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===Inner speech===

Our thoughts often occur as the inner speech of our natural language. Inner speech is used for such things as rehearsing facts, having a mental conversation with oneself, and counting, among many others.<ref name=Larsen>Larsen, S. F., Schrauf, R. W., Fromholt, P., & Rubin, D. C. (2002). Inner speech and bilingual autobiographical memory: A polish-danish cross-cultural study. ''Memory, 10''(1), 45-54. {{doi|10.1080/09658210143000218}}</ref> Being fluent in more than one language can affect inner speech in multiple ways. Studies have revealed that fluent bilinguals use their natural language to mentally represent exact numbers, however, non-numerical facts are retrieved in either language with equal ease.<ref>Carruthers, P. (2002). The cognitive functions of language. ''Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 25''(6), 657-74; discussion 674-725. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/212317857</ref> Bilingual individuals report feeling and acting different when in different linguistic mindsets and are capable of switching between them for the strategic purpose of activating different (context/language-dependent) information.<ref>Schrauf, R. W. (2002). Bilingual inner speech as the medium of cross-modular retrieval in autobiographical memory.''Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 25''(6), 698-699. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/212295845</ref> As perceived language proficiency in a second languages increases, the use of that second language for inner speech becomes more habitual.<ref name=Larsen /> As well, it has been reported that bilinguals who suffer from psychosis experience hallucinations or reduced linguistic competence in only one language.<ref>Henser, S. (2002). Relativistic implications of a natural-language-based format for thought. ''Behavioral and Brain Sciences,2''5(6), 688-689. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/212296538</ref>

==Bilingual semantic memory==
[[Semantic memory]] is a term coined by [[Tulving]] and is closely related to episodic memory, it is a kind of mental dictionary containing all the attributes of event-free knowledge.<ref name=Macleod /> It relates to general facts about the world (e.g., the sky is blue, 2+2=4)<ref name= Schrauf /> and it has no concern with time or space.<ref name= Kormi-Nouri /> Semantic memory does not require conscious thought, as it generally is automatic; it is not bound, except as interest links themes. It has been suggested that retrieval cues for semantic data are themselves semantic.<ref name="Murray"/>

Recent studies have shown that knowing a second language extends semantic memory and other cognitive capabilities<ref name= Kormi-Nouri /> as they recruit different cognitive operations. It is shown to increase the normal capacity and expose the person to new situations and different ways of organizing thoughts. They learn to incorporate different concepts, and language specific inputs.<ref name= Kormi-NouriR /> The finding of a positive bilinguality effect for semantic memory provides support for the role of organization in bilinguality.<ref name= Kormi-Nouri /> [[Bilingualism]] and [[monolingualism]] semantic memory is often tested using word fluency tests, to gauge whether and how well these individuals organize their thoughts. These tests have indicated that the type of material is not necessarily of importance but rather the mental activity is more important. It is also found that the bilingualism effect can be observed more under automatic processing than under deliberate processing.<ref name= Kormi-Nouri />

There are two predominant models of bilingual memory, the Hierarchical Model and the Concept features model. The Hierarchical Model assumes three linked components: a first language lexicon, a second language lexicon, and a conceptual store containing semantic referents.<ref name= Schrauf /> Links between words in the first language lexicon and their meanings in the underlying conceptual store would be strong for bilinguals. For newer bilinguals links running from the second language lexicon to the conceptual store would be relatively weak, if present at all, the links from the second language lexicon to the first language lexicon would be the strong ones. So the bilingual would translate the word from the second language into the first language and from there access the conceptual store (Cheval to horse to basic idea of a horse vs. cheval to basic idea of a horse). Fluent bilinguals have stronger and more direct links to the conceptual store form both languages. In the Concept Features Model, when words have highly prototypical, concrete referents (desk, juice) the translations in both languages would activate the same set of underlying semantic nodes. In more conceptual and abstract referents (poverty, intelligence) translation equivalents activate different but overlapping sets of semantic nodes.<ref name= Schrauf />

In bilingual memory as Colin M. MacLeod<ref name=Macleod /> found the two translated words (e.g., Horse and Cheval) are not stored as synonyms, they share the same supralinguistic semantic representation in memory (a supralinguistic concept is an abstraction of meaning more primitive than the word itself, it cannot be defined). It is stored in a kind of tag on a language free semantic representation of the world, where the input language is stored as a semantic trace.

In general a positive effect of bilingualism in semantic memory is more pronounced for older than for younger children.<ref name= Kormi-NouriR /> Since bilingual children engage in extensive practice of two languages at an early age, they become better at paying attention to parts of information and at inhibiting other parts. Overall they have better recall and recognition in letter fluency especially when older and more educated, but the more similarity between their two languages lessens the advantage, as when they are very close there is more overlap of information.

===Bilingual mental lexicon===
{{see also|Bilingual Lexicon|l1=Bilingual lexicon}}
[[Mental lexicon]] refers to the permanent store of words in an individual's memory, and is thought to be organized in a [[semantic network]].<ref name =Wang>Wang, H., & Hou, Y. (2011). Research into the mental lexicon representation of Chinese English learners based on spreading activation model. ''Studies in Language and Literature, 2''(1), 68-80.</ref> This network is related to the [[spreading activation]] model purposed by Collins and Loftus, as one word (node) is activated, words that are semantically and lexically related will also be activated.<ref name= Swanson /><ref name =Wang /> [[File:Semantic Features Model Mental Lexicon.png|thumb|alt=mental lexicon|Mental Lexicon Model]] Evidence has been found to support the view that a bilingual individual has the same conceptual system for both of their languages.<ref name =Dong>Dong, Y., Gui, S., & Macwhinney, B. (2005). Shared and separate meanings in the bilingual mental lexicon. ''Bilingualism, 8''(3), 221-238.</ref> Dong, Gui, and Macwhinney have demonstrated the convergence of a new language into a preexisting mental lexicon in their article "Shared and Separate Meanings in the Bilingual Mental Lexicon".<ref name =Dong /> When a person first learns a second language, the language has its own conceptual system and is heavily reliant on the first language to gain understanding and meaning of the new words.<ref name =Dong /> For example, a Spanish learner is learning the word "gato", and will refer back to their original language (ex. English) to translate it into "cat" to gain meaning, relation, and contextual information surrounding that word. However, the more advanced an individual becomes in acquiring a certain language, the two conceptual systems will eventual converge into one, where one language influences the other and vice versa.<ref name =Dong />

===Tip of the tongue in bilinguals===

It has been found that Bilinguals are more susceptible to the [[tip of the tongue]], in cases where the [[phonology]] of a word is different in both languages. For example, when recalling a word such as "hair" in English, there is more [[Language transfer|interference]] from the French word "cheveux", because they sound and are spelled differently. However, when a word is phonologically similar in both languages, bilinguals produce less errors than individuals who are monolingual. For example, the word "chocolate" is similar to the translated word in French, which is "chocolat". Overall, bilinguals experience the tip of the tongue phenomenon more than individuals who are monolingual. This is confirmed by the evidence that bilinguals are less able to recall words, or initiate representations of words that are different in each language.<ref>Gollan, T. H., & Acenas, L. R. (2004). What is a TOT? Cognate and translation effects on Tip-of-the-Tongue states in spanish–english and tagalog–english bilinguals. ''Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition'', 30 (1), 246 –269. {{DOI|10.1037/0278-7393.30.1.246}}</ref>

Revision as of 21:03, 6 November 2019

Inner speech

Our thoughts often occur as the inner speech of our natural language. Inner speech is used for such things as rehearsing facts, having a mental conversation with oneself, and counting, among many others.[1] Being fluent in more than one language can affect inner speech in multiple ways. Studies have revealed that fluent bilinguals use their natural language to mentally represent exact numbers, however, non-numerical facts are retrieved in either language with equal ease.[2] Bilingual individuals report feeling and acting different when in different linguistic mindsets and are capable of switching between them for the strategic purpose of activating different (context/language-dependent) information.[3] As perceived language proficiency in a second languages increases, the use of that second language for inner speech becomes more habitual.[1] As well, it has been reported that bilinguals who suffer from psychosis experience hallucinations or reduced linguistic competence in only one language.[4]

Bilingual semantic memory

Semantic memory is a term coined by Tulving and is closely related to episodic memory, it is a kind of mental dictionary containing all the attributes of event-free knowledge.[5] It relates to general facts about the world (e.g., the sky is blue, 2+2=4)[6] and it has no concern with time or space.[7] Semantic memory does not require conscious thought, as it generally is automatic; it is not bound, except as interest links themes. It has been suggested that retrieval cues for semantic data are themselves semantic.[8]

Recent studies have shown that knowing a second language extends semantic memory and other cognitive capabilities[7] as they recruit different cognitive operations. It is shown to increase the normal capacity and expose the person to new situations and different ways of organizing thoughts. They learn to incorporate different concepts, and language specific inputs.[9] The finding of a positive bilinguality effect for semantic memory provides support for the role of organization in bilinguality.[7] Bilingualism and monolingualism semantic memory is often tested using word fluency tests, to gauge whether and how well these individuals organize their thoughts. These tests have indicated that the type of material is not necessarily of importance but rather the mental activity is more important. It is also found that the bilingualism effect can be observed more under automatic processing than under deliberate processing.[7]

There are two predominant models of bilingual memory, the Hierarchical Model and the Concept features model. The Hierarchical Model assumes three linked components: a first language lexicon, a second language lexicon, and a conceptual store containing semantic referents.[6] Links between words in the first language lexicon and their meanings in the underlying conceptual store would be strong for bilinguals. For newer bilinguals links running from the second language lexicon to the conceptual store would be relatively weak, if present at all, the links from the second language lexicon to the first language lexicon would be the strong ones. So the bilingual would translate the word from the second language into the first language and from there access the conceptual store (Cheval to horse to basic idea of a horse vs. cheval to basic idea of a horse). Fluent bilinguals have stronger and more direct links to the conceptual store form both languages. In the Concept Features Model, when words have highly prototypical, concrete referents (desk, juice) the translations in both languages would activate the same set of underlying semantic nodes. In more conceptual and abstract referents (poverty, intelligence) translation equivalents activate different but overlapping sets of semantic nodes.[6]

In bilingual memory as Colin M. MacLeod[5] found the two translated words (e.g., Horse and Cheval) are not stored as synonyms, they share the same supralinguistic semantic representation in memory (a supralinguistic concept is an abstraction of meaning more primitive than the word itself, it cannot be defined). It is stored in a kind of tag on a language free semantic representation of the world, where the input language is stored as a semantic trace.

In general a positive effect of bilingualism in semantic memory is more pronounced for older than for younger children.[9] Since bilingual children engage in extensive practice of two languages at an early age, they become better at paying attention to parts of information and at inhibiting other parts. Overall they have better recall and recognition in letter fluency especially when older and more educated, but the more similarity between their two languages lessens the advantage, as when they are very close there is more overlap of information.

Bilingual mental lexicon

See also: Bilingual lexicon

Mental lexicon refers to the permanent store of words in an individual's memory, and is thought to be organized in a semantic network.[10] This network is related to the spreading activation model purposed by Collins and Loftus, as one word (node) is activated, words that are semantically and lexically related will also be activated.[11][10]

mental lexicon
Mental Lexicon Model

Evidence has been found to support the view that a bilingual individual has the same conceptual system for both of their languages.[12] Dong, Gui, and Macwhinney have demonstrated the convergence of a new language into a preexisting mental lexicon in their article "Shared and Separate Meanings in the Bilingual Mental Lexicon".[12] When a person first learns a second language, the language has its own conceptual system and is heavily reliant on the first language to gain understanding and meaning of the new words.[12] For example, a Spanish learner is learning the word "gato", and will refer back to their original language (ex. English) to translate it into "cat" to gain meaning, relation, and contextual information surrounding that word. However, the more advanced an individual becomes in acquiring a certain language, the two conceptual systems will eventual converge into one, where one language influences the other and vice versa.[12]

Tip of the tongue in bilinguals

It has been found that Bilinguals are more susceptible to the tip of the tongue, in cases where the phonology of a word is different in both languages. For example, when recalling a word such as "hair" in English, there is more interference from the French word "cheveux", because they sound and are spelled differently. However, when a word is phonologically similar in both languages, bilinguals produce less errors than individuals who are monolingual. For example, the word "chocolate" is similar to the translated word in French, which is "chocolat". Overall, bilinguals experience the tip of the tongue phenomenon more than individuals who are monolingual. This is confirmed by the evidence that bilinguals are less able to recall words, or initiate representations of words that are different in each language.[13]

  1. ^ a b Larsen, S. F., Schrauf, R. W., Fromholt, P., & Rubin, D. C. (2002). Inner speech and bilingual autobiographical memory: A polish-danish cross-cultural study. Memory, 10(1), 45-54. doi:10.1080/09658210143000218
  2. ^ Carruthers, P. (2002). The cognitive functions of language. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 25(6), 657-74; discussion 674-725. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/212317857
  3. ^ Schrauf, R. W. (2002). Bilingual inner speech as the medium of cross-modular retrieval in autobiographical memory.Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 25(6), 698-699. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/212295845
  4. ^ Henser, S. (2002). Relativistic implications of a natural-language-based format for thought. Behavioral and Brain Sciences,25(6), 688-689. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/212296538
  5. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Macleod was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  6. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference Schrauf was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  7. ^ a b c d Cite error: The named reference Kormi-Nouri was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  8. ^ Cite error: The named reference Murray was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  9. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Kormi-NouriR was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  10. ^ a b Wang, H., & Hou, Y. (2011). Research into the mental lexicon representation of Chinese English learners based on spreading activation model. Studies in Language and Literature, 2(1), 68-80.
  11. ^ Cite error: The named reference Swanson was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  12. ^ a b c d Dong, Y., Gui, S., & Macwhinney, B. (2005). Shared and separate meanings in the bilingual mental lexicon. Bilingualism, 8(3), 221-238.
  13. ^ Gollan, T. H., & Acenas, L. R. (2004). What is a TOT? Cognate and translation effects on Tip-of-the-Tongue states in spanish–english and tagalog–english bilinguals. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30 (1), 246 –269. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.30.1.246
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