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In [[linguistics]], a '''broken plural''' (or internal plural) is an irregular plural form of a noun or adjective found in the [[Semitic languages]] and other [[Afroasiatic languages]] such as [[Berber languages|Berber]]. Broken plurals are formed by changing the pattern of consonants and vowels inside the singular form. They contrast with '''sound plurals''' (or external plurals), which are formed by adding a [[suffix]], but are also formally distinct from phenomena like the [[Germanic umlaut]], a form of vowel mutation used in plural forms in Germanic languages.
In [[linguistics]], a '''broken plural''' (or internal plural) is an irregular plural form of a noun or adjective found in the [[Semitic languages]] and other [[Afroasiatic languages]] such as [[Berber languages|Berber]]. Broken plurals are formed by changing the pattern of consonants and vowels inside the singular form. They contrast with '''sound plurals''' (or external plurals), which are formed by adding a [[suffix]], but are also formally distinct from phenomena like the [[Germanic umlaut]], a form of vowel mutation used in plural forms in Germanic languages.


There have been a variety of theoretical approaches to understanding these processes and varied attempts to produce systems or rules that can systematize these plural forms.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ratcliffe|first=Robert R.|title=The "Broken" Plural Problem in Arabic and Comparative Semitic|series=Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 168|date=1998|publisher=John Benjamins|place=Amsterdam/Philadelphia|isbn=978-9027236739}}</ref> However, the question of the origin of the broken plurals for the languages that exhibit them is not settled, though there are certain probabilities in distributions of specific plural forms in relation to specific singular patterns. As the conversions outgo by far the extent of mutations caused by the [[Germanic umlaut]] that is evidenced to be caused by inflectional suffixes, the sheer manifoldness of shapes corresponds to multiplex attempts at historical explanation ranging from proposals of [[transphonologization]]s and multiple accentual changes to switches between the categories of collectives, abstracta and plurals or noun class switches.<ref>An overview of the theories is given by {{cite book|last=Ratcliffe|first=Robert R.|title=The "Broken" Plural Problem in Arabic and Comparative Semitic|series=Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 168|date=1998|publisher=John Benjamins|place=Amsterdam/Philadelphia|isbn=978-9027236739|pages=117 seqq}}</ref>
There have been a variety of theoretical approaches to understanding these processes and varied attempts to produce systems or rules that can systematize these plural forms.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ratcliffe|first=Robert R.|title=The "Broken" Plural Problem in Arabic and Comparative Semitic|series=Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 168|date=1998|publisher=John Benjamins|place=Amsterdam/Philadelphia|isbn=978-9027236739}}</ref> However, the question of the origin of the broken plurals for the languages that exhibit them is not settled, though there are certain probabilities in distributions of specific plural forms in relation to specific singular patterns. As the conversions outgo by far the extent of mutations caused by the [[Germanic umlaut]] that is evidenced to be caused by inflectional suffixes, the sheer multiplicity of shapes corresponds to multiplex attempts at historical explanation ranging from proposals of [[transphonologization]]s and multiple accentual changes to switches between the categories of collectives, abstracta and plurals or [[noun class]] switches.<ref>An overview of the theories is given by {{cite book|last=Ratcliffe|first=Robert R.|title=The "Broken" Plural Problem in Arabic and Comparative Semitic|series=Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 168|date=1998|publisher=John Benjamins|place=Amsterdam/Philadelphia|isbn=978-9027236739|pages=117 seqq}}</ref>


==Arabic==
==Arabic==
While the phenomenon is known from several Semitic languages, nowhere has it become as productive as in [[Arabic language|Arabic]].
While the phenomenon is known from several Semitic languages, it is most productive in [[Arabic language|Arabic]].


In [[Arabic language|Arabic]], the regular way of making a plural for a masculine noun is adding the suffix ''{{transl|ar|-ūn[a]}}'' (for the nominative) or ''{{transl|ar|-īn[a]}}'' (for the accusative and genitive) at the end. For feminine nouns, the regular way is to add the suffix ''{{transl|ar|-āt}}''. However, not all plurals follow these simple rules. One class of nouns in both spoken and written Arabic produce plurals by changing the pattern of vowels inside the word, sometimes also with the addition of a prefix or suffix. This system is not fully regular, and it is used mainly for masculine non-human nouns; human nouns are pluralized regularly or irregularly.
In [[Arabic language|Arabic]], the regular way of making a plural for a masculine noun is adding the suffix {{transl|ar|-ūn[a]}} (for the nominative) or {{transl|ar|-īn[a]}} (for the accusative and genitive) at the end. For feminine nouns, the regular way is to add the suffix {{transl|ar|-āt}}. However, not all plurals follow these simple rules. One class of nouns in both spoken and written Arabic produce plurals by changing the pattern of vowels inside the word, sometimes also with the addition of a prefix or suffix. This system is not fully regular, and it is used mainly for masculine non-human nouns; human nouns are pluralized regularly or irregularly.


Broken plurals are known as ''{{transl|ar|ALA|jam‘ taksīr}}'' ({{lang|ar|جَمْعُ تَكْسِيرٍ}}, literally "plural of breaking") in [[Arabic grammar]]. These plurals constitute one of the most unusual aspects of the language, given the very strong and highly detailed grammar and derivation rules that govern the written language. Broken plurals can also be found in languages that have borrowed words from Arabic, for instance [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Pashto language|Pashto]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]], and [[Urdu language|Urdu]]. Sometimes in these languages the same noun has both a broken plural Arabic form and a local plural. E.g. in Pashto the word for "purpose" ({{lang|ps|مطلب}}) ''{{transl|ps|matlab}}'' can be pluralised in either its Arabic form {{lang|ps|مطالب}} ''{{transl|ps|matālib}}'' for more formal, High Pashto, or the plural {{lang|ps|مطلبونه}} ''{{transl|ps|matlabūna}}'' in everyday speech. (Cf. the treatment of Latin words in English; e.g. the plural of ''index'' is either ''indices'' or ''indexes'', the latter being more informal.)
Broken plurals are known as {{transl|ar|ALA|jam‘ taksīr}} ({{lang|ar|جَمْعُ تَكْسِيرٍ}}, literally "plural of breaking") in [[Arabic grammar]]. These plurals constitute one of the most unusual aspects of the language, given the very strong and highly detailed grammar and derivation rules that govern the written language. Broken plurals can also be found in languages that have borrowed words from Arabic, for instance [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Pashto language|Pashto]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]], and [[Urdu language|Urdu]]. Sometimes in these languages the same noun has both a broken plural Arabic form and a local plural. E.g. in Pashto the word for "purpose" ({{lang|ps|مطلب}}) {{transl|ps|matlab}} can be pluralised in either its Arabic form {{lang|ps|مطالب}} {{transl|ps|matālib}} for more formal, High Pashto, or the plural {{lang|ps|مطلبونه}} {{transl|ps|matlabūna}} in everyday speech. (Cf. the treatment of Latin words in English; e.g. the plural of ''index'' is either ''indices'' or ''indexes'', the latter being more informal.)


In Persian this kind of plural is known by its Arabic term ''jam'-e mokkassar'' ({{lang|fa|جَمِع مُکَسَر}}, literally "broken plural"). However the Persian Academy of Literature (Farhangestan) does not recommend the usage of such Arabic plural forms, but instead the native Persian plural suffix "-ha".
In Persian this kind of plural is known by its Arabic term {{transl|fa|jam'-e mokassar}} ({{lang|fa|جَمِع مُکَسَّر}}, literally "broken plural"). However the Persian Academy of Literature (Farhangestan) does not recommend the usage of such Arabic plural forms, but instead the native Persian plural suffix {{transl|fa|-hā}}.


Full knowledge of these plurals can come only with extended exposure to the Arabic language, though a few rules can be noted. One study computed the probability that the pattern of vowels in the singular would predict the pattern in the broken plural (or vice versa) and found values ranging from 20% to 100% for different patterns.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ratcliffe|first=Robert R.|title=The "Broken" Plural Problem in Arabic and Comparative Semitic|series=Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 168|date=1998|publisher=John Benjamins|place=Amsterdam/Philadelphia|isbn=978-9027236739|pages=72–79}}</ref>
Full knowledge of these plurals can come only with extended exposure to the Arabic language, though a few rules can be noted. One study computed the probability that the pattern of vowels in the singular would predict the pattern in the broken plural (or vice versa) and found values ranging from 20% to 100% for different patterns.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ratcliffe|first=Robert R.|title=The "Broken" Plural Problem in Arabic and Comparative Semitic|series=Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 168|date=1998|publisher=John Benjamins|place=Amsterdam/Philadelphia|isbn=978-9027236739|pages=72–79}}</ref>
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Here are a few examples; note that the commonality is in the root consonants (capitalized), not the vowels.
Here are a few examples; note that the commonality is in the root consonants (capitalized), not the vowels.


*''{{transl|ar|KiTāB}}'' {{lang|ar|كِتَاب}} "book" → ''{{transl|ar|KuTuB}}'' {{lang|ar|كُتُب}} "books"
*{{transl|ar|KiTāB}} {{lang|ar|كِتَاب}} "book" → {{transl|ar|KuTuB}} {{lang|ar|كُتُب}} "books"
*''{{transl|ar|KāTiB}}'' {{lang|ar|كَاتِب}} "writer, scribe" → ''{{transl|ar|KuTTāB}}'' {{lang|ar|كُتَّاب}} “writers, scribes"
*{{transl|ar|KāTiB}} {{lang|ar|كَاتِب}} "writer, scribe" → {{transl|ar|KuTTāB}} {{lang|ar|كُتَّاب}} “writers, scribes"
*''{{transl|ar|maKTūB}}'' {{lang|ar|مَكْتُوب}} "letter" → ''{{transl|ar|maKāTīB}}'' {{lang|ar|مَكَاتِيب}} "letters"
*{{transl|ar|maKTūB}} {{lang|ar|مَكْتُوب}} "letter" → {{transl|ar|maKāTīB}} {{lang|ar|مَكَاتِيب}} "letters"
*''{{transl|ar|maKTa}}B'' {{lang|ar|مَكْتَب}} "desk, office" → ''{{transl|ar|maKāTiB}}'' {{lang|ar|مَكَاتِب}} "offices"
*{{transl|ar|maKTaB}} {{lang|ar|مَكْتَب}} "desk, office" → {{transl|ar|maKāTiB}} {{lang|ar|مَكَاتِب}} "offices"
:note: these four words all have a common root, ''K-T-B'' {{wikt-lang|ar|ك ت ب|ك – ت – ب}} "to write"
:note: these four words all have a common root, ''K-T-B'' {{wikt-lang|ar|ك ت ب|ك – ت – ب}} "to write"


In the non-semitic Persian language it is current to use:
In the non-semitic Persian language it is current to use:


*''{{transl|ar|KiTāB}}'' {{lang|ar|كِتَاب}} "book" → ''{{transl|fa|KiTāBha}}'' "books"
* {{transl|fa|KiTāB}} {{lang|fa|کِتَاب‌}} "book" → {{transl|fa|KiTāBhā}} ({{lang|fa|کِتَاب‌ْهَا}}) "books"
*''{{transl|ar|KāTiB}}'' {{lang|ar|كَاتِب}} "writer, scribe" → ''{{transl|ar|KāTiBha}}'' "writers, scribes"
* {{transl|fa|KāTiB}} {{lang|fa|كَاتِبْ‌}} "writer, scribe" → {{transl|ar|KāTiBhā}} ({{lang|fa|كَاتِبْ‌هَا}} "writers, scribes"


===Patterns in Arabic===
===Patterns in Arabic===
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| CiCāC
| CiCāC
|rowspan=3| CuCuC
|rowspan=3| CuCuC
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:كتاب|كِتَاب]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|كِتَاب}}
| ''{{transl|ar|'''k'''i'''t'''ā'''b'''}}'' (book)
| {{transl|ar|'''k'''i'''t'''ā'''b'''}} (book)
| {{lang|ar|كُتُب}}
| {{lang|ar|كُتُب}}
| ''{{transl|ar|'''k'''u'''t'''u'''b'''}}'' (books)
| {{transl|ar|'''k'''u'''t'''u'''b'''}} (books)
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
| CaCīCah
| CaCīCah
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:سفينة|سَفِينَة]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|سَفِينَة}}
| ''{{transl|ar|'''s'''a'''f'''ī'''n'''ah}}'' (ship)
| {{transl|ar|'''s'''a'''f'''ī'''n'''ah}} (ship)
| {{lang|ar|سُفُن}}
| {{lang|ar|سُفُن}}
| ''{{transl|ar|'''s'''u'''f'''u'''n'''}}'' (ships)
| {{transl|ar|'''s'''u'''f'''u'''n'''}} (ships)
| ''{{transl|ar|[[wikt:جزيرة|juzur]]}}'' (islands),<br />''{{transl|ar|[[wikt:مدينة|mudun]]}}'' (cities)
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:جزيرة|juzur]]}} (islands),<br />{{transl|ar|[[wikt:مدينة|mudun]]}} (cities)
|
|
|-
|-
| CaCīC
| CaCīC
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:سبيل|سَبِيل]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|سَبِيل}}
| ''{{transl|ar|'''s'''a'''b'''ī'''l'''}}'' (path)
| {{transl|ar|'''s'''a'''b'''ī'''l'''}} (path)
| {{lang|ar|سُبُل}}
| {{lang|ar|سُبُل}}
| ''{{transl|ar|'''s'''u'''b'''u'''l'''}}'' (paths)
| {{transl|ar|'''s'''u'''b'''u'''l'''}} (paths)
| ''{{transl|ar|[[wikt:طريق|turuq]]}}'' (paths)
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:طريق|turuq]]}} (paths)
|
|
|-
|-
| CuCCah
| CuCCah
|rowspan=2| CuCaC
|rowspan=2| CuCaC
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:غرفة|غُرْفَة]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|غُرْفَة}}
| ''{{transl|ar|ġurfah}}'' (room)
| {{transl|ar|ġurfah}} (room)
| {{lang|ar|غُرَف}}
| {{lang|ar|غُرَف}}
| ''{{transl|ar|ġuraf}}'' (rooms)
| {{transl|ar|ġuraf}} (rooms)
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
| CaCCah
| CaCCah
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:شقة|شَقَّة]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|شَقَّة}}
| ''{{transl|ar|'''š'''a'''qq'''ah}}'' (apartment)
| {{transl|ar|'''š'''a'''qq'''ah}} (apartment)
| {{lang|ar|شُقَق}}
| {{lang|ar|شُقَق}}
| ''{{transl|ar|'''š'''u'''q'''a'''q'''}}'' (apartments)
| {{transl|ar|'''š'''u'''q'''a'''q'''}} (apartments)
|
|
|
|
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| CiCCah
| CiCCah
| CiCaC
| CiCaC
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:قطة|قِطّة]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|قِطّة}}
| ''{{transl|ar|'''q'''i'''ṭṭ'''ah}}'' (cat)
| {{transl|ar|'''q'''i'''ṭṭ'''ah}} (cat)
| {{lang|ar|قِطَط}}
| {{lang|ar|قِطَط}}
| ''{{transl|ar|'''q'''i'''ṭ'''a'''ṭ'''}}'' (cats)
| {{transl|ar|'''q'''i'''ṭ'''a'''ṭ'''}} (cats)
|
|
|
|
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| CiCC
| CiCC
| CiCaCah
| CiCaCah
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:هر|هِرّ]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|هِرّ}}
| ''{{transl|ar|'''h'''i'''rr'''}}'' (cat)
| {{transl|ar|'''h'''i'''rr'''}} (cat)
| {{lang|ar|هِرَرَة}}
| {{lang|ar|هِرَرَة}}
| ''{{transl|ar|'''h'''i'''r'''a'''r'''ah}}'' (cats)
| {{transl|ar|'''h'''i'''r'''a'''r'''ah}} (cats)
| ''{{transl|ar|[[wikt:فيل|fiyalah]]}}'' (elephants)<br />''{{transl|ar|[[wikt:قرد|qiradah]]}}'' (apes)
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:فيل|fiyalah]]}} (elephants)<br />{{transl|ar|[[wikt:قرد|qiradah]]}} (apes)
|
|
|-
|-
|rowspan=3 | CvCC
|rowspan=3 | CvCC
|rowspan=3 | CuCūC
|rowspan=3 | CuCūC
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:قلب|قَلْب]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|قَلْب}}
| ''{{transl|ar|'''q'''a'''lb'''}}'' (heart)
| {{transl|ar|'''q'''a'''lb'''}} (heart)
| {{lang|ar|قُلُوب}}
| {{lang|ar|قُلُوب}}
| ''{{transl|ar|'''q'''u'''l'''ū'''b'''}}'' (hearts)
| {{transl|ar|'''q'''u'''l'''ū'''b'''}} (hearts)
| ''{{transl|ar|[[wikt:فن|funūn]]}}'' (arts), ''{{transl|ar|[[wikt:بيت|buyūt]]}}'' (houses)<br />''{{transl|ar|[[wikt:جد|judūd]]}}'' (grandfathers)
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:فن|funūn]]}} (arts), {{transl|ar|[[wikt:بيت|buyūt]]}} (houses)<br />{{transl|ar|[[wikt:جد|judūd]]}} (grandfathers)
|
|
|-
|-
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:علم|عِلْم]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|عِلْم}}
| ''{{transl|ar|'''ʿ'''i'''lm'''}}'' (science)
| {{transl|ar|'''ʿ'''i'''lm'''}} (science)
| {{lang|ar|عُلُوم}}
| {{lang|ar|عُلُوم}}
| ''{{transl|ar|'''ʿ'''u'''l'''ū'''m'''}}'' (sciences)
| {{transl|ar|'''ʿ'''u'''l'''ū'''m'''}} (sciences)
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:جحر|جُحْر]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|جُحْر}}
| ''{{transl|ar|'''j'''u'''ḥr'''}}'' (hole)
| {{transl|ar|'''j'''u'''ḥr'''}} (hole)
| {{lang|ar|جُحُور}}
| {{lang|ar|جُحُور}}
| ''{{transl|ar|'''j'''u'''ḥ'''ū'''r'''}}'' (holes)
| {{transl|ar|'''j'''u'''ḥ'''ū'''r'''}} (holes)
|
|
|
|
Line 129: Line 129:
|rowspan=3| CvCC
|rowspan=3| CvCC
|rowspan=5| CiCāC
|rowspan=5| CiCāC
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:كلب|كَلْب]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|كَلْب}}
| ''{{transl|ar|kalb}}'' (dog)
| {{transl|ar|kalb}} (dog)
| {{lang|ar|كِلَاب}}
| {{lang|ar|كِلَاب}}
| ''{{transl|ar|kilāb}}'' (dogs)
| {{transl|ar|kilāb}} (dogs)
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:ظل|ظِلّ]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|ظِلّ}}
| ''{{transl|ar|ẓill}}'' (shadow)
| {{transl|ar|ẓill}} (shadow)
| {{lang|ar|ظِلَال}}
| {{lang|ar|ظِلَال}}
| ''{{transl|ar|ẓilāl}}'' (shadows)
| {{transl|ar|ẓilāl}} (shadows)
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:رمح|رُمْح]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|رُمْح}}
| ''{{transl|ar|rumḥ}}'' (spear)
| {{transl|ar|rumḥ}} (spear)
| {{lang|ar|رِمَاح}}
| {{lang|ar|رِمَاح}}
| ''{{transl|ar|rimāḥ}}'' (spears)
| {{transl|ar|rimāḥ}} (spears)
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
| CaCaC
| CaCaC
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:جمل|جَمَل]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|جَمَل}}
| ''{{transl|ar|jamal}}'' (camel)
| {{transl|ar|jamal}} (camel)
| {{lang|ar|جِمَال}}
| {{lang|ar|جِمَال}}
| ''{{transl|ar|jimāl}}'' (camels)
| {{transl|ar|jimāl}} (camels)
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
| CaCuC
| CaCuC
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:رجل|رَجُل]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|رَجُل}}
| ''{{transl|ar|rajul}}'' (man)
| {{transl|ar|rajul}} (man)
| {{lang|ar|رِجَال}}
| {{lang|ar|رِجَال}}
| ''{{transl|ar|rijāl}}'' (men)
| {{transl|ar|rijāl}} (men)
|
|
|
|
Line 168: Line 168:
|rowspan=3| CvCC
|rowspan=3| CvCC
|rowspan=5| ʾaCCāC
|rowspan=5| ʾaCCāC
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:يوم|يَوْم]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|يَوْم}}
| ''{{transl|ar|yawm}}'' (day)
| {{transl|ar|yawm}} (day)
| {{lang|ar|أَيَّام}}
| {{lang|ar|أَيَّام}}
| ''{{transl|ar|ʾayyām}}'' (days)
| {{transl|ar|ʾayyām}} (days)
| ''{{transl|ar|[[wikt:رب|ʾarbāb]]}}'' (masters)<br/>''{{transl|ar|[[wikt:جد|ʾajdād]]}}'' (grandfathers)
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:رب|ʾarbāb]]}} (masters)<br/>{{transl|ar|[[wikt:جد|ʾajdād]]}} (grandfathers)
|
|
|-
|-
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:حلم|حِلْم]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|حِلْم}}
| ''{{transl|ar|ḥilm}}'' (prudence)
| {{transl|ar|ḥilm}} (patience)
| {{lang|ar|أَحْلَام}}
| {{lang|ar|أَحْلَام}}
| ''{{transl|ar|ʾaḥlām}}'' (meaning minds)
| {{transl|ar|ʾaḥlām}} (patineces)
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:ربع|رُبْع]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|لغز|لُغْز}}
| ''{{transl|ar|rubʿ}}'' (quarter)
| {{transl|ar|luḡz}} (mystery)
| {{lang|ar|أَرْبَاع}}
| {{lang|ar|أَلْغَاز|rtl=yes}}
| ''{{transl|ar|ʾarbāʿ}}'' (quarters)
| {{transl|ar|ʾalḡaz}} (mysteries)
| ''{{transl|ar|[[wikt:عمق|ʾaʿmaq]]}}'' (deeps)
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:عمق|ʾaʿmaq]]}} (deeps)
|
|
|-
|-
| CaCaC
| CaCaC
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:سبب|سَبَب]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|سَبَب}}
| ''{{transl|ar|sabab}}'' (cause)
| {{transl|ar|sabab}} (cause)
| {{lang|ar|أَسْبَاب}}
| {{lang|ar|أَسْبَاب}}
| ''{{transl|ar|ʾasbāb}}'' (causes)
| {{transl|ar|ʾasbāb}} (causes)
| ''{{transl|ar|[[wikt:ولد|ʾawlād]]}}'' (boys),<br />''{{transl|ar|[[wikt:قلم|ʾaqlām]]}}'' (pens)
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:ولد|ʾawlād]]}} (boys),<br />{{transl|ar|[[wikt:قلم|ʾaqlām]]}} (pens)
|
|
|-
|-
| CaCaCah
| CuCuC
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:ورقة|وَرَقَة]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|عمر|عُمُر}}
| ''{{transl|ar|waraqah}}'' (paper)
| {{transl|ar|ʿumur}} (lifespan)
| {{lang|ar|أَوْرَاق}}
| {{lang|ar|أَعْمَار|rtl=yes}}
| ''{{transl|ar|ʾawrāq}}'' (papers)
| {{transl|ar|ʾaʿmār}} (lifespans)
| ''{{transl|ar|[[wikt:شجر|ʾašjār]]}}'' (trees)
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:ربع|ʾarbāʿ]]}} (quarters)
|
|
|-
|-
| CaCūC
| CaCūC
| ʾaCCiCah
| ʾaCCiCah
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:عمود|عَمُود]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|عَمُود}}
| ''{{transl|ar|ʿamūd}}'' (pole)
| {{transl|ar|ʿamūd}} (pole)
| {{lang|ar|أَعْمِدَة}}
| {{lang|ar|أَعْمِدَة}}
| ''{{transl|ar|ʾaʿmidah}}'' (poles)
| {{transl|ar|ʾaʿmidah}} (poles)
|
|
|Ends with ''{{transl|ar|[[Taw|taʾ marbuta]]}}''
|Ends with {{transl|ar|[[Taw|taʾ marbuta]]}}
|-
|-
| CaCīC
| CaCīC
| ʾaCCiCāʾ
| ʾaCCiCāʾ
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:صديق|صَدِيق]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|صَدِيق}}
| ''{{transl|ar|ṣadīq}}'' (friend)
| {{transl|ar|ṣadīq}} (friend)
| {{lang|ar|أَصْدِقَاء}}
| {{lang|ar|أَصْدِقَاء}}
| ''{{transl|ar|ʾaṣdiqāʾ}}'' (friends)
| {{transl|ar|ʾaṣdiqāʾ}} (friends)
|
|
|
|
Line 225: Line 225:
| CaCīC
| CaCīC
| CuCaCāʾ
| CuCaCāʾ
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:سعيد|سَعِيد]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|سَعِيد}}
| ''{{transl|ar|saʿīd}}'' (happy)
| {{transl|ar|saʿīd}} (happy)
| {{lang|ar|سُعَدَاء}}
| {{lang|ar|سُعَدَاء}}
| ''{{transl|ar|suʿadāʾ}}'' (happy)
| {{transl|ar|suʿadāʾ}} (happy)
| ''{{transl|ar|[[wikt:وزير|wuzarāʾ]]}}'' (ministers)
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:وزير|wuzarāʾ]]}} (ministers)
| mostly for adjectives and occupational nouns
| mostly for adjectives and occupational nouns
|-
|-
| CāCiC
| CāCiC
| CuCCāC
| CuCCāC
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:كاتب|كَاتِب]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|كَاتِب}}
| ''{{transl|ar|kātib}}'' (writer)
| {{transl|ar|kātib}} (writer)
| {{lang|ar|كُتَّاب}}
| {{lang|ar|كُتَّاب}}
| ''{{transl|ar|kuttāb}}'' (writers)
| {{transl|ar|kuttāb}} (writers)
| ''{{transl|ar|[[wikt:طالب|ṭullāb]]}}'' (students) <br> ''{{transl|ar|[[wikt:ساكن|sukkān]]}}'' (residents)
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:طالب|ṭullāb]]}} (students) <br> {{transl|ar|[[wikt:ساكن|sukkān]]}} (residents)
| Gemination of the second root; mostly for the active participle of Form I verbs
| Gemination of the second root; mostly for the active participle of Form I verbs
|-
|-
| CāCiCah
| CāCiCah
| CawāCiC
| CawāCiC
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:قائمة|قَائِمَة]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|قَائِمَة}}
| ''{{transl|ar|qāʾimah}}'' (list)
| {{transl|ar|qāʾimah}} (list)
| {{lang|ar|قَوَائِم}}
| {{lang|ar|قَوَائِم}}
| ''{{transl|ar|qawāʾim}}'' (lists)
| {{transl|ar|qawāʾim}} (lists)
| ''{{transl|ar|[[wikt:بارجة|bawārij]]}}'' (battleships)
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:بارجة|bawārij]]}} (battleships)
|
|
|-
|-
| CāCūC
| CāCūC
| CawāCīC
| CawāCīC
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:صاروخ|صَارُوخ]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|صَارُوخ}}
| ''{{transl|ar|ṣārūḫ}}'' (rocket)
| {{transl|ar|ṣārūḫ}} (rocket)
| {{lang|ar|صَوَارِيخ}}
| {{lang|ar|صَوَارِيخ}}
| ''{{transl|ar|ṣawārīḫ}}'' (rockets)
| {{transl|ar|ṣawārīḫ}} (rockets)
| ''{{transl|ar|[[wikt:حاسوب|ḥawāsīb]]}}'' (computers),
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:حاسوب|ḥawāsīb]]}} (computers),
''[[wikt:طاووس|ṭawāwīs]]'' (peacocks)
''[[wikt:طاووس|ṭawāwīs]]'' (peacocks)
|
|
Line 262: Line 262:
| CiCāCah
| CiCāCah
|rowspan=2| CaCāʾiC
|rowspan=2| CaCāʾiC
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:رسالة|رِسَالَة]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|رِسَالَة}}
| ''{{transl|ar|risāla}}'' (message)
| {{transl|ar|risāla}} (message)
| {{lang|ar|رَسَائِل}}
| {{lang|ar|رَسَائِل}}
| ''{{transl|ar|rasāʾil}}'' (messages)
| {{transl|ar|rasāʾil}} (messages)
| ''{{transl|ar|[[wikt:بطاقة|biṭāqah baṭāʾiq]]}}'' (cards)
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:بطاقة|biṭāqah baṭāʾiq]]}} (cards)
|
|
|-
|-
| CaCīCah
| CaCīCah
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:جزيرة|جَزِيرَة]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|جَزِيرَة}}
| ''{{transl|ar|jazīrah}}'' (island)
| {{transl|ar|jazīrah}} (island)
| {{lang|ar|جَزَائِر}}
| {{lang|ar|جَزَائِر}}
| ''{{transl|ar|jazāʾir}}'' (islands)
| {{transl|ar|jazāʾir}} (islands)
| ''{{transl|ar|[[wikt:حقيبة|haqāʾib]]}}'' (suitcases),<br />''{{transl|ar|[[wikt:دقيقة|daqāʾiq]]}}'' (minutes)
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:حقيبة|haqāʾib]]}} (suitcases),<br />{{transl|ar|[[wikt:دقيقة|daqāʾiq]]}} (minutes)
|
|
|-
|-
| CaCCaC
| CaCCaC
|rowspan=2| CaCāCiC
|rowspan=2| CaCāCiC
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:دفتر|دَفْتَر]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|دَفْتَر}}
| ''{{transl|ar|daftar}}'' (notebook)
| {{transl|ar|daftar}} (notebook)
| {{lang|ar|دَفَاتِر}}
| {{lang|ar|دَفَاتِر}}
| ''{{transl|ar|dafātir}}'' (notebooks)
| {{transl|ar|dafātir}} (notebooks)
|
|
|rowspan=2| applies to all four-literal nouns with short second vowel
|rowspan=2| applies to all four-literal nouns with short second vowel
|-
|-
| CuCCuC
| CuCCuC
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:فندق|فُنْدُق]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|فُنْدُق}}
| ''{{transl|ar|funduq}}'' (hotel)
| {{transl|ar|funduq}} (hotel)
| {{lang|ar|فَنَادِق}}
| {{lang|ar|فَنَادِق}}
| ''{{transl|ar|fanādiq}}'' (hotels)
| {{transl|ar|fanādiq}} (hotels)
|
|
|-
|-
| maCCaC
| maCCaC
|rowspan=3| maCāCiC
|rowspan=3| maCāCiC
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:ملبس|مَلْبَس]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|مَلْبَس}}
| ''{{transl|ar|malbas}}'' (apparel)
| {{transl|ar|malbas}} (apparel)
| {{lang|ar|مَلَابِس}}
| {{lang|ar|مَلَابِس}}
| ''{{transl|ar|malābis}}'' (apparels)
| {{transl|ar|malābis}} (apparels)
| ''{{transl|ar|[[wikt:مكتب|makātib]]}}'' (offices)
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:مكتب|makātib]]}} (offices)
|rowspan=3| Subcase of previous, with ''{{transl|ar|m}}'' as first literal
| rowspan="2" | Subcase of previous, with {{transl|ar|m}} as first literal
|-
|-
| maCCiC
| maCCiC
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:مسجد|مَسْجِد]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|مَسْجِد}}
| ''{{transl|ar|masjid}}'' (mosque)
| {{transl|ar|masjid}} (mosque)
| {{lang|ar|مَسَاجِد}}
| {{lang|ar|مَسَاجِد}}
| ''{{transl|ar|masājid}}'' (mosques)
| {{transl|ar|masājid}} (mosques)
| ''{{transl|ar|[[wikt:منزل|manāzil]]}}'' (houses)
| {{transl|ar|[[wikt:منزل|manāzil]]}} (houses)
|-
|-
| miCCaCah
| miCCaCah
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:منطقة|مِنْطَقَة]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|مِنْطَقَة}}
| ''{{transl|ar|minṭaqah}}'' (area)
| {{transl|ar|minṭaqah}} (area)
| {{lang|ar|مَنَاطِق}}
| {{lang|ar|مَنَاطِق}}
| ''{{transl|ar|manāṭiq}}'' (areas)
| {{transl|ar|manāṭiq}} (areas)
|
|
|
|-
|-
| CvCCv̄C
| CvCCv̄C
| CaCāCīC
| CaCāCīC
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:صندوق|صَنْدُوق]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|صَنْدُوق}}
| ''{{transl|ar|ṣandūq}}'' (box)
| {{transl|ar|ṣandūq}} (box)
| {{lang|ar|صَنَادِيق}}
| {{lang|ar|صَنَادِيق}}
| ''{{transl|ar|ṣanādīq}}'' (boxes)
| {{transl|ar|ṣanādīq}} (boxes)
|
|
| applies to all four-literal nouns with long second vowel
| applies to all four-literal nouns with long second vowel
Line 327: Line 328:
| miCCāC
| miCCāC
|rowspan=2| maCāCīC
|rowspan=2| maCāCīC
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:مفتاح|مِفْتَاح]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|مِفْتَاح}}
| ''{{transl|ar|miftāḥ}}'' (key)
| {{transl|ar|miftāḥ}} (key)
| {{lang|ar|مَفَاتِيح}}
| {{lang|ar|مَفَاتِيح}}
| ''{{transl|ar|mafātīḥ}}'' (keys)
| {{transl|ar|mafātīḥ}} (keys)
|
|
|rowspan=2| Subcase of previous, with ''{{transl|ar|m}}'' as first literal
|rowspan=2| Subcase of previous, with {{transl|ar|m}} as first literal
|-
|-
| maCCūC
| maCCūC
| {{lang|ar|[[wikt:مكتوب|مَكْتُوب]]}}
| {{wikt-lang|ar|مَكْتُوب}}
| ''{{transl|ar|maktūb}}'' (message)
| {{transl|ar|maktūb}} (message)
| {{lang|ar|مَكَاتِيب}}
| {{lang|ar|مَكَاتِيب}}
| ''{{transl|ar|makātīb}}'' (messages)
| {{transl|ar|makātīb}} (messages)
|
|
|}
|}


==Hebrew==
==Hebrew==
In [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], though all plurals must take either the sound masculine (''{{transl|he|ISO|-īm}}'' {{wikt-lang|he|־ים}}) or feminine (''{{transl|he|ISO|-ōt}}'' {{wikt-lang|he|־ות}}) plural suffixes, the historical stem alternations of the so-called [[segolate]] or consonant-cluster nouns between CVCC in the singular and CVCaC in the plural have often been compared to broken plural forms in other Semitic languages. Thus the form ''{{transl|he|ISO|malkī}}'' {{Hebrew|מַלְכִּי}} "my king" in the singular is opposed to ''{{transl|he|ISO|məlāxīm}}'' {{Hebrew|מְלָכִים}} "kings" in the plural.<ref>"Ge'ez (Axum)" by Gene Gragg in ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages'' edited by Roger D. Woodard (2004) {{ISBN|0-521-56256-2}}, p. 440.</ref>
In [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], though all plurals must take either the sound masculine ({{transl|he|ISO|-īm}} {{wikt-lang|he|־ים}}) or feminine ({{transl|he|ISO|-ōt}} {{wikt-lang|he|־ות}}) plural suffixes, the historical stem alternations of the so-called [[segolate]] or consonant-cluster nouns between CVCC in the singular and CVCaC in the plural have often been compared to broken plural forms in other Semitic languages. Thus the form {{transl|he|ISO|malkī}} {{Hebrew|מַלְכִּי}} "my king" in the singular is opposed to {{transl|he|ISO|məlāxīm}} {{Hebrew|מְלָכִים}} "kings" in the plural.<ref>"Ge'ez (Axum)" by Gene Gragg in ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages'' edited by Roger D. Woodard (2004) {{ISBN|0-521-56256-2}}, p. 440.</ref>


In addition, there are many other cases where historical sound changes have resulted in stem allomorphy between singular and plural forms in Hebrew (or between absolute state and construct state, or between forms with pronominal suffixes and unsuffixed forms etc.), though such alternations do not operate according to general templates accommodating root consonants, and so are not usually considered to be true broken plurals by linguists.<ref>“Hebrew” by [[P. Kyle McCarter Jr.]] in ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages'' edited by Roger D. Woodard (2004) {{ISBN|0-521-56256-2}}, p. 342.</ref>
In addition, there are many other cases where historical sound changes have resulted in [[Allomorph#Stem_allomorphy|stem allomorphy]] between singular and plural forms in Hebrew (or between absolute state and construct state, or between forms with pronominal suffixes and unsuffixed forms etc.), though such alternations do not operate according to general templates accommodating root consonants, and so are not usually considered to be true broken plurals by linguists.<ref>“Hebrew” by [[P. Kyle McCarter Jr.]] in ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages'' edited by Roger D. Woodard (2004) {{ISBN|0-521-56256-2}}, p. 342.</ref>


==Geʿez (Ethiopic)==
==Geʿez (Ethiopic)==
Line 361: Line 362:
==External links==
==External links==
*[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0388000113000685 ''Pattern-and-root inflectional morphology: the Arabic broken plural'']
*[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0388000113000685 ''Pattern-and-root inflectional morphology: the Arabic broken plural'']
*[http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~violetta/Manouba_2002.pdf ''The Arabic Noun System Generation'']
*[https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~violetta/Manouba_2002.pdf ''The Arabic Noun System Generation'']
*[http://www.learnarabiconline.com/arabic-plurals.shtml ''A detailed account of plurality in Arabic'']
*[http://www.learnarabiconline.com/arabic-plurals.shtml ''A detailed account of plurality in Arabic'']
*[http://www.learnarabiconline.com/broken-plurals.shtml ''On the way to an algorithm for forming broken plurals in Arabic'']
*[http://www.learnarabiconline.com/broken-plurals.shtml ''On the way to an algorithm for forming broken plurals in Arabic'']

Revision as of 15:27, 19 February 2020

In linguistics, a broken plural (or internal plural) is an irregular plural form of a noun or adjective found in the Semitic languages and other Afroasiatic languages such as Berber. Broken plurals are formed by changing the pattern of consonants and vowels inside the singular form. They contrast with sound plurals (or external plurals), which are formed by adding a suffix, but are also formally distinct from phenomena like the Germanic umlaut, a form of vowel mutation used in plural forms in Germanic languages.

There have been a variety of theoretical approaches to understanding these processes and varied attempts to produce systems or rules that can systematize these plural forms.[1] However, the question of the origin of the broken plurals for the languages that exhibit them is not settled, though there are certain probabilities in distributions of specific plural forms in relation to specific singular patterns. As the conversions outgo by far the extent of mutations caused by the Germanic umlaut that is evidenced to be caused by inflectional suffixes, the sheer multiplicity of shapes corresponds to multiplex attempts at historical explanation ranging from proposals of transphonologizations and multiple accentual changes to switches between the categories of collectives, abstracta and plurals or noun class switches.[2]

Arabic

While the phenomenon is known from several Semitic languages, it is most productive in Arabic.

In Arabic, the regular way of making a plural for a masculine noun is adding the suffix -ūn[a] (for the nominative) or -īn[a] (for the accusative and genitive) at the end. For feminine nouns, the regular way is to add the suffix -āt. However, not all plurals follow these simple rules. One class of nouns in both spoken and written Arabic produce plurals by changing the pattern of vowels inside the word, sometimes also with the addition of a prefix or suffix. This system is not fully regular, and it is used mainly for masculine non-human nouns; human nouns are pluralized regularly or irregularly.

Broken plurals are known as jam‘ taksīr (جَمْعُ تَكْسِيرٍ, literally "plural of breaking") in Arabic grammar. These plurals constitute one of the most unusual aspects of the language, given the very strong and highly detailed grammar and derivation rules that govern the written language. Broken plurals can also be found in languages that have borrowed words from Arabic, for instance Persian, Pashto, Turkish, Kurdish, Azerbaijani, and Urdu. Sometimes in these languages the same noun has both a broken plural Arabic form and a local plural. E.g. in Pashto the word for "purpose" (مطلب) matlab can be pluralised in either its Arabic form مطالب matālib for more formal, High Pashto, or the plural مطلبونه matlabūna in everyday speech. (Cf. the treatment of Latin words in English; e.g. the plural of index is either indices or indexes, the latter being more informal.)

In Persian this kind of plural is known by its Arabic term jam'-e mokassar (جَمِع مُکَسَّر, literally "broken plural"). However the Persian Academy of Literature (Farhangestan) does not recommend the usage of such Arabic plural forms, but instead the native Persian plural suffix -hā.

Full knowledge of these plurals can come only with extended exposure to the Arabic language, though a few rules can be noted. One study computed the probability that the pattern of vowels in the singular would predict the pattern in the broken plural (or vice versa) and found values ranging from 20% to 100% for different patterns.[3]

A statistical analysis of a list of the 3000 most frequent Arabic words shows that 978 (59%) of the 1670 most frequent nominal forms take a sound plural, while the remaining 692 (41%) take a broken plural.[4] Another estimate of all existing nominal forms gives over 90,000 forms with a sound plural and just 9540 with a broken one.[4] This is due to the almost boundless number of participles and derived nominals in "-ī", most of which take a sound plural.

Example

Semitic languages typically utilize triconsonantal roots, forming a "grid" into which vowels may be inserted without affecting the basic root.

Here are a few examples; note that the commonality is in the root consonants (capitalized), not the vowels.

  • KiTāB كِتَاب "book" → KuTuB كُتُب "books"
  • KāTiB كَاتِب "writer, scribe" → KuTTāB كُتَّاب “writers, scribes"
  • maKTūB مَكْتُوب "letter" → maKāTīB مَكَاتِيب "letters"
  • maKTaB مَكْتَب "desk, office" → maKāTiB مَكَاتِب "offices"
note: these four words all have a common root, K-T-B ‏ك – ت – ب‎ "to write"

In the non-semitic Persian language it is current to use:

  • KiTāB کِتَاب‌ "book" → KiTāBhā (کِتَاب‌ْهَا) "books"
  • KāTiB كَاتِبْ‌ "writer, scribe" → KāTiBhā (كَاتِبْ‌هَا "writers, scribes"

Patterns in Arabic

Singular
form 		Plural
form 		Example Transliteration Plural Transliteration Other examples Notes
CiCāC CuCuC ‏كِتَاب‎ kitāb (book) كُتُب kutub (books)
CaCīCah ‏سَفِينَة‎ safīnah (ship) سُفُن sufun (ships) [[[wikt:جزيرة|juzur]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (islands),
[[[wikt:مدينة|mudun]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (cities)
CaCīC ‏سَبِيل‎ sabīl (path) سُبُل subul (paths) [[[wikt:طريق|turuq]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (paths)
CuCCah CuCaC ‏غُرْفَة‎ ġurfah (room) غُرَف ġuraf (rooms)
CaCCah ‏شَقَّة‎ šaqqah (apartment) شُقَق šuqaq (apartments)
CiCCah CiCaC ‏قِطّة‎ qiṭṭah (cat) قِطَط qiṭaṭ (cats)
CiCC CiCaCah ‏هِرّ‎ hirr (cat) هِرَرَة hirarah (cats) [[[wikt:فيل|fiyalah]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (elephants)
[[[wikt:قرد|qiradah]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (apes)
CvCC CuCūC ‏قَلْب‎ qalb (heart) قُلُوب qulūb (hearts) [[[wikt:فن|funūn]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (arts), [[[wikt:بيت|buyūt]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (houses)
[[[wikt:جد|judūd]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (grandfathers)
‏عِلْم‎ ʿilm (science) عُلُوم ʿulūm (sciences)
‏جُحْر‎ juḥr (hole) جُحُور juḥūr (holes)
CvCC CiCāC ‏كَلْب‎ kalb (dog) كِلَاب kilāb (dogs)
‏ظِلّ‎ ẓill (shadow) ظِلَال ẓilāl (shadows)
‏رُمْح‎ rumḥ (spear) رِمَاح rimāḥ (spears)
CaCaC ‏جَمَل‎ jamal (camel) جِمَال jimāl (camels)
CaCuC ‏رَجُل‎ rajul (man) رِجَال rijāl (men)
CvCC ʾaCCāC ‏يَوْم‎ yawm (day) أَيَّام ʾayyām (days) [[[wikt:رب|ʾarbāb]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (masters)
[[[wikt:جد|ʾajdād]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (grandfathers)
‏حِلْم‎ ḥilm (patience) أَحْلَام ʾaḥlām (patineces)
‏لُغْز‎ luḡz (mystery) أَلْغَاز ʾalḡaz (mysteries) [[[wikt:عمق|ʾaʿmaq]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (deeps)
CaCaC ‏سَبَب‎ sabab (cause) أَسْبَاب ʾasbāb (causes) [[[wikt:ولد|ʾawlād]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (boys),
[[[wikt:قلم|ʾaqlām]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (pens)
CuCuC ‏عُمُر‎ ʿumur (lifespan) أَعْمَار ʾaʿmār (lifespans) [[[wikt:ربع|ʾarbāʿ]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (quarters)
CaCūC ʾaCCiCah ‏عَمُود‎ ʿamūd (pole) أَعْمِدَة ʾaʿmidah (poles) Ends with taʾ marbuta
CaCīC ʾaCCiCāʾ ‏صَدِيق‎ ṣadīq (friend) أَصْدِقَاء ʾaṣdiqāʾ (friends)
CaCīC CuCaCāʾ ‏سَعِيد‎ saʿīd (happy) سُعَدَاء suʿadāʾ (happy) [[[wikt:وزير|wuzarāʾ]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (ministers) mostly for adjectives and occupational nouns
CāCiC CuCCāC ‏كَاتِب‎ kātib (writer) كُتَّاب kuttāb (writers) [[[wikt:طالب|ṭullāb]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (students)
[[[wikt:ساكن|sukkān]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (residents) 		Gemination of the second root; mostly for the active participle of Form I verbs
CāCiCah CawāCiC ‏قَائِمَة‎ qāʾimah (list) قَوَائِم qawāʾim (lists) [[[wikt:بارجة|bawārij]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (battleships)
CāCūC CawāCīC ‏صَارُوخ‎ ṣārūḫ (rocket) صَوَارِيخ ṣawārīḫ (rockets) [[[wikt:حاسوب|ḥawāsīb]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (computers),

ṭawāwīs (peacocks)

CiCāCah CaCāʾiC ‏رِسَالَة‎ risāla (message) رَسَائِل rasāʾil (messages) [[[wikt:بطاقة|biṭāqah baṭāʾiq]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (cards)
CaCīCah ‏جَزِيرَة‎ jazīrah (island) جَزَائِر jazāʾir (islands) [[[wikt:حقيبة|haqāʾib]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (suitcases),
[[[wikt:دقيقة|daqāʾiq]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (minutes)
CaCCaC CaCāCiC ‏دَفْتَر‎ daftar (notebook) دَفَاتِر dafātir (notebooks) applies to all four-literal nouns with short second vowel
CuCCuC ‏فُنْدُق‎ funduq (hotel) فَنَادِق fanādiq (hotels)
maCCaC maCāCiC ‏مَلْبَس‎ malbas (apparel) مَلَابِس malābis (apparels) [[[wikt:مكتب|makātib]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (offices) Subcase of previous, with m as first literal
maCCiC ‏مَسْجِد‎ masjid (mosque) مَسَاجِد masājid (mosques) [[[wikt:منزل|manāzil]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (help) (houses)
miCCaCah ‏مِنْطَقَة‎ minṭaqah (area) مَنَاطِق manāṭiq (areas)
CvCCv̄C CaCāCīC ‏صَنْدُوق‎ ṣandūq (box) صَنَادِيق ṣanādīq (boxes) applies to all four-literal nouns with long second vowel
miCCāC maCāCīC ‏مِفْتَاح‎ miftāḥ (key) مَفَاتِيح mafātīḥ (keys) Subcase of previous, with m as first literal
maCCūC ‏مَكْتُوب‎ maktūb (message) مَكَاتِيب makātīb (messages)

Hebrew

In Hebrew, though all plurals must take either the sound masculine (-īm ־ים) or feminine (-ōt ־ות) plural suffixes, the historical stem alternations of the so-called segolate or consonant-cluster nouns between CVCC in the singular and CVCaC in the plural have often been compared to broken plural forms in other Semitic languages. Thus the form malkī Template:Hebrew "my king" in the singular is opposed to məlāxīm Template:Hebrew "kings" in the plural.[5]

In addition, there are many other cases where historical sound changes have resulted in stem allomorphy between singular and plural forms in Hebrew (or between absolute state and construct state, or between forms with pronominal suffixes and unsuffixed forms etc.), though such alternations do not operate according to general templates accommodating root consonants, and so are not usually considered to be true broken plurals by linguists.[6]

Geʿez (Ethiopic)

Broken plurals were formerly used in some Ethiopic nouns. Examples include ˁanbässa "lion" with ˁanabəst "lions", kokäb "star" with kwakəbt "stars", ganen "demon" with aganənt "demons", and hagar "region" with ˀahgur "regions".[7] Some of these broken plurals are still used in Amharic today, but they are generally seen as archaic.

See also

References

  1. ^ Ratcliffe, Robert R. (1998). The "Broken" Plural Problem in Arabic and Comparative Semitic. Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 168. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. ISBN 978-9027236739.
  2. ^ An overview of the theories is given by Ratcliffe, Robert R. (1998). The "Broken" Plural Problem in Arabic and Comparative Semitic. Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 168. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. pp. 117 seqq. ISBN 978-9027236739.
  3. ^ Ratcliffe, Robert R. (1998). The "Broken" Plural Problem in Arabic and Comparative Semitic. Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 168. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. pp. 72–79. ISBN 978-9027236739.
  4. ^ a b Boudelaa, Sami; Gaskell, M. Gareth (21 September 2010). "A re-examination of the default system for Arabic plurals". Language and Cognitive Processes. 17 (3): 321–343. doi:10.1080/01690960143000245.
  5. ^ "Ge'ez (Axum)" by Gene Gragg in The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages edited by Roger D. Woodard (2004) ISBN 0-521-56256-2, p. 440.
  6. ^ “Hebrew” by P. Kyle McCarter Jr. in The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages edited by Roger D. Woodard (2004) ISBN 0-521-56256-2, p. 342.
  7. ^ Leslau, Wolf (1991). Comparative Dictionary of Geʿez (Classical Ethiopic). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, pp. 64, 280, 198, 216
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