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{| class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"
|+ {{navbar|/æ/ raising in North American English|mini=y|style=float: left;}}[[:/æ/ raising|{{IPA|/æ/}} raising]] in [[North American English]]{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=182}}
|-
! Following <br />consonant
! Example <br />words{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=173–4}}
! [[New York accent|New York <br />City]], [[New Orleans English|New <br />Orleans]]{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=173–4}}
! [[Mid-Atlantic American English|Baltimore, <br />Philadel-<br />phia]]{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=173–4}}
! [[General American|General <br />American]], <br />[[New England English|New England]], <br />[[Western American English|Western US]]
! [[Midland American English|Midland US]], <br />[[Western Pennsylvania English|Pittsburgh]]
! [[Southern American English|Southern <br />US]]
! [[Canadian English|Canada]], <br />Northern <br />Mountain <br />US
! [[North-Central American English|Minnesota, <br />Wisconsin]]
! [[Inland Northern American English|Great <br />Lakes <br />US]]
|-
| Non-prevocalic <br />{{IPA|/m, n/}}
| ''fan, lamb, stand''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|[eə]}}{{efn|name=split-a|Most function words (''am, can, had'', etc.) and some learned or less common words (''Afghan, alas, asterisk'', etc.) have {{IPA|[æ]}}.}}{{efn|In Philadelphia, the irregular verbs ''began, ran, swam'', and ''wan'' (variant of ''won'') have {{IPA|[æ]}}.{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=238}}}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[eə]}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[eə]}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[eə~ɛjə]}}{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=178, 180}}
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[eə]}}{{sfnp|Boberg|2008|p=145}}
| rowspan="8" | {{IPA|[eə]}}{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=175–7}}
|-
| Prevocalic <br />{{IPA|/m, n/}}
| ''animal, planet, <br />Spanish''
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[æ]}}
|-
| {{IPA|/ŋ/}}{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=183}}
| ''frank, language''
| {{IPA|[eɪ]}}{{sfnp|Baker|Mielke|Archangeli|2008}}
| rowspan="6" | {{IPA|[æ]}}
| rowspan="6" | {{IPA|[æ~æɛə]}}{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=178, 180}}
| rowspan="3"| {{IPA|[ɛː~ɛj]}}{{sfnp|Boberg|2008|p=145}}
| rowspan="3"| {{IPA|[eː~ej]}}{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=181–2}}
|-
| Non-prevocalic <br />{{IPA|/ɡ/}}
| ''bag, drag''
| {{IPA|[eə]}}{{efn|name=split-a}}
| rowspan="3" | {{IPA|[æ]}}{{efn|In Philadelphia, ''bad, mad'', and ''glad'' alone have {{IPA|[eə]}}.}}
| rowspan="5" | {{IPA|[æ]}}{{efn|In New England, Pittsburgh,{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=181}} and Florida{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=182}} and in scatterings through the Midland US,{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=175}} the (mostly coastal) Southern US, and the Western US,{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=182}} </br>the quality of {{IPA|/æ/}} is more close before {{IPA|/m, n/}}, more mid before {{IPA|/b, d, ɡ, dʒ/}}, and more open elsewhere.{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=174}} However, in most of the Western US and elsewhere</br> in the Midland US,{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=182}} it is more continuous, though still the most close before {{IPA|/m, n/}}.}}
|-
| Prevocalic {{IPA|/ɡ/}}
| ''dragon, magazine''
| {{IPA|[æ]}}
|-
| Non-prevocalic <br />{{IPA|/b, d, ʃ/}}
| ''grab, flash, sad''
| {{IPA|[eə]}}{{efn|name=split-a}}
| rowspan="3" | {{IPA|[æ]}}{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=82, 123, 177, 179}}
| rowspan="3" | {{IPA|[ɛə]}}{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=82, 123, 177, 179}}
|-
| Non-prevocalic <br />{{IPA|/f, θ, s/}}
| ''ask, bath, half, <br />glass''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|[eə]}}{{efn|name=split-a}}
|-
| Otherwise
| ''as, back, happy, <br />locality''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|[æ]}}{{efn|In New York City, exceptional {{IPA|[eə]}} is found notably in ''avenue'' and variably before {{IPA|/dʒ/}} as in ''imagine'' and ''magic''.{{sfnp|Labov|2007|p=359}}}}
|-
| colspan="10" class="wrap" style="width: 0; text-align: left; font-size: 85%;" | {{notelist}}
|}<noinclude>{{reflist}}{{documentation|content=
==Required references==
This template requires the following works be cited elsewhere in the article using {{cite xxx}} or {{tlx|citation}}.
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Baker
|first1=Adam
|last2=Mielke
|first2=Jeff
|last3=Archangeli
|first3=Diana
|year=2008
|chapter=More velar than /g/: Consonant Coarticulation as a Cause of Diphthongization
|editor1-last=Chang
|editor1-first=Charles B.
|editor2-last=Haynie
|editor2-first=Hannah J.
|title=Proceedings of the 26th West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics
|pages=60–68
|location=Somerville, Massachusetts
|publisher=Cascadilla Proceedings Project
|isbn=978-1-57473-423-2
|chapter-url=http://www.lingref.com/cpp/wccfl/26/paper1656.pdf
}}
* {{cite journal
|last=Boberg
|first=Charles
|year=2008
|title=Regional phonetic differentiation in Standard Canadian English
|journal=Journal of English Linguistics
|volume=36
|issue=2
|page=129–154
|doi=10.1177/0075424208316648
|url=https://www.academia.edu/7683591
}}
* {{cite journal
|last=Labov
|first=William
|year=2007
|title=Transmission and Diffusion
|journal=Language
|volume=83
|issue=2
|pages=344–387
|doi=10.1353/lan.2007.0082
|jstor=40070845
|url=https://www.ling.upenn.edu/~wlabov/Papers/TD.pdf
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Labov
|first1=William
|last2=Ash
|first2=Sharon
|last3=Boberg
|first3=Charles
|year=2006
|title=[[The Atlas of North American English]]
|location=Berlin
|publisher=Mouton de Gruyter
|isbn=978-3-11-016746-7
}}
{{refend}}
}}
[[Category:North America language templates]]
</noinclude>

{| class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"
|+ {{navbar|/æ/ raising in North American English|mini=y|style=float: left;}}{{IPAc-en|æ}} raising in [[North American English]]{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=182}}{{failed verification|date=April 2020}}
|+ {{navbar|/æ/ raising in North American English|mini=y|style=float: left;}}{{IPAc-en|æ}} raising in [[North American English]]{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=182}}{{failed verification|date=April 2020}}
Line 37: Line 164:
| {{IPA|[eə]}}{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=173–4}}
| {{IPA|[eə]}}{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=173–4}}
| rowspan="3" | {{IPA|[æ]}}{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=173–4}}
| rowspan="3" | {{IPA|[æ]}}{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=173–4}}
| rowspan="5" | {{IPA|[æ]}}{{efn|In New England, Pittsburgh,<ref>Labov, 2006, p. 181.</ref> and Florida<ref>Labov, 2006, p. 182.</ref> and in scatterings through the Midland US,<ref>Labov, 2006, p. 175.</ref> the (mostly coastal) Southern US, and the Western US,<ref>Labov, 2006, pp. 182.</ref> {{IPA|/æ/}} is [[close vowel|more close]] before {{IPA|/m, n/}}, [[mid vowel|more mid]] before {{IPA|/b, g, d, dʒ/}}, and [[open vowel|more open]] elsewhere.<ref>Labov, 2006, p. 174.</ref> However, in most of the Western US and elsewhere in the Midland US,<ref>Labov, 2006, pp. 182.</ref> [[allophone|possible pronunciation]]s of {{IPA|/æ/}} are more continuous, though still the most close before {{IPA|/m, n/}}.}}
| rowspan="5" | {{IPA|[æ]}}{{efn|In New England, Pittsburgh,<ref>Labov, 2006, p. 181.</ref> and Florida<ref>Labov, 2006, p. 182.</ref> and in scatterings through the Midland US,<ref>Labov, 2006, p. 175.</ref> the (mostly coastal) Southern US, and the Western US,<ref>Labov, 2006, pp. 182.</ref> {{IPA|/æ/}} is [[close vowel|more close]] before {{IPA|/m, n/}}, </br> [[mid vowel|more mid]] before {{IPA|/b, g, d, dʒ/}}, and [[open vowel|more open]] elsewhere.<ref>Labov, 2006, p. 174.</ref> However, in most of the Western US and elsewhere in the Midland US,<ref>Labov, 2006, pp. 182.</ref> [[allophone|possible pronunciation]]s of {{IPA|/æ/}} are more continuous, though still the most close before {{IPA|/m, n/}}.}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[eːɪ̯]}}<ref>Boberg, 2008, p. 145</ref>{{efn|In Minnesota and Wisconsin especially, {{IPA|/æ/}} raising before {{IPA|/g/}} is often strong enough to produce a merger of {{IPA|/æg/}} and {{IPA|/eɪg/}}, for example causing ''haggle'' and ''Hegel'' to be [[homophones]].{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=181-2}}}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[eːɪ̯]}}<ref>Boberg, 2008, p. 145</ref>{{efn|In Minnesota and Wisconsin especially, {{IPA|/æ/}} raising before {{IPA|/g/}} is often strong enough to produce a merger of {{IPA|/æg/}} and {{IPA|/eɪg/}}, for example causing ''haggle'' and ''Hegel'' to be [[homophones]].{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=181-2}}}}
| rowspan="5" | {{IPA|[æɛə]}}{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=178, 180}}
| rowspan="5" | {{IPA|[æɛə]}}{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=178, 180}}

Revision as of 17:46, 24 April 2020

/æ/ raising in North American English[1]
Following
consonant 		Example
words[2] 		New York
City, New
Orleans[2] 		Baltimore,
Philadel-
phia[2] 		General
American,
New England,
Western US 		Midland US,
Pittsburgh 		Southern
US 		Canada,
Northern
Mountain
US 		Minnesota,
Wisconsin 		Great
Lakes
US
Non-prevocalic
/m, n/ 		fan, lamb, stand [eə][a][b] [eə] [eə] [eə~ɛjə][4] [eə][5] [eə][6]
Prevocalic
/m, n/ 		animal, planet,
Spanish 		[æ]
/ŋ/[7] frank, language [eɪ][8] [æ] [æ~æɛə][4] [ɛː~ɛj][5] [eː~ej][9]
Non-prevocalic
/ɡ/ 		bag, drag [eə][a] [æ][c] [æ][d]
Prevocalic /ɡ/ dragon, magazine [æ]
Non-prevocalic
/b, d, ʃ/ 		grab, flash, sad [eə][a] [æ][13] [ɛə][13]
Non-prevocalic
/f, θ, s/ 		ask, bath, half,
glass 		[eə][a]
Otherwise as, back, happy,
locality 		[æ][e]
  1. ^ a b c d Most function words (am, can, had, etc.) and some learned or less common words (Afghan, alas, asterisk, etc.) have [æ].
  2. ^ In Philadelphia, the irregular verbs began, ran, swam, and wan (variant of won) have [æ].[3]
  3. ^ In Philadelphia, bad, mad, and glad alone have [eə].
  4. ^ In New England, Pittsburgh,[10] and Florida[1] and in scatterings through the Midland US,[11] the (mostly coastal) Southern US, and the Western US,[1]
    the quality of /æ/ is more close before /m, n/, more mid before /b, d, ɡ, dʒ/, and more open elsewhere.[12] However, in most of the Western US and elsewhere
    in the Midland US,[1] it is more continuous, though still the most close before /m, n/.
  5. ^ In New York City, exceptional [eə] is found notably in avenue and variably before /dʒ/ as in imagine and magic.[14]
  1. ^ a b c d Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 182. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  2. ^ a b c Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), pp. 173–4. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  3. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 238. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  4. ^ a b Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), pp. 178, 180. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  5. ^ a b Boberg (2008), p. 145. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBoberg2008 (help)
  6. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), pp. 175–7. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  7. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 183. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  8. ^ Baker, Mielke & Archangeli (2008).
  9. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), pp. 181–2. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  10. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 181. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  11. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 175. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  12. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 174. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  13. ^ a b Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), pp. 82, 123, 177, 179. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  14. ^ Labov (2007), p. 359.


/æ/ raising in North American English[1][failed verification]
Following
consonant 		Example words New York
City, New
Orleans 		Baltimore,
Philadelphia 		General American,
Florida, Midland US,
New England, Pitts-
burgh, Western US,
some Southern US 		Canada, Northern
Mountain US,
Upper
Midwest US 		Some Southern
US 		Great
Lakes US
Non-prevocalic
/m, n/ 		fan, ham, pants, plan,
lamb, understand[2][a] 		[eə][2] [eə] [eə][4] [ɛjə][5] [eə][6]
Prevocalic
/m, n/ 		animal, ceramic, manatee,
planet, Spanish[2][b] 		[æ][8]
Non-prevocalic
/ɡ/ 		bag, drag, tag[9] [eə][2] [æ][2] [æ][c] [eːɪ̯][16][d] [æɛə][5]
Prevocalic /ɡ/ agate, dragon,
magazine 		[æ][2]
Non-prevocalic
/b, d, dʒ, ʃ// 		bad, glad, grab,
flash, mad, sad[2][e] 		[eə][2] [æ][f]
Non-prevocalic
/f, s, θ/ 		ask, bath, calf,
half, glass[2] 		[eə][2]
Otherwise as, back, frank,
happy, locality[2] 		[æ][2]

Notes

  1. ^ In Philadelphia, began, ran, and swam alone in this set remain lax.[3]
  2. ^ The tenseness of the word family varies by speaker.[7]
  3. ^ In New England, Pittsburgh,[10] and Florida[11] and in scatterings through the Midland US,[12] the (mostly coastal) Southern US, and the Western US,[13] /æ/ is more close before /m, n/,
    more mid before /b, g, d, dʒ/, and more open elsewhere.[14] However, in most of the Western US and elsewhere in the Midland US,[15] possible pronunciations of /æ/ are more continuous, though still the most close before /m, n/.
  4. ^ In Minnesota and Wisconsin especially, /æ/ raising before /g/ is often strong enough to produce a merger of /æg/ and /eɪg/, for example causing haggle and Hegel to be homophones.[17]
  5. ^ In Philadelphia, bad, mad, and glad alone in this set become tense.
  6. ^ In the Upper Midwest, particularly the eastern half, /æ/ may show general raising in the vicinity of [eə].[18]
/æ/ raising in North American English[19]
Environment Phonemic systems Non-phonemic (continuous) systems
Consonant after /æ/ Example words New York City & New Orleans Baltimore & Philadelphia General US, Florida, Midland US, New England, & Western US Canadian, Northwest US, & Upper Midwest US Southern US & Black Vernacular Great Lakes US
/m, n/ Checked: aunt, fan, ham, pants, plan, lamb, understand,[20] etc.[a] [eə][22] [iə][b] [ɛə~æ] [ɛə~eə] [eə]
Free: animal, ceramic, manatee, Montana, planet, Spanish,[23] etc.[note 1] [æ][25]
/ɡ/ Checked: bag, drag, tag,[26] etc. [eə][27] [æ][28] [æ][c] [eːɪ̯][35][d] continuous [eʲ] [ɛ(j)ə~æ] [ɛə~æ]
Free: agate, dragon, magazine, etc. [æ][36]
/b, d, dʒ, ʃ/ Checked: bad, flash, glad, grab, mad, sad,[37] etc.[e] [eə][38] continuous [æ] [eə~ɛə]
/f, s, θ/ Checked: ask, bath, calf, half, glass,[39] etc. [eə][40]
Others as, back, frank, happy, locality;[41] etc. [æ][42]
For the phoneme /æ/, [eə] represents a tense pronunciation and [æ] a non-tense (or lax) pronunciation. The term "continuous" refers to a system without a decisive phonemic split of /æ/, followed by whichever allophone predominates in the given context.

Notes

  1. ^ In Philadelphia, began, ran, and swam alone remain lax.[21]
  2. ^ Exact allophones vary by region's or even individual's participation in a nasal or continuous system.
  3. ^ In New England, Pittsburgh,[29] and Florida[30] and in scatterings through the Midland US,[31] the (mostly coastal) Southern US, and the Western US,[32] /æ/ is more close before /m, n/, more mid before /b, g, d, dʒ/, and more open elsewhere.[33] However, in most of the Western US and elsewhere in the Midland US,[34] possible pronunciations of /æ/ are more continuous, though still the most close before /m, n/.
  4. ^ In Minnesota and Wisconsin especially, /æ/ raising before /g/ is often strong enough to produce a merger of /æg/ and /eɪg/, for example causing haggle and Hegel to be homophones.[17]
  5. ^ In Philadelphia, bad, mad, and glad alone in this set become tense.
Footnotes
  • Nearly all American English speakers pronounce /æŋ/ somewhere between [æŋ] and [eɪŋ], though Western speakers specifically favor [eɪŋ].
  • The Great Lakes dialect traditionally tenses /æ/ in all cases to at least some degree, but reversals of that tensing before non-nasal consonants (while often maintaining some of the other vowel shifts of the region) has been observed recently where it has been studied (in Lansing and Syracuse).
  • In American phonology, /æ/ before /r/ is often transcribed as /ɛ/ due to the prevalence of the Mary–marry merger. However, a distinct /æ/ before /r/ remains in much of the Northeastern U.S. (strongest in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Philadelphia, and Baltimore) and some of the Southern U.S.


TENSE": magic, imagine,

checked /b, d, dʒ/ or any old /b, d, ʃ, v, z/?

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

A chart of the pronunciation of stressed /ɒr/ and /ɔːr/ before a vowel
represented by the diaphoneme /ɒr/ represented by the diaphoneme /ɔr/
pronounced [ɒɹ] in mainstream England pronounced [ɔːɹ] in mainstream England
pronounced [ɒɹ] in Boston pronounced [ɔɹ] in Boston
pronounced [ɔɹ] in Canada
pronounced [ɒɹ~ɑɹ] in New York City pronounced [ɔɹ] in New York City
pronounced [ɑɹ] in the mainstream United States pronounced [ɔɹ] in the mainstream United States
these five words only:
borrow, morrow,
sorry, sorrow,
tomorrow 		corridor, euphoric,
foreign, forest,
Florida, historic,
horrible, majority,
minority, moral,
orange, Oregon,
origin, porridge,
priority, quarantine,
quarrel, sorority,
warranty, warren,
warrior (etc.) 		aura, boring,
choral, deplorable,
flooring, flora,
glory, hoary,
memorial, menorah,
orientation, Moorish,
oral, pouring,
scorer, storage,
story, Tory,
warring (etc.)
  1. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 182. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), pp. 173–4. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  3. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 238. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  4. ^ Boberg, Charles (2008). "Regional phonetic differentiation in Standard Canadian English". Journal of English Linguistics. 36 (2): 145. doi:10.1177/0075424208316648.
  5. ^ a b Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), pp. 178, 180. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  6. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), pp. 175–7. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  7. ^ Trager, George L. (1940). "One Phonemic Entity Becomes Two: The Case of 'Short A'". American Speech. 15 (3): 255–258. JSTOR 486966.
  8. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 173. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  9. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 174. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  10. ^ Labov, 2006, p. 181.
  11. ^ Labov, 2006, p. 182.
  12. ^ Labov, 2006, p. 175.
  13. ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 182.
  14. ^ Labov, 2006, p. 174.
  15. ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 182.
  16. ^ Boberg, 2008, p. 145
  17. ^ a b Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), pp. 181–2. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  18. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), pp. 82, 123, 177, 179. sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFLabovAshBoberg2006 (help)
  19. ^ Labov, William; Ash, Sharon; Boberg, Charles (2006). The Atlas of North American English. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. p. 182. ISBN 3-11-016746-8.
  20. ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.
  21. ^ Labov, 2006, p. 238.
  22. ^ Labov, 2006, p. 173.
  23. ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.
  24. ^ Trager, George L. (1940) One Phonemic Entity Becomes Two: The Case of 'Short A' in American Speech: 3rd ed. Vol. 15: Duke UP. 256. Print.
  25. ^ Labov, 2006, p. 173.
  26. ^ Labov, 2006, p. 174.
  27. ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.
  28. ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.
  29. ^ Labov, 2006, p. 181.
  30. ^ Labov, 2006, p. 182.
  31. ^ Labov, 2006, p. 175.
  32. ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 182.
  33. ^ Labov, 2006, p. 174.
  34. ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 182.
  35. ^ Boberg, 2008, p. 145
  36. ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.
  37. ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.
  38. ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.
  39. ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.
  40. ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173.
  41. ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.
  42. ^ Labov, 2006, pp. 173-4.


Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page).

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