were simply disbanded. Other legions were amalgamated, a fact hinted by the title ''Gemina'' ("Twin"). Augustus also created nine special [[Cohort (military unit)|cohorts]], ostensibly to maintain the peace in Italy, keeping at least three of them stationed at Rome. These cohorts became known as the [[Praetorian Guard]]. |
|||
Octavian realized that autocracy and kingship were things that Romans had not experienced for centuries, and were wary of. Octavian wanted to retain the illusion of the constitutional republic, and thus did not want to be viewed as a tyrant. Even Rome's past dictators, such as the brutal [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla]], had only ruled Rome for short spans of time, never more than a year or two (with the exception of Julius Caesar). In [[27 BC]], Octavian officially tried to relinquish all his extraordinary powers back to the [[Roman Senate]]. In a carefully staged way the senators, who by this time were mostly his partisans, refused and begged him to continue for the sake of the republic and the people of Rome. Reportedly, the suggestion of Octavian's stepping down as consul led to rioting amongst the Plebeians in Rome. A compromise was reached between the Senate and Octavian, known as the ''First Settlement''. This agreement gave Augustus legitimacy as an autocrat of the people, and ensured that he would not be viewed as a tyrant. |
|||
Octavian split with the Senate the governorships of the provinces. The unruly provinces at the borders, where the vast majority of the legions were stationed, were administrated by imperial legates, chosen by the emperor himself. These provinces were classified as [[imperial provinces]]. The governors of the peaceful [[senatorial provinces]] were chosen by the Senate. These provinces were usually peaceful and only a single legion was stationed in the senatorial province of [[Africa (province)|Africa]]. |
|||
[[Image:Castro, Battle of Actium.jpg|300px|thumb|left|''The Battle of Actium'', by Lorenzo A. Castro, 1672.]] |
|||
Before the Senate controlled the treasury, Augustus had mandated that the taxes of the Imperial provinces were destined to the [[Fiscus]], which was administrated by persons chosen and answerable only to Augustus. The revenue of the senatorial provinces continued to be sent to the [[Aerarium]], under the supervision of the Senate. This effectively made Augustus richer than the Senate, and more than able to pay the ''salarium'' ("[[salary]]") of the [[Legionary|legionaries]], ensuring their continued loyalty. This was ensured by the Imperial province of [[Aegyptus (Roman province)|Aegyptus]]. This province was incredibly wealthy and also the most important grain supplier for the whole empire. Senators were forbidden to even visit this province, as it was largely considered the personal fiefdom of the emperor himself. |
|||
Augustus renounced his consulship in [[23 BC]], but retained his consular imperium, leading to a second compromise between Augustus and the Senate known as the ''Second Settlement''. Augustus was granted the authority of a [[tribune]] (tribunicia potestas), though not the title, which allowed him to convene the Senate and people at will and lay business before it, veto the actions of either the Assembly or the Senate, preside over elections, and gave him the right to speak first at any meeting. Also included in Augustus' tribunician authority were powers usually reserved for the Roman censor; these included the right to supervise public morals and scrutinize laws to ensure they were in the public interest, as well as the ability to hold a census and determine the membership of the Senate. No tribune of Rome ever had these powers, and there was no precedent within the Roman system for consolidating the powers of the tribune and the censor into a single position, nor was Augustus ever elected to the office of Censor. Whether censorial powers were granted to Augustus as part of his tribunician authority, or he simply assumed these responsibilities, is still a matter of debate. |
|||
In addition to tribunician authority, Augustus was granted sole imperium within the city of Rome itself; all armed forces in the city, formerly under the control of the praefects, were now under the sole authority of Augustus. Additionally, Augustus was granted ''imperium proconsulare maius'' ("power over all proconsuls"), the right to interfere in any province and override the decisions of any governor. With maius imperium, Augustus was the only individual able to grant a [[Roman triumph|triumph]] to a successful general as he was ostensibly the leader of the entire Roman army. |
|||
[[Image:Statue-Augustus.jpg|right|thumb|260px|The famous [[Augustus of Prima Porta]].]] |
|||
All of these reforms were highly abnormal in the eyes of Roman republican tradition, but the Senate was no longer composed of republican patricians who had had the courage to murder Caesar. Most of these senators had died in the Civil Wars, and the leaders of the conservative Republicans in the senate, such as [[Cato the Younger|Cato]] and [[Cicero]], had long since died. Octavian had purged the Senate of any remaining suspect elements and planted the body with his own partisans. How free a hand the Senate had in all these transactions, and what backroom deals were made, remains unknown. |
|||
Attempting to secure the borders of the empire upon the rivers [[Danube]] and [[Elbe]], Octavian ordered the invasions of [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyria]], [[Moesia]], and [[Pannonia]] (south of the Danube), and [[Germania]] (west of the Elbe). At first everything went as planned, but then disaster struck. The Illyrian tribes revolted and had to be crushed, and three full legions under the command of [[Publius Quinctilius Varus]] were ambushed and destroyed at the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]] in [[9|AD 9]] by German barbarians under the leadership of [[Arminius]]. Being cautious, Augustus secured all territories west of [[Rhine]] and contented himself with retaliatory raids. The rivers Rhine and Danube became the permanent borders of the Roman empire in the North. |
|||
===Sources=== |
|||
The age of Augustus is paradoxically far more poorly documented than the late Republican period that preceded it. While [[Livy]] wrote his magisterial history during Augustus's reign and his work covered all of Roman history through [[9 BC]], only [[epitome]]s survive of his coverage of the late Republican and Augustan periods. Our important primary sources for this period include the: |
|||
*''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti]]'', Augustus' highly partisan [[autobiography]], |
|||
*''Historiae Romanae'' by [[Velleius Paterculus]], a disorganized work which remains the best [[annals]] of the Augustan period, |
|||
*''Controversiae'' and ''Suasoriae'' of [[Seneca the Elder]]. |
|||
Though primary accounts of this period are few, works of poetry, legislation and engineering from this period provide important insights into Roman life. Archaeology, including [[maritime archaeology]], [[aerial surveys]], [[Epigraphy|epigraphic]] inscriptions on buildings, and Augustan [[Roman currency|coinage]], has also provided valuable evidence about economic, social and military conditions. |
|||
Secondary sources on the Augustan Age include [[Tacitus]], [[Dio Cassius]], [[Plutarch]] and [[Lives of the Twelve Caesars]] by [[Seutonius]]. [[Josephus]]'s ''[[Jewish Antiquities]]'' is the important source for [[Judea]] in this period, which became a [[Roman province|province]] during Augustus' reign. |
|||
==Julio-Claudian dynasty (14–69)== |
|||
{{main|Julio-Claudian dynasty}} |
|||
{{roman government}} |
|||
Augustus had three grandsons by his daughter Julia. None of the three lived long enough to succeed him. He therefore was succeeded by his stepson [[Tiberius]], the son of his wife [[Livia]] from her first marriage. Augustus was a scion of the ''[[gens]]'' [[Julius|Julia]] (the Julian family), one of the most ancient [[patrician]] clans of [[ancient Rome|Rome]], while Tiberius was a scion of the ''gens'' [[Claudius (gens)|Claudia]], only slightly less ancient than the Julians. Their three immediate successors were all descended both from the ''gens'' Claudia, through Tiberius's brother [[Nero Claudius Drusus]], and from ''gens'' Julia, either through [[Julia the Elder]], Augustus' daughter from his first marriage ([[Caligula]] and [[Nero]]), or through Augustus' sister [[Octavia Minor]] ([[Claudius]]). Historians thus refer to their dynasty as "Julio-Claudian". |
|||
====Tiberius (14–37)==== |
|||
{{main|Tiberius}} |
|||
The early years of Tiberius' reign were peaceful and relatively benign. Tiberius secured the power of Rome and enriched its treasury. However, Tiberius' reign soon became characterized by paranoia and slander. In [[19]], he was widely blamed for the death of his nephew, the popular [[Germanicus]]. In [[23]] his own son Drusus died. More and more, Tiberius retreated into himself. He began a series of treason trials and executions. He left power in the hands of the commander of the guard, [[Aelius Sejanus]]. Tiberius himself retired to live at his villa on the island of [[Capri]] in 26, leaving administration in the hands of Sejanus, who carried on the persecutions with relish. Sejanus also began to consolidate his own power; in [[31]] he was named co-consul with Tiberius and married Livilla, the emperor's niece. At this point he was "hoisted by his own [[petard]]": the Emperor's paranoia, which he had so ably exploited for his own gain, was turned against him. Sejanus was put to death, along with many of his cronies, the same year. The persecutions continued until Tiberius' death in [[37]]. |
|||
====Caligula (37–41)==== |
|||
{{main|Caligula}} |
|||
At the time of Tiberius' death most of the people who might have succeeded him had been brutally murdered. The logical successor (and Tiberius' own choice) was his grandnephew, Germanicus' son Gaius (better known as Caligula or "little boots"). Caligula started out well, by putting an end to the persecutions and burning his uncle's records. Unfortunately, he quickly lapsed into illness. The Caligula that emerged in late [[37]] demonstrated features of mental instability that led modern commentators to diagnose him with such illnesses as [[encephalitis]], which can cause mental derangement, [[hyperthyroidism]], or even a nervous breakdown (perhaps brought on by the stress of his position). Whatever the cause, there was an obvious shift in his reign from this point on, leading his biographers to think him insane. |
|||
[[Lives of the Twelve Caesars|Suetonius]] reported a rumour that Caligula planned to appoint his favorite horse [[Incitatus]] to the Roman Senate. He ordered his soldiers to invade [[Britain]] to fight the Sea God [[Neptune]], but changed his mind at the last minute and had them pick sea shells on the northern end of France instead. It is believed he carried on [[incest]]uous relations with his sisters. He ordered a statue of himself to be erected in the Temple at [[Jerusalem]], which would have undoubtedly led to revolt had he not been dissuaded from this plan by his friend king [[Agrippa I|Herod]]. He ordered people to be secretly killed, and then called for them to his palace. When they did not appear, he would jokingly remark that they must have committed suicide. In 41, Caligula was assassinated by the commander of the guard [[Cassius Chaerea]]. The only member of the imperial family left to take charge was his uncle, Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus. |
|||
====Claudius (41–54)==== |
|||
{{main|Claudius}} |
|||
Claudius had long been considered a weakling and a fool by the rest of his family. He was, however, neither [[paranoid]] like his uncle Tiberius, nor [[insane]] like his nephew [[Caligula]], and was therefore able to administer the empire with reasonable ability. He improved the [[bureaucracy]] and streamlined the citizenship and senatorial rolls. He also proceeded with the [[Roman invasion of Britain|conquest and colonization of Britain]] (in [[43]]), and incorporated more Eastern provinces into the empire. He ordered the construction of a winter port for Rome, at Ostia, thereby providing a place for [[Rome's grain supply|grain]] from other parts of the Empire to be brought in inclement weather. |
|||
In his own family life, Claudius was less successful. His wife [[Messalina]] [[cuckold]]ed him; when he found out, he had her executed and married his niece, [[Agrippina the Younger]]. She, along with several of his freedmen, held an inordinate amount of power over him, and although there are conflicting accounts about his death, she may very well have poisoned him in [[54]]. Claudius was deified later that year. The death of Claudius paved the way for Agrippina's own son, the 17-year-old Lucius Domitius Nero. |
|||
====Nero (54–68)==== |
|||
{{main|Nero}} |
|||
Initially, Nero left the rule of Rome to his mother and his tutors, particularly [[Seneca the Younger|Lucius Annaeus Seneca]]. However, as he grew older, his paranoia and desire for power increased and he had his mother and tutors executed. During Nero's reign, there were a series of major riots and rebellions throughout the Empire: in [[Roman Britain|Britannia]], [[Armenia]], [[Parthia]], and [[Iudaea Province|Iudaea]]. Nero's inability to manage the rebellions and his basic incompetence became evident quickly and, in [[68]], even the Imperial guard renounced him. Nero is best remembered by the rumour that he played the [[lyre]] and sang during the [[Great Fire of Rome]] in 64, and hence "fiddled while Rome burned". Nero is also remembered for his immense rebuilding of Rome following the fires. Nero also began one of the first wholesale persecutions of Christians. Disgusted with him, the [[Roman Senate]] issued a decree, ordering Nero's execution. Nero committed suicide before the decree could be carried out. The civil wars which followed have led the year [[69]] to be known as the [[Year of the Four Emperors]], in which [[Galba]], [[Otho]], [[Vitellius]], and [[Vespasian]] ruled in quick and violent succession, until Vespasian was able to solidify his power as emperor of Rome. Nero was so hated, that upon his death, the senate ordered the destruction of all public books and records that confirmed that Nero had ever existed. The senate had issued a similar measure upon the death of Caligula. |
|||
==Rebellions== |
|||
In peacetime, it was relatively easy to rule the empire from its capital city, Rome. An eventual [[rebellion]] was expected and would happen from time to time: a general or a governor would gain the loyalty of his officers through a mixture of personal charisma, promises and simple bribes. A conquered tribe would rebel, or a conquered city would revolt. This would be a bad, but not a catastrophic event. The [[Roman legion]]s were spread around the borders and the rebel leader would in normal circumstances have only one or two legions under his command. Loyal legions would be detached from other points of the empire and would eventually drown the rebellion in blood. This happened even more easily in cases of a small local native uprising as the rebels would normally have no great military experience. Unless the emperor was weak, incompetent, hated, and/or universally despised, these rebellions would be a local and isolated event. |
|||
During real wartime however, which could develop from a rebellion or an uprising, like the massive [[Jewish rebellion]], this was totally and dangerously different. In a full-blown [[military campaign]], the legions under the command of the generals like [[Vespasian]] were of a much greater number. Therefore a paranoid or wise emperor would hold some members of the general's family as [[hostages]], to make certain of the latter's loyalty. In effect, [[Nero]] held [[Domitian]] and [[Quintus Petillius Cerialis]] the governor of [[Ostia]], who were respectively the younger son and the brother-in-law of Vespasian. In normal circumstances this would be quite enough. In fact, the rule of Nero ended with the revolt of the [[Praetorian Guard]] who had been bribed in the name of [[Galba]]. It became all too obvious that the Praetorian Guard was a sword of [[Damocles]], whose loyalty was all too often bought and who became increasingly greedy. Following their example the legions at the borders would also increasingly participate in the [[civil war]]s. This was a dangerous development as this would weaken the whole Roman Army. |
|||
The main enemy in the West were, arguably, the "barbarian tribes" behind the [[Rhine]] and the [[Danube]]. Augustus had tried to conquer them, but ultimately failed and these "barbarians" were greatly feared. But by and large they were left in peace, in order to fight amongst themselves, and were simply too divided to pose a serious threat. |
|||
[[Image:LocationParthia.PNG|frame|right|300px|The empire of [[Parthia]], the arch-rival of Rome, at its greatest extent (''c.'' [[60 BC]]), superimposed over modern borders.]] |
|||
In the East lay the empire of [[Parthia]] ([[Persia]]). [[Crassus]], a member of the [[First Triumvirate]] during the late republic, attempted an invasion in [[53 BC]], but was defeated by [[Persian Empire|Persian]] forces led by [[Surena]] in the [[Battle of Carrhae]]. It was simply too far away to be conquered and then to be held. Any Parthian invasion was confronted and usually defeated, but the threat itself was ultimately impossible to destroy. Parthia would eventually become Rome's greatest rival and foremost enemy. |
|||
In the case of a Roman civil war these two enemies would seize the opportunity to invade Roman territory in order to raid and plunder. The two respective military frontiers became a matter of major political importance because of the high number of legions stationed there. All too often the local generals would rebel, starting a new civil war. To control the western border from Rome was easy, as it was relatively close. To control both frontiers, at the same time, during wartime, was somewhat more difficult. If the emperor was near the border in the East, chances were high that an ambitious general would rebel in the West and [[List of Latin phrases (P–Z)|vice-versa]]. It was no longer enough to be a good administrator; emperors were increasingly near the troops in order to control them and no single Emperor could be at the two frontiers at the same time. This problem would plague the ruling emperors time and time again and many future emperors would follow this path to power. |
|||
==Year of the Four Emperors (68–69)== |
|||
{{main|Year of the Four Emperors}} |
|||
The forced suicide of emperor [[Nero]], in [[68]], was followed by a brief period of civil war (the first [[Roman Republican civil wars|Roman civil war]] since [[Marc Antony|Antony]]'s death in [[31 BC]]) known as the ''year of the four emperors''. Between June of 68 and December of [[69]], [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] witnessed the successive rise and fall of [[Galba]], [[Otho]] and [[Vitellius]] until the final accession of [[Vespasian]], first ruler of the [[Flavian dynasty]]. This period of civil war has become emblematic of the cyclic political disturbances in the history of the Roman Empire. The military and political anarchy created by this civil war had serious implications, such as the outbreak of the [[Batavian rebellion]]. |
|||
==Flavian (69–96)== |
|||
{{main|Flavian Dynasty}} |
|||
The Flavians, although a relatively short-lived dynasty, helped restore stability to an empire on its knees. Although all three have been criticized, especially based on their more centralized style of rule, they issued reforms that created a stable enough empire to last well into the 3rd century. However, their background as a military dynasty led to further marginalization of the senate, and a conclusive move away from ''princeps'', or first citizen, and toward ''imperator'', or emperor. |
|||
====Vespasian (69–79)==== |
|||
[[Vespasian]] was a remarkably successful Roman general who had been given rule over much of the eastern part of the Roman Empire. He had supported the imperial claims of [[Galba]], after whose death Vespasian became a major contender for the throne. Following the suicide of [[Otho]], Vespasian was able to take control of [[Rome's grain supply|Rome's winter grain supply]] in Egypt, placing him in a good position to defeat his remaining rival, Vitellius. On December 20, 69, some of Vespasian's partisans were able to occupy Rome. Vitellius was murdered by his own troops and, the next day, Vespasian, then sixty years old, was confirmed as Emperor by the Senate. |
|||
Although Vespasian was considered an [[autocracy|autocrat]] by the senate, he mostly continued the weakening of that body that had been going since the reign of Tiberius. This was typified by his dating his accession to power from [[July 1]], when his troops proclaimed him emperor, instead of [[December 21]], when the Senate confirmed his appointment. Another example was his assumption of the censorship in 73, giving him power over who made up the senate. He used that power to expel dissident senators. At the same time, he increased the number of senators from 200, at that low level due to the actions of Nero and the year of crisis that followed, to 1000; most of the new senators coming not from Rome but from Italy and the urban centers within the western provinces. |
|||
Vespasian was able to liberate Rome from the financial burdens placed upon it by Nero's excesses and the civil wars. To do this, he not only increased taxes, but created new forms of taxation. Also, through his power as censor, he was able to carefully examine the fiscal status of every city and province, many paying taxes based upon information and structures more than a century old. Through this sound fiscal policy, he was able to build up a surplus in the treasury and embark on public works projects. It was he who first commissioned the ''Amphitheatrum Flavium'' ([[Colosseum]]); he also built a [[Roman forum|forum]] whose centerpiece was a temple to Peace. In addition, he allotted sizable subsidies to the arts, creating a chair of rhetoric at Rome. |
|||
Vespasian was also an effective emperor for the provinces in his decades of office, having posts all across the empire, both east and west. In the west he gave considerable favoritism to Spain in which he granted [[Latin Right|Latin right]]s to over three hundred towns and cities, promoting a new era of urbanization throughout the western (formerly barbarian) provinces. Through the additions he made to the Senate he allowed greater influence of the provinces in the Senate, helping to promote unity in the empire. He also extended the borders of the empire on every front, most of which was done to help strengthen the frontier defenses, one of Vespasian's main goals. The crisis of 69 had wrought havoc on the army. One of the most marked problems had been the support lent by provincial legions to men who supposedly represented the best will of their province. This was mostly caused by the placement of native auxiliary units in the areas they were recruited in, a practice Vespasian stopped. He mixed auxiliary units with men from other areas of the empire or moved the units away from where they were recruited to help stop this. Also, to reduce further the chances of another military coup, he broke up the legions and, instead of placing them in singular concentrations, broke them up along the border. Perhaps the most important military reform he undertook was the extension of legion recruitment from exclusively Italy to Gaul and Spain, in line with the Romanization of those areas. |
|||
====Titus (79–81)==== |
|||
[[Titus]], the eldest son of Vespasian, had been groomed to rule. He had served as an effective general under his father, helping to secure the east and eventually taking over the command of Roman armies in [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]] and [[Iudaea (Roman province)|Iudaea]], quelling the significant Jewish revolt going on at the time. He shared the consul for several years with his father and received the best tutelage. Although there was some trepidation when he took office because of his known dealings with some of the less respectable elements of Roman society, he quickly proved his merit, even recalling many exiled by his father as a show of good faith. |
|||
However, his short reign was marked by disaster: in 79, Mount [[Vesuvius]] erupted in [[Pompeii]], and in 80, a fire destroyed much of Rome. His generosity in rebuilding after these tragedies made him very popular. Titus was very proud of his work on the vast amphitheater begun by his father. He held the opening ceremonies in the still unfinished edifice during the year 80, celebrating with a lavish show that featured 100 [[gladiator]]s and lasted 100 days. Titus died in [[81]], at the age of 41 of what is presumed to be illness; it was rumored that his brother Domitian murdered him in order to become his successor, although these claims have little merit. Whatever the case, he was greatly mourned and missed. |
|||
====Domitian (81–96)==== |
|||
{{main|Domitian}} |
|||
All of the Flavians had rather poor relations with the Senate, because of their autocratic rule, however Domitian was the only one who encountered significant problems. His continuous control as consul and censor throughout his rule; the former his father having shared in much the same way as his Julio-Claudian forerunners, the latter presenting difficulty even to obtain, were unheard of. In addition, he often appeared in full military regalia as an [[imperator]], an affront to the idea of what the Principate-era emperor's power was based upon: the emperor as the [[princeps]]. His reputation in the Senate aside, he kept the people of Rome happy through various measures, including donations to every resident of Rome, wild spectacles in the newly finished Colosseum, and continuing the public works projects of his father and brother. He also apparently had the good fiscal sense of his father, because although he spent lavishly his successors came to power with a well-endowed treasury. |
|||
However, towards the end of his reign Domitian became extremely paranoid, which probably had its initial roots in the treatment he received by his father: although given significant responsibility, he was never trusted with anything important without supervision. This flowered into the severe and perhaps pathological repercussions following the short-lived rebellion in [[89]] of Antonius Saturninus, a governor and commander in Germany. Domitian's paranoia led to a large number of arrests, executions, and seizure of property (which might help explain his ability to spend so lavishly). Eventually it got to the point where even his closest advisers and family members lived in fear, leading them to his murder in [[96]] orchestrated by his enemies in the Senate, Stephanus (the steward of the deceased [[Julia Flavia]]), members of the Praetorian Guard and empress [[Domitia Longina]]. |
|||
==Antonine Dynasty (96–180)== |
|||
[[Image:Roman empire.png|thumb|280px|right|Roman Empire as its greatest extent with the conquests of [[Trajan]]]] |
|||
The next century came to be known as the period of the "[[Five Good Emperors]]", in which the succession was peaceful though not [[dynasty|dynastic]] and the Empire was prosperous. The emperors of this period were [[Nerva]] (96–98), [[Trajan]] (98–117), [[Hadrian]] (117–138), [[Antoninus Pius]] (138–161) and [[Marcus Aurelius]] (161–180), each being adopted by his predecessor as his successor during the former's lifetime. While their respective choices of successor were based upon the merits of the individual men they selected, it has been argued that the real reason for the lasting success of the adoptive scheme of succession lay more with the fact that none but the last had a natural heir. |
|||
====Nerva (96–98)==== |
|||
After his accession, [[Nerva]] went to set a new tone: he released those imprisoned for treason, banned future prosecutions for treason, restored much confiscated property, and involved the Roman Senate in his rule. He probably did so as a means to remain relatively popular (and therefore alive), but this did not completely aid him. Support for Domitian in the army remained strong, and in October 97 the Praetorian Guard laid siege to the Imperial Palace on the Palatine Hill and took Nerva hostage. He was forced to submit to their demands, agreeing to hand over those responsible for Domitian's death and even giving a speech thanking the rebellious Praetorians. Nerva then adopted Trajan, a commander of the armies on the German frontier, as his successor shortly thereafter in order to bolster his own rule. [[Casperius Aelianus]], the Guard Prefect responsible for the mutiny against Nerva, was later executed under Trajan. |
|||
====Trajan (98–117)==== |
|||
{{main|Trajan}} |
|||
[[Image:Traiani iustitia.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Eugène Delacroix]]. ''The [[Justice of Trajan]]'' (fragment).]] |
|||
In 112, provoked by Parthia's decision to put an unacceptable king on the throne of [[Armenia]], a kingdom over which the two great empires had shared hegemony since the time of Nero some fifty years earlier, Trajan marched first on Armenia. He deposed the king and annexed it to the Roman Empire. Then he turned south into [[Parthia]] itself, taking the cities of [[Babylon]], [[Seleucia]] and finally the capital of [[Ctesiphon]] in 116. He continued southward to the Persian Gulf, whence he declared [[Mesopotamia]] a new province of the empire and lamented that he was too old to follow in the steps of Alexander the Great. But he did not stop there. Later in 116, he captured the great city of [[Susa]]. He deposed the Parthian King [[Osroes I]] and put his own puppet ruler [[Parthamaspates]] on the throne. Never again would the Roman Empire advance so far to the east. |
|||
====Hadrian (117–138)==== |
|||
{{main|Hadrian}} |
|||
Despite his own excellence as a military administrator, Hadrian's reign was marked by a general lack of major military conflicts. He surrendered Trajan's conquests in Mesopotamia, considering them to be indefensible. There was almost a war with Parthia around 121, but the threat was averted when Hadrian succeeded in negotiating a peace. Hadrian's army crushed a massive Jewish uprising in Judea (132–135) led by [[Simon Bar Kokhba]]. |
|||
Hadrian was the first emperor to extensively tour the provinces, donating money for local construction projects as he went. In Britain, he ordered the construction of a wall, the famous [[Hadrian's Wall]] as well as various other such defenses in Germany and Northern Africa. His domestic policy was one of relative peace and prosperity. |
|||
====Antoninus Pius (138–161)==== |
|||
[[Image:Antoninus Pius 2D.jpg|thumb|150px|right|[[Antoninus Pius]] {{3d alt|Antoninus Pius 3d.jpg}}]] |
|||
His reign was comparatively peaceful; there were several military disturbances throughout the Empire in his time, in Mauretania, Iudaea, and amongst the Brigantes in Britain, but none of them are considered serious. The unrest in Britain is believed to have led to the construction of the Antonine Wall from the Firth of Forth to the Firth of Clyde, although it was soon abandoned. |
|||
====Marcus Aurelius (161–180)==== |
|||
[[Image:Marcus Aurelius equestrian 2d.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Marcus Aurelius]] {{3d alt|Marcus Aurelius equestrian 3d.jpg}}]] |
|||
Germanic tribes and other peoples launched many raids along the long north European border, particularly into Gaul and across the Danube — Germans, in turn, may have been under attack from more warlike tribes farther east. His campaigns against them are commemorated on the Column of Marcus Aurelius. In Asia, a revitalized Parthian Empire renewed its assault. Marcus Aurelius sent his joint emperor Verus to command the legions in the East to face it. He was authoritative enough to command the full loyalty of the troops, but already powerful enough that he had little incentive to overthrow Marcus. The plan succeeded — Verus remained loyal until his death on campaign in 169. |
|||
The period of the "Five Good Emperors" was brought to an end by the reign of [[Commodus]] from 180 to 192. Commodus was the son of Marcus Aurelius, making him the first direct successor in a century, breaking the scheme of adoptive successors that had turned out so well. He was co-emperor with his father from 177. When he became sole emperor upon the death of his father in 180, it was at first seen as a hopeful sign by the people of the Roman Empire. Nevertheless, as generous and magnanimous as his father was, Commodus turned out to be just the opposite. In [[The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]] by [[Edward Gibbon]], it is noted that Commodus at first ruled the empire well. However, after an assassination attempt, involving a conspiracy by certain members of his family, Commodus became paranoid and slipped into insanity. The [[Pax Romana]], or "Roman Peace", ended with the reign of Commodus. One could argue that the assassination attempt began the long decline of the Roman Empire. |
|||
==Severan Dynasty (193–235)== |
|||
[[Image:Rome rulez.jpg|thumb|150px|Reconstruction of the centre of Rome during the reign of Septimius Severus, showing the Colosseum and the area to the south of it]] |
|||
[[Image:Caracalla.jpg|thumb|150px|Caracalla {{3d alt|Caracalla 3d.jpg }}]] |
|||
The [[Severan dynasty]] includes the increasingly troubled reigns of [[Septimius Severus]] (193–211), [[Caracalla]] (211–217), [[Macrinus]] (217–218), [[Elagabalus]] (218–222), and [[Alexander Severus]] (222–235). The founder of the dynasty, Lucius Septimius Severus, belonged to a leading native family of [[Leptis Magna]] in [[Africa]] who allied himself with a prominent Syrian family by his marriage to [[Julia Domna]]. Their provincial background and cosmopolitan alliance, eventually giving rise to imperial rulers of Syrian background, Elagabalus and Alexander Severus, testifies to the broad political franchise and economic development of the Roman empire that had been achieved under the [[Antonines]]. A generally successful ruler, Septimius Severus cultivated the [[Roman army|army's]] support with substantial remuneration in return for total loyalty to the emperor and substituted equestrian officers for senators in key administrative positions. In this way, he successfully broadened the power base of the imperial administration throughout the empire, also by abolishing the regular standing jury courts of [[Roman Republic|Republican]] times. |
|||
Septimius Severus's son, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus — nicknamed [[Caracalla]] — removed all legal and political distinction between Italians and provincials, enacting the ''[[Constitutio Antoniniana]]'' in 212 which extended full Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the empire. Caracalla was also responsible for erecting the famous [[Baths of Caracalla]] in [[Rome]], their design serving as an architectural model for many subsequent monumental public buildings. Increasingly unstable and autocratic, Caracalla was assassinated by the [[Praetorian Guard|praetorian prefect]] [[Macrinus]] in 217, who succeeded him briefly as the first emperor not of senatorial rank. The imperial court, however, was dominated by formidable women who arranged the succession of [[Elagabalus]] in 218, and [[Alexander Severus]], the last of the dynasty, in 222. In the last phase of the Severan principate, the power of the Senate was somewhat revived and a number of fiscal reforms were enacted. Despite early successes against the [[Sassanian Empire]] in the East, Alexander Severus's increasing inability to control the army led eventually to its mutiny and his assassination in 235. The death of Alexander Severus ushered in a subsequent period of soldier-emperors and almost a half-century of civil war and strife. |
|||
==Crisis of the Third Century (235–284)== |
|||
The [[Crisis of the Third Century]] is a commonly applied name for the crumbling and near collapse of the Roman Empire between 235 and 284. It is also called the period of the "military anarchy." |
|||
After [[Augustus]] declared an end to the Civil Wars of the 1st century BC, the Empire had enjoyed a period of limited external invasion, internal peace and economic prosperity (the [[Pax Romana]]). In the [[3rd century]], however, the Empire underwent military, political and economic crises and almost collapsed. There was constant barbarian invasion, civil war, and runaway [[hyperinflation]]. Part of the problem had its origins in the nature of the Augustan settlement. Augustus, intending to downplay his position, had not established rules for the [[succession]] of emperors. Already in the 1st and 2nd century disputes about the succession had led to short civil wars, but in the 3rd century these civil wars became a constant factor, as no single candidate succeeded in quickly overcoming his opponents or holding on to the Imperial position for very long. Between 235 and 284 no fewer than 25 different emperors ruled Rome (the "Soldier-Emperors"). All but two of these emperors were either murdered or killed in battle. The organisation of the Roman military, concentrated on the borders, could provide no remedy against foreign invasions once the invaders had broken through. A decline in citizens' participation in local administration forced the Emperors to step in, gradually increasing the central government's responsibility. |
|||
This period ended with the accession of [[Diocletian]]. Diocletian, either by skill or sheer luck, solved many of the acute problems experienced during this crisis. However, the core problems would remain and cause the eventual destruction of the western empire. The transitions of this period mark the beginnings of [[Late Antiquity]] and the end of Classical Antiquity. |
|||
==Tetrarchy (285–324) and Constantine I (324–337)== |
|||
[[Image:The-tetrarchs.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''The Tetrarchs'', a [[porphyry (geology)|porphyry]] [[sculpture]] sacked from a [[Byzantine architecture|Byzantine]] palace in 1204, Treasury of [[Mark the Evangelist|St Mark's]], [[Venice]] {{3d alt|Details in 3d.jpg}}]] |
|||
The transition from a single united empire to the later divided Western and Eastern empires was a gradual transformation. In July 285, [[Diocletian]] defeated rival Emperor [[Carinus]] and briefly became sole emperor of the Roman Empire. |
|||
Diocletian saw that the vast Roman Empire was ungovernable by a single emperor in the face of internal pressures and military threats on two fronts. He therefore split the Empire in half along a north-west axis just east of Italy, and created two equal Emperors to rule under the title of [[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]]. Diocletian was Augustus of the eastern half, and gave his long-time friend [[Maximian]] the title of Augustus in the western half. In doing so, Diocletian created what would become the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. The western empire would collapse less than 200 years later, and the eastern empire would become the Byzantine Empire, centered in the Greek city of [[Byzantium]], which would later be renamed [[Constantinople]] by the emperor [[Constantine I]], and would survive another one thousand years. |
|||
In 293 authority was further divided, as each Augustus took a junior Emperor called Caesar to aid him in administrative matters, and to provide a line of succession; [[Galerius]] became Caesar under Diocletian and [[Constantius Chlorus]] Caesar under Maximian. This constituted what is called the [[Tetrarchy]] (in [[Greek language|Greek]]: the leadership of four) by modern scholars. After Rome had been plagued by bloody disputes about the supreme authority, this finally formalized a peaceful succession of the emperor: in each half the Caesar rose up to replace the Augustus and proclaimed a new Caesar. On [[May 1]] [[305]], Diocletian and Maximian abdicated in favor of their Caesars. Galerius named the two new Caesars: his nephew [[Maximinus]] for himself and [[Flavius Valerius Severus]] for Constantius. The arrangement worked well under Diocletian and Maximian and shortly thereafter. The internal tensions within the Roman government were less acute than they had been. In ''[[The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'', [[Edward Gibbon]] notes that this arrangement worked well because of the affinity the four rulers had for each other. Gibbon says that this arrangement has been compared to a "chorus of music." With the withdrawal of Diocletian and Maximian, this harmony disappeared. |
|||
The Tetrarchy would effectively collapse with the death of Constantius Chlorus on [[July 25]] [[306]]. Constantius's troops in [[Eboracum]] immediately proclaimed his son [[Constantine I|Constantine]] an Augustus. In August 306, Galerius promoted Severus to the position of Augustus. A revolt in [[Rome]] supported another claimant to the same title: [[Maxentius]], son of Maximian, who was proclaimed Augustus on [[October 28]], 306. His election was supported by the [[Praetorian Guard]]. This left the Empire with five rulers: four Augusti (Galerius, Constantine, Severus and Maxentius) and a Caesar (Maximinus). |
|||
The year 307 saw the return of Maximian to the role of Augustus alongside his son Maxentius, creating a total of six rulers of the Empire. Galerius and Severus campaigned against them in Italy. Severus was killed under command of Maxentius on [[September 16]] [[307]]. The two Augusti of Italy also managed to ally themselves with Constantine by having Constantine marry [[Fausta]], the daughter of Maximian and sister of Maxentius. At the end of 307, the Empire had four Augusti (Maximian, Galerius, Constantine and Maxentius) and a sole Caesar. |
|||
==After Constantine (337–395)== |
|||
===Sons of Constantine (337–361)=== |
|||
[[Image:Map of Imperial Rome by William R Shepherd (died 1934).jpg|thumb|right|300px|A map of Rome in 350]] |
|||
The Empire was parted again among his three surviving sons. The [[Western Roman Empire]] was divided among the eldest son [[Constantine II (emperor)|Constantine II]] and the youngest son [[Constans]]. The [[Eastern Roman Empire]] along with Constantinople were the share of middle son [[Constantius II]]. |
|||
Constantine II was killed in conflict with his youngest brother in 340. Constans was himself killed in conflict with the army-proclaimed Augustus [[Magnentius]] on [[January 18]] [[350]]. Magnentius was at first opposed in the city of Rome by self-proclaimed Augustus [[Nepotianus]], a paternal first cousin of Constans. Nepotianus was killed alongside his mother [[Eutropia]]. His other first cousin Constantia convinced [[Vetriano]] to proclaim himself Caesar in opposition to Magnentius. Vetriano served a brief term from [[March 1]] to [[December 25]] [[350]]. He was then forced to abdicate by the legitimate Augustus Constantius. The [[List of Roman usurpers|usurper]] Magnentius would continue to rule the Western Roman Empire until 353 while in conflict with Constantius. His eventual defeat and [[suicide]] left Constantius as sole Emperor. |
|||
Constantius's rule would however be opposed again in 360. He had named his paternal half-cousin and brother-in-law [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]] as his Caesar of the Western Roman Empire in 355. During the following five years, Julian had a series of victories against invading [[Germanic tribes]], including the [[Alamanni]]. This allowed him to secure the [[Rhine]] frontier. His victorious [[Gallic]] troops thus ceased campaigning. Constantius sent orders for the troops to be transferred to the east as reinforcements for his own currently unsuccessful campaign against [[Shapur II]] of Persia. This order led the Gallic troops to an [[insurrection]]. They proclaimed their commanding officer Julian to be an Augustus. Both Augusti were not ready to lead their troops to another [[Roman Civil War]]. Constantius's timely demise on [[November 3]], [[361]] prevented this war from ever occurring. |
|||
====Julian and Jovian (361–364)==== |
|||
[[Julian the Apostate|Julian]] would serve as the sole Emperor for two years. He had received his [[baptism]] as a [[Christian]] years before, but apparently no longer considered himself one. His reign would see the ending of restriction and persecution of paganism introduced by his uncle and father-in-law Constantine I and his cousins and brothers-in-law Constantine II, Constans and Constantius II. He instead placed similar restrictions and unofficial persecution of [[Christianity]]. His [[edict]] of toleration in 362 ordered the reopening of pagan [[Temple (Roman)|temples]] and the reinstitution of alienated temple properties, and, more problematically for the [[Christian Church]], the recalling of previously [[exile]]d Christian [[bishop]]s. Returning [[Orthodox]] and [[Arianism|Arian]] bishops resumed their conflicts, thus further weakening the Church as a whole. |
|||
Julian himself was not a traditional pagan. His personal beliefs were largely influenced by [[Neoplatonism]] and [[Theurgy]]; he reputedly believed he was the [[reincarnation]] of [[Alexander the Great]]. He produced works of [[philosophy]] arguing his beliefs. His brief renaissance of paganism would, however, end with his death. Julian eventually resumed the war against [[Shapur II]] of Persia. He received a mortal wound in battle and died on [[June 26]], [[363]]. According to Gibbon in ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', upon being mortally wounded by a dart, he was carried back to his camp. He gave a farewell speech, in which he refused to name a successor. He then proceeded to debate the philosophical nature of the soul with his generals. He then requested a glass of water, and shortly after drinking it, died. He was considered a [[hero]] by pagan sources of his time and a [[villain]] by Christian ones. Gibbon wrote quite favorably about Julian. Contemporary historians have treated him as a controversial figure. |
|||
Julian died childless and with no designated successor. The officers of his army elected the rather obscure officer [[Jovian]] emperor. He is remembered for signing an unfavorable [[peace treaty]] with [[Persian Empire|Persia]], ceding terrorities won from the Persians, dating back to [[Trajan]]. He restored the privileges of Christianity. He is considered a Christian himself, though little is known of his beliefs. Jovian himself died on [[February 17]] [[364]]. |
|||
==Valentinian dynasty (364–392)== |
|||
{{main|Valentinian Dynasty}} |
|||
The role of choosing a new Augustus fell again to army officers. On [[February 28]] [[364]], [[Pannonia]]n officer [[Valentinian I]] was elected Augustus in [[Nicaea]], [[Bithynia]]. However, the army had been left leaderless twice in less than a year, and the officers demanded Valentinian to choose a co-ruler. On [[March 28]] Valentinian chose his own younger brother [[Valens]] and the two new Augusti parted the Empire in the pattern established by Diocletian: Valentinian would administer the Western Roman Empire, while Valens took control over the Eastern Roman Empire. |
|||
Valens's election would soon be disputed. [[Procopius (usurper)|Procopius]], a [[Cilicia]]n maternal cousin of Julian, had been considered a likely heir to his cousin but was never designated as such. He had been in hiding since the election of Jovian. In 365, while Valentinian was at Paris and then at Rheims to direct the operations of his generals against the [[Alamanni]], Procopius managed to [[bribery|bribe]] two [[Roman legion|legions]] assigned to [[Constantinople]] and take control of the Eastern Roman capital. He was proclaimed Augustus on [[September 28]] and soon extended his control to both [[Thrace]] and Bithynia. War between the two rival Eastern Roman Emperors continued until Procopius was defeated. Valens had him executed on [[May 27]], [[366]]. |
|||
On [[August 4]] [[367]], a 3rd Augustus was proclaimed by the other two. His father Valentinian and uncle Valens chose the 8 year-old [[Gratian]] as a nominal co-ruler, obviously as a means to secure succession. |
|||
In April 375 Valentinian I led his army in a campaign against the [[Quadi]], a [[Germanic tribes|Germanic tribe]] which had invaded his native province of Pannonia. During an audience to an [[Diplomatic mission|embassy]] from the Quadi at [[Brigetio]] on the [[Danube]], a town now part of modern-day [[Komárom]], [[Hungary]], Valentinian suffered a burst [[blood vessel]] in the [[skull]] while [[Anger|angrily]] yelling at the people gathered. This injury resulted in his death on [[November 17]] [[375]]. |
|||
Succession did not go as planned. Gratian was then a [[adolescence|16 year-old]] and arguably ready to act as Emperor, but the troops in Pannonia proclaimed his [[infant]] [[half-brother]] emperor under the title [[Valentinian II]]. |
|||
Gratian acquiesced in their choice and administrated the Gallic part of the Western Roman Empire. Italy, [[Illyria]] and Africa were officially administrated by his brother and his step-mother [[Justina (empress)|Justina]]. However the division was merely nominal as the actual authority still rested with Gratian. |
|||
====Battle of Adrianople (378)==== |
|||
{{main|Battle of Adrianople}} |
|||
[[Image:Invasions of the Roman Empire 1.png|thumb|400px|right|[[Barbarian#A_functional_definition|Barbarian]] invasions of the Roman Empire, showing the Battle of Adrianople.]] |
|||
Meanwhile, the Eastern Roman Empire faced its own problems with Germanic tribes. The [[Visigoths]], an [[East Germanic tribe]], fled their former lands following an invasion by the [[Huns]]. Their leaders [[Alavius]] and [[Fritigern]] led them to seek refuge from the Eastern Roman Empire. Valens indeed let them settle as [[foederati]] on the southern bank of the Danube in 376. However, the newcomers faced problems from allegedly [[Political corruption|corrupted]] provincial commanders and a series of hardships. Their dissatisfaction led them to revolt against their Roman hosts. |
|||
For the following two years conflicts continued. Valens personally led a campaign against them in 378. Gratian provided his uncle with reinforcements from the Western Roman army. However this campaign proved disastrous for the Romans. The two armies approached each other near [[Adrianople]]. Valens was apparently overconfident of his numerical superiority of his own forces over the Goths. Some of his officers advised caution and to await to arrival of Gratian, others urged for an immediate attack and eventually prevailed over Valens, eager to have all of the glory for himself rushed into battle. On [[August 9]] [[378]], the [[Battle of Adrianople]] resulted in the crushing defeat of the Romans and the death of Valens. Contemporary historian [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] estimated that two thirds of the Roman army were lost in the battle. The last third managed to retreat. |
|||
The battle had far reaching consequences. [[Veteran]] [[soldier]]s and valuable administrators were among the heavy casualties. There were few available replacements at the time, leaving the Empire with problems of finding suitable [[leadership]]. The Roman army would also start facing recruiting problems. In the following century much of the Roman army would consist of Germanic mercenaries. |
|||
For the moment however there was another concern. The death of Valens left Gratian and Valentinian II as the sole two Augusti. Gratian was now effectively responsible for the whole of the Empire. He sought however a replacement Augustus for the Eastern Roman Empire. His choice was [[Theodosius I]], son of formerly distinguished general [[Count Theodosius]]. The elder Theodosius had been executed in early 375 for unclear reasons. The younger one was named Augustus of the Eastern Roman Empire on [[January 19]] [[379]]. His appointment would prove a deciding moment in the division of the Empire. |
|||
====Disturbed peace in the West (383)==== |
|||
Gratian governed the Western Roman Empire with energy and success for some years, but he gradually sank into indolence. He is considered to have become a [[figurehead]] while [[Franks|Frankish]] general [[Merobaudes]] and bishop [[Ambrose]] of [[Milan]] jointly acted as the [[power behind the throne]]. Gratian lost favor with factions of the [[Roman Senate]] by prohibiting traditional paganism at Rome and relinquishing his title of [[Pontifex Maximus]]. The senior Augustus also became unpopular to his own Roman troops because of his close association with so-called [[barbarian]]s. He reportedly recruited [[Alans]] to his personal service and adopted the guise of a [[Scythia]]n [[warrior]] for public appearances. |
|||
Meanwhile Gratian, Valentinian II and Theodosius were joined by a fourth Augustus. Theodosius proclaimed his oldest son [[Arcadius]] to be an Augustus in January, 383 in an obvious attempt to secure succession. The boy was only still five or six years old and held no actual authority. Nevertheless he was recognized as a co-ruler by all three Augusti. |
|||
The increasing unpopularity of Gratian would cause the four Augusti problems later that same year. [[Spanish people|Spanish]] [[Celt]] general [[Magnus Maximus]], stationed in [[Roman Britain]], was proclaimed Augustus by his troops in 383 and rebelling against Gratian he invaded [[Gaul]]. Gratian fled from [[Lutetia]] ([[Paris]]) to [[Lugdunum]] ([[Lyon]]), where he was assassinated on [[August 25]] [[383]] at the age of twenty-five. |
|||
Maximus was a firm believer of the [[Nicene Creed]] and introduced state persecution on charges of [[heresy]], which brought him in conflict with [[Pope Siricius]] who argued that the Augustus had no authority over church matters. But he was an Emperor with popular support and his reputation survived in [[Romano-British]] tradition and gained him a place in the ''[[Mabinogion]]'', compiled about a thousand years after his death. |
|||
Following Gratian's death, Maximus had to deal with Valentinian II, actually only 12 years old, as the senior Augustus. The first few years the [[Alps]] would serve as the borders between the respective territories of the two rival Western Roman Emperors. Maximus controlled Britain, Gaul, [[Hispania]] and Africa. He chose Augusta Treverorum ([[Trier]]) as his capital. |
|||
Maximus soon entered negotiations with Valentinian II and Theodosius, attempting to gain their official recognition. By 384, negotiations were unfruitful and Maximus tried to press the matter by settling succession as only a legitimate Emperor could do: proclaiming his own infant son [[Flavius Victor]] an Augustus. The end of the year found the Empire having five Augusti (Valentinian II, Theodosius I, Arcadius, Magnus Maximus and Flavius Victor) with relations between them yet to be determined. |
|||
Theodosius was left a widower, in 385, following the sudden death of [[Aelia Flaccilla]], his ''Augusta''. He was remarried to the sister of Valentinean II, Galla, and the marriage secured closer relations between the two legitimate Augusti. |
|||
In 386 Maximus and Victor finally received official recognition by Theodosius but not by Valentinian. In 387, Maximus apparently decided to rid himself of his Italian rival. He crossed the Alps into the valley of the [[Po]] and threatened [[Milan]]. Valentinian and his mother fled to [[Thessaloniki]] from where they sought the support of Theodosius. Theodosius indeed campaigned west in 388 and was victorious against Maximus. Maximus himself was captured and executed in [[Aquileia]] on [[July 28]] [[388]]. [[Magister militum]] [[Arbogastes]] was sent to Trier with orders to also kill Flavius Victor. Theodosius restored Valentinian to power and through his influence had him converted to Orthodox Catholicism. Theodosius continued supporting Valentinian and protecting him from a variety of usurpations. |
|||
==Theodosian dynasty (392–395)== |
|||
[[Image:Theodosius I's empire.png|right|thumb|250px|The division of the empire after the death of Theodosius I, ''c.'' 395 superimposed on modern borders. {{legend|#B53637|Western Roman Empire}} {{legend|#8F36B5|Eastern Roman Empire}}]] |
|||
{{main|Theodosian dynasty}} |
|||
In 392 Valentinian was murdered in [[Vienne]]. Theodosius succeeded him, ruling the entire Roman Empire. |
|||
Theodosius had two sons and a daughter, Pulcheria, from his first wife, [[Aelia Flacilla]]. His daughter and wife died in 385. By his second wife, Galla, he had a daughter, [[Galla Placidia]], the mother of [[Valentinian III]], who would be Emperor of the West. |
|||
Theodosius was the last Emperor who ruled over the whole Empire. After his death in 395 he gave the two halves of the Empire to his two sons [[Arcadius]] and [[Honorius]]; Arcadius became ruler in the East, with his capital in [[Constantinople]], and Honorius became ruler in the west, with his capital in Milan and later Ravenna. Though the Roman state would continue to have two emperors, the Eastern Romans considered themselves Roman in full. Latin was used in official writings as much as, if not more than, Greek. The two halves were nominally, culturally and historically, if not politically, the same state. |
|||
==Fall of the Western Roman Empire (395–476)== |
|||
{{main|Decline of the Roman Empire}} |
|||
The year [[476]] is generally accepted as the [[Decline of the Roman Empire|end of the Western Roman Empire]]. Before this, in June 474, [[Julius Nepos]] became Western Emperor. The Master of Soldiers [[Orestes (Roman soldier)|Orestes]] revolted and put his son [[Romulus Augustus]] on the throne and Nepos fled back to his princedom in [[Dalmatia]] in August 475. Romulus however, was not recognized by the Eastern Emperor [[Zeno]] and so was technically an usurper, Nepos still being the legal Western Emperor. |
|||
The Germanic [[Heruli]], under their chieftain [[Odoacer]], were refused land by Orestes, whom they killed. They then deposed Romulus Augustus in August 476. Odoacer then sent the Imperial Regalia back to the emperor Zeno, and the Roman [[Senate]] informed Zeno that he was now the Emperor of the whole empire. Zeno soon received two deputations. One was from Odoacer requesting that his control of Italy be formally recognized by the Empire, in which he would acknowledge Zeno's supremacy. The other deputation was from Nepos, asking for support to regain the throne. Zeno granted Odoacer the title [[Patrician]]. |
|||
Odoacer and the Roman Senate were told to take Nepos back. However, Nepos never returned from Dalmatia, even though Odoacer issued coins in his name. Upon Nepos' death in 480, Odoacer annexed Dalmatia to his kingdom. |
|||
[[Image:Ostrogothic Kingdom.png|left|thumb|200px|Map of Ostrogothic Kingdom]] |
|||
The next seven decades played out as aftermath. [[Theodoric the Great]] as King of the Ostrogoths, couched his legitimacy in diplomatic terms as being the representative of the Emperor of the East. Consuls were appointed regularly through his reign: a formula for the consular appointment is provided in Cassiodorus's Book VI. The post of consul was last filled in the west by Theodoric's successor, Athalaric, until he died in 534. Ironically the [[Gothic War (535–552)|Gothic War]] in Italy, which was meant as the reconquest of a lost province for the Emperor of the East and a re-establishment of the continuity of power, actually caused more damage and cut more ties of continuity with the Antique world than the attempts of Theodoric and his minister [[Cassiodorus]] to meld Roman and Gothic culture within a Roman form. |
|||
In essence, the "fall" of the Roman Empire to a contemporary depended a great deal on where they were and their status in the world. On the great [[villa]]s of the Italian Campagna, the seasons rolled on without a hitch. The local overseer may have been representing an Ostrogoth, then a [[Lombard]] duke, then a Christian bishop, but the rhythm of life and the horizons of the imagined world remained the same. Even in the decayed cities of Italy ''consuls'' were still elected. In Auvergne, at Clermont, the Gallo-Roman poet and diplomat [[Sidonius Apollinaris]], bishop of Clermont, realized that the local "fall of Rome" came in 475, with the fall of the city to the Visigoth [[Euric]]. In the north of Gaul, a Roman kingdom existed for some years and the Franks had their links to the Roman administration and military as well. In Hispania the last Arian Visigothic king [[Liuvigild]] considered himself the heir of Rome. [[Hispania Baetica]] was still essentially Roman when the Moors came in 711, but in the northwest, the invasion of the [[Suevi]] broke the last frail links with Roman culture in 409. In Aquitania and Provence, cities like [[Arles]] were not abandoned, but Roman culture in Britain collapsed in waves of violence after the last legions evacuated: the final legionary probably left Britain in 409. |
|||
==Eastern Roman Empire (395–1453)== |
|||
{{main|Byzantine Empire}} |
|||
As the west would decline during the 5th century, the richer east would be spared much of the destruction, and in the 6th century the Eastern Empire under the emperor [[Justinian I]] reconquered the [[Italy|Italian]] peninsula from the [[Ostrogoths]], North Africa from the [[Vandals]] (their kingdom collapsing in [[533]]), southern [[Spain]], and a narrow tract of the [[Illyrian]] coast. These gains were lost during subsequent reigns. Of the many accepted dates for the end of the Roman state, the latest is 610. This is when the Emperor [[Heraclius]] made sweeping reforms, forever changing the face of the empire. Greek was readopted as the language of government and Latin influence waned. By 610, the Classical Roman Empire had fallen into the rule of the Greeks and evolved into what modern historians now call the [[Middle Age]] [[Byzantine Empire]], although the Empire was never called that way by its contemporaries (rather it was called Romania or Basileia Romaion). The Byzantines continued to call themselves Romans until their fall to [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]] in 1453. That year the Roman Empire was ultimately ended by the [[Fall of Constantinople]]. [[Constantine XI]], emperor of the Byzantine Empire during 1453 is considered the last Roman emperor. The Greek ethnic self-descriptive name "Romans" survives to this day. |
|||
==Legacy== |
|||
Several states claiming to be the Roman Empire's successor arose after the fall of the Western Empire. First it was the Byzantine Empire, its direct political heir. Then the [[Holy Roman Empire]], an attempt to resurrect the Empire in the West, was established in 800 when [[Pope Leo III]] crowned [[Charlemagne]] as [[Roman Emperor]] on [[Christmas Day]], though the empire and the imperial office did not become formalized for some decades. After the fall of [[Constantinople]], the [[Muscovy|Russian Tsardom]], as inheritor of the Byzantine Empire's [[Orthodox Christian]] tradition, counted itself as the third Rome (with Constantinople being the second). And when the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]s, who based their state around the Byzantine model, took Constantinople in 1453, [[Mehmed II]] established his capital there and claimed to sit on the throne of the Roman Empire, and he even went so far as to launch an invasion of Italy with the purpose of "re-uniting the Empire", although [[Papal States|Papal]] and [[Neapolitan]] armies stopped his march on Rome at [[Otranto]] in 1480. Constantinople was not officially renamed to [[Istanbul]] until [[March 28]], [[1930]]. |
|||
But excluding these states claiming their heritage, the Roman state lasted (in some form) from the founding of Rome in 753 BC to the fall in 1461 of the [[Empire of Trebizond]] (a successor state and fragment of the Byzantine Empire which escaped conquest by the Ottomans in 1453), for a total of 2214 years. The Roman impact on Western and Eastern civilizations lives on. In time most of the Roman achievements have been duplicated by later civilizations. For example, the technology for [[cement]] was rediscovered 1755–1759 by [[John Smeaton]]. |
|||
The Empire contributed many things to the world, such as the (more-or-less) modern calendar, the institutions of [[Christianity]] and aspects of modern [[Neoclassical architecture|neo-classicistic]] [[architecture]]. The extensive system of roads, which were constructed by the [[Roman Army]], still last to this day. Because of this network of roads, the amount of time necessary to travel between destinations in [[Europe]] did not decrease until the 19th century after the invention of steam power. |
|||
The Roman Empire also contributed its form of government, which influences various constitutions including those of most European countries, and that of the [[United States]], whose framers remarked, in creating the [[Presidency]], that they wanted to inaugurate an "Augustan Age." The modern world also inherited legal thinking from the Roman law, codified in [[Late Antiquity]]. Governing a vast territory, the Romans developed the science of [[public administration]] to an extent never before conceived nor necessary, creating an extensive civil service and formalized methods of tax collection. The [[western world]] today derives its intellectual history from the [[Greeks]], but it derives its methods of living, ruling and governing from those of the Romans. |
|||
==See also== |
|||
*[[List of topics related to ancient Rome]] |
|||
*[[Sino-Roman relations]] |
|||
*[[List of monarchies]] |
|||
*[[Borders of the Roman Empire]] |
|||
===Emperors=== |
|||
{{Epochs of Roman Emperors}} |
|||
====Roman provinces==== |
|||
{{Roman provinces 120 AD}} |
|||
===Ancient historians of the Empire=== |
|||
In Latin: |
|||
*[[Livy]], wrote about the history of the [[Roman Republic]], but during [[Augustus]]' reign |
|||
*[[Lives of the Twelve Caesars|Suetonius]] |
|||
*[[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus]] |
|||
*[[Ammianus Marcellinus]] |
|||
In Greek: |
|||
*[[Eusebius of Caesarea]] |
|||
*[[Sozomen]] |
|||
===Latin literature of the Empire=== |
|||
*[[Apuleius]] |
|||
*[[Augustine of Hippo]] |
|||
*[[Horace]] |
|||
*[[Satires of Juvenal|Juvenal]] |
|||
*[[Martial]] |
|||
*[[Ovid]] |
|||
*[[Petronius Arbiter]] |
|||
*[[Virgil]] |
|||
==References== |
|||
===Notes=== |
|||
<div class="references-small"><references/></div> |
|||
===18th and 19th century historians=== |
|||
<div class="references-small"> |
|||
* [[Edward Gibbon]], ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'', (1776–1788) |
|||
</div> |
|||
===Modern historians=== |
|||
<div class="references-small"> |
|||
* [[John Bagnell Bury]], ''A History of the Roman Empire from its Foundation to the death of Marcus Aurelius'', 1913 |
|||
* J. A. Crook, ''Law and Life of Rome, 90 BC–AD 212'', 1967, ISBN 0-8014-9273-4 |
|||
* [[Suzanne Dixon]], ''The Roman Family'', 1992, ISBN 0-8018-4200-X |
|||
* [[Donald R. Dudley]], ''The Civilization of Rome'', 2nd ed., 1985, ISBN 0-452-01016-0 |
|||
* A.H.M. Jones, ''The Later Roman Empire, 284–602'', 1964, ISBN 0-8018-3285-3 |
|||
* [[Andrew Lintott]], ''Imperium Romanum: Politics and administration'', 1993, ISBN 0-415-09375-9 |
|||
* [[Ramsay Macmullen]], ''Roman Social Relations, 50 BC to AD 284'', 1981, ISBN 0-300-02702-8 |
|||
* [[Michael Rostovtzeff]], ''The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire'' 2nd ed., 1957 |
|||
* [[Ronald Syme]], ''[[The Roman Revolution]]'', 1939, ISBN 0-19-280320-4 |
|||
* Colin Wells, ''The Roman Empire'', 2nd ed., 1992, ISBN 0-00-686252-7 |
|||
</div> |
|||
==External links== |
|||
{{commons|Category:Romans|Roman Empire}} |
|||
*[http://www.resourcesforhistory.com/map.htm Interactive Map of the Roman Empire] from resourcesforhistory.com |
|||
*[http://www.romancoins.info/Tabula-Peutingeriana.html The ''Tabula Peutingeriana''], a Medieval copy of a Roman map of the Roman Empire |
|||
* [http://www.classicsunveiled.com/romeh/ Rome Unleashed—Roman History Link] |
|||
*[http://www.roman-empire.net www.roman-empire.net] An extensive site on the Roman Empire. |
|||
*Grout, James, [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/index.html''Encyclopaedia Romana''] |
|||
*[http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jod/wola.html J. O'Donnell, Worlds of Late Antiquity website:] links, bibliographies: [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]], [[Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius|Boethius]], [[Cassiodorus]] etc. |
|||
*[http://www.livius.org/ei-er/emperors/emperors01.html Portrait gallery of Roman emperors] |
|||
*[http://www.euratlas.com/big/big0100.htm Complete map of the Roman Empire in year 100] |
|||
*[http://www.pbs.org/empires/romans/index.html The Roman Empire in the First Century] from PBS. Resources about Emperors, poets and philosophers of Rome, life in the 1st Century AD, and an "Emperor of Rome" game |
|||
*[http://rome.rndnet.org Rulers of ancient Rome] a list of rulers in the Roman world from 753 BC–476 AD |
|||
*[http://www.weymouth-pictures.co.uk/dor/dor/rth/pic_townhouse.htm Durnovaria town house pictures] |
|||
*[http://www.oraschewski.de/praetorianer/index.htm Prätorianer—Die Geschichte des römischen Reiches] German website about the history of the Roman empire |
|||
*[http://web.upmf-grenoble.fr/Haiti/Cours/Ak The Roman Law Library] By Professor Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev |
|||
*[http://www.roman-glory.com Roman Glory] Military site |
|||
*[http://www.wikitimescale.org/en/wiki/Imperium_Romanum Timeline of the Roman Empire and its split] on WikiTimeScale.org |
|||
{{Roman history epochs}} |
|||
[[Category:Former countries in Europe]] |
|||
[[Category:Former countries in Asia]] |
|||
[[Category:Former countries in Africa]] |
|||
[[Category:Former countries on the Italian Peninsula]] |
|||
[[Category:Former countries in the Balkans]] |
|||
[[Category:Roman Empire|*]] |
|||
[[Category:31 BC establishments]] |
|||
{{Link FA|no}} |
|||
{{Link FA|pt}} |
|||
{{Link FA|fi}} |
|||
{{Link FA|zh}} |
|||
[[als:Römisches Reich]] |
|||
[[ar:إمبراطورية رومانية]] |
|||
[[bn:রোমান সাম্রাজ্য]] |
|||
[[zh-min-nan:Roma Tè-kok]] |
|||
[[be:Рымская імперыя]] |
|||
[[bg:Римска империя]] |
|||
[[ca:Imperi romà]] |
|||
[[cs:Římská říše]] |
|||
[[cy:Yr Ymerodraeth Rufeinig]] |
|||
[[da:Romerriget]] |
|||
[[de:Römische Kaiserzeit]] |
|||
[[el:Ρωμαϊκή Αυτοκρατορία]] |
|||
[[es:Imperio Romano]] |
|||
[[eo:Romia imperio]] |
|||
[[eu:Erromatar Inperioa]] |
|||
[[fr:Empire romain]] |
|||
[[fy:Romeinen]] |
|||
[[ko:로마 제국]] |
|||
[[hr:Rimsko Carstvo]] |
|||
[[id:Kekaisaran Romawi]] |
|||
[[is:Rómverska keisaradæmið]] |
|||
[[it:Impero romano]] |
|||
[[he:האימפריה הרומית]] |
|||
[[jv:Kakaisaran Romawi]] |
|||
[[ka:რომის იმპერია]] |
|||
[[kw:Emperoureth Romanek]] |
|||
[[la:Imperium Romanum]] |
|||
[[lv:Romas impērija]] |
|||
[[lb:Réimescht Räich]] |
|||
[[lt:Romos imperija]] |
|||
[[hu:Római Birodalom]] |
|||
[[mk:Римска Империја]] |
|||
[[fj:Na Matanitu ki Roma]] |
|||
[[nl:Romeinse Rijk]] |
|||
[[ja:ローマ帝国]] |
|||
[[no:Romerriket]] |
|||
[[nds:Römsche Riek]] |
|||
[[pl:Cesarstwo rzymskie]] |
|||
[[pt:Império Romano]] |
|||
[[ro:Imperiul Roman]] |
|||
[[ru:Римская Империя]] |
|||
[[sm:Le Malo o Roma]] |
|||
[[sq:Perandoria Romake]] |
|||
[[simple:Roman Empire]] |
|||
[[sk:Staroveký Rím]] |
|||
[[sl:Rimski imperij]] |
|||
[[sr:Римско Царство]] |
|||
[[fi:Rooman valtakunta]] |
|||
[[sv:Romerska riket]] |
|||
[[zh:羅馬帝國]] |
|||