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{{short description|16th-century German astronomer, mathematician, and cartographer}}{{Infobox person
{{short description|16th-century German astronomer, mathematician, and cartographer}}
⚫
[[File:Peter_Apian.jpg|thumb|Apianus on a 16th-century engraving by [[Theodor de Bry]]]]
| name = Petrus Apianus
⚫
'''Petrus Apianus''' (April 16, 1495 – April 21, 1552),<ref>Kish (1970)</ref> also known as '''Peter Apian''', '''Peter Bennewitz''', and '''Peter Bienewitz''', was a [[Germany|German]] [[Humanism|humanist]], known for his works in [[mathematics]], [[astronomy]] and [[cartography]].<ref name="MPC-object" /> His work on "[[cosmography]]", the field that dealt with the earth and its position in the universe, was presented in his most famous publications, ''Astronomicum Caesareum'' (1540) and ''Cosmographicus liber'' (1524. His books were extremely influential in his time, with the numerous editions in multiple languages being published until 1609. The lunar crater ''[[Apianus (crater)|Apianus]]'' and asteroid [[19139&nbsp;Apian]] are named in his honour.<ref name="MPC-object" />
| image = File:Peter Apian.jpg
⚫
| caption = Apianus on a 16th-century engraving by [[Theodor de Bry|Theodor Bry]]
| birth_date = April 16, 1495
| birth_place = [[Leisnig]], [[Electorate of Saxony|Saxony]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1552|4|21|1495|4|16|}}
| education = [[Leipzig University]]<br/>
[[University of Vienna]]
| spouse = Katharina Mosner
| children = [[Philipp Apian]] and 8 other sons<br/>
5 daughters
| father = Martin
}}

⚫
'''Petrus Apianus''' (April 16, 1495 – April 21, 1552),<ref>Kish (1970)</ref> also known as '''Peter Apian''', '''Peter Bennewitz''', and '''Peter Bienewitz''', was a [[Germany|German]] [[Humanism|humanist]], known for his works in [[mathematics]], [[astronomy]] and [[cartography]].<ref name="MPC-object" /> His work on "[[cosmography]]", the field that dealt with the earth and its position in the universe, was presented in his most famous publications, ''Astronomicum Caesareum'' (1540) and ''Cosmographicus liber'' (1524. His books were extremely influential in his time, with the numerous editions in multiple languages being published until 1609. The lunar crater ''[[Apianus (crater)|Apianus]]'' and asteroid [[19139 Apian]] are named in his honour.<ref name="MPC-object" />


== Life and work ==
== Life and work ==
Line 25: Line 12:
[[File:Astronomicum Caesareum.jpg|right|thumb|upright|A volvelle from ''Astronomicum Caesareum'' (1540)]]
[[File:Astronomicum Caesareum.jpg|right|thumb|upright|A volvelle from ''Astronomicum Caesareum'' (1540)]]
Through his work, Apianus became a favourite of [[Holy Roman Emperor|emperor]] [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], who had praised ''Cosmographicus liber'' at the [[Imperial Diet (Holy Roman Empire)|Imperial Diet]] of 1530 and granted him a printing monopoly in 1532 and 1534. In 1535, the emperor made Apianus an [[armiger]], i.e. granted him the right to display a [[coat of arms]]. In 1540, Apianus printed the ''Astronomicum Caesareum'', dedicated to Charles V. Charles promised him a truly royal sum (3,000 golden [[Gulden (historical denomination)|guilder]]s),{{efn|Whether Apian ever received the promised money is uncertain; in any case he wrote a letter to the emperor in 1549 asking him to finally pay the promised sum.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bautz.de/bbkl/a/apian_p.shtml |title=APIAN, Peter (ursprünglich Bienewitz oder Bennewitz) |publisher=Bautz.de |date= |accessdate=2013-03-19}}</ref>
Through his work, Apianus became a favourite of [[Holy Roman Emperor|emperor]] [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], who had praised ''Cosmographicus liber'' at the [[Imperial Diet (Holy Roman Empire)|Imperial Diet]] of 1530 and granted him a printing monopoly in 1532 and 1534. In 1535, the emperor made Apianus an [[armiger]], i.e. granted him the right to display a [[coat of arms]]. In 1540, Apianus printed the ''Astronomicum Caesareum'', dedicated to Charles V. Charles promised him a truly royal sum (3,000 golden [[Gulden (historical denomination)|guilder]]s),{{efn|Whether Apian ever received the promised money is uncertain; in any case he wrote a letter to the emperor in 1549 asking him to finally pay the promised sum.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bautz.de/bbkl/a/apian_p.shtml |title=APIAN, Peter (ursprünglich Bienewitz oder Bennewitz) |publisher=Bautz.de |date= |accessdate=2013-03-19}}</ref>
}} appointed him his court mathematician, and made him a ''[[Reichsritter]]'' (a Free Imperial Knight) and in 1544 even an [[Count Palatine (Imperial)|Imperial Count Palatine]]. All this furthered Apianus's reputation as an eminent scientist. ''Astronomicum Caesareum'' is noted for its visual appeal. Printed and bound decoratively, with about 100 known copies,<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/002182867100200303 |title=Apianus's Astronomicum Caesareum and its Leipzig Facsimile |journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=168–177 |year=2016 |last1=Gingerich |first1=Owen}}</ref> it included several [[Volvelle]]s that allowed users to calculate dates, the positions of constellations and so on.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gislén|first=Lars|date=2017|title=Apinanus' latitude volvelles – how were they made?|url=|journal=Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage|volume=20|pages=13–20|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stebbins |first=F. A. |date=1959 |title=A Sixteenth-Century Planetarium|url=|journal=Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada |volume=53 |pages=197–203 |bibcode=1959JRASC..53..197S |via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Apian |first=Peter |last2=Ionides |first2=S. A. |date=1936-01-01 |title=Caesars' Astronomy: (Astronomicum Caesareum) |journal=Osiris |volume=1 |pages=356–389 |doi=10.1086/368431 |issn=0369-7827 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Apianus noted that it took a month to produce some of the plates. 35 octagonal paper cut instruments were included with woodcuts that are thought to have been made by Hans Brosamer (c. 1495 – 1555) who may have trained under Lucas Cranach, Sr. in Wittemberg.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/002182861104200207 |title=Experimenting with Paper Instruments in Fifteenth-and Sixteenth-Century Astronomy: Computing Syzygies with Isotemporal Lines and Salt Dishes |journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=223–258 |year=2011 |last1=Kremer |first1=Richard L}}</ref> It also incorporated star and constellation names from the work of the Arab astronomer ''Azophi'' (Abu al-Husain al-Sufi AD 903–986).<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/002182868701800204 |title=Peter Apian and 'AZOPHI': Arabic Constellations in Renaissance Astronomy |journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=117–124 |year=2016 |last1=Kunitzsch |first1=Paul}}</ref> Apianus is also remembered for publishing the only known depiction of the [[Bedouin]] constellations in 1533. On this map [[Ursa Minor]] is an old woman and three maidens, [[Draco (constellation)|Draco]] is four camels and [[Cepheus (constellation)|Cepheus]] was illustrated as a shepherd with sheep and dog.<ref>Carole Stott, Celestial Charts, Antique Maps of the Heavens, 1995, Studio Editions, London, England P38-39</ref> [[File:Apian, coat of arms, leisnig - d.jpg|thumb|upright|Arms of coat of nobility Apian in [[Leisnig]] / [[Saxony]]|left]]
}} appointed him his court mathematician, and made him a ''[[Reichsritter]]'' (a Free Imperial Knight) and in 1544 even an [[Count Palatine (Imperial)|Imperial Count Palatine]]. All this furthered Apianus's reputation as an eminent scientist. ''Astronomicum Caesareum'' is noted for its visual appeal. Printed and bound decoratively, with about 100 known copies,<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/002182867100200303 |title=Apianus's Astronomicum Caesareum and its Leipzig Facsimile |journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=168–177 |year=2016 |last1=Gingerich |first1=Owen}}</ref> it included several [[Volvelle]]s that allowed users to calculate dates, the positions of constellations and so on.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gislén|first=Lars|date=2017|title=Apinanus' latitude volvelles – how were they made?|url=|journal=Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage|volume=20|pages=13–20|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stebbins |first=F. A. |date=1959 |title=A Sixteenth-Century Planetarium|url=|journal=Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada |volume=53 |pages=197–203 |bibcode=1959JRASC..53..197S |via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Apian |first=Peter |last2=Ionides |first2=S. A. |date=1936-01-01 |title=Caesars' Astronomy: (Astronomicum Caesareum) |journal=Osiris |volume=1 |pages=356–389 |doi=10.1086/368431 |issn=0369-7827 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Apianus noted that it took a month to produce some of the plates. Thirty-five octagonal paper cut instruments were included with woodcuts that are thought to have been made by Hans Brosamer (c. 1495 – 1555) who may have trained under Lucas Cranach, Sr. in Wittemberg.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/002182861104200207 |title=Experimenting with Paper Instruments in Fifteenth-and Sixteenth-Century Astronomy: Computing Syzygies with Isotemporal Lines and Salt Dishes |journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=223–258 |year=2011 |last1=Kremer |first1=Richard L}}</ref> It also incorporated star and constellation names from the work of the Arab astronomer ''Azophi'' (Abu al-Husain al-Sufi AD 903–986).<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/002182868701800204 |title=Peter Apian and 'AZOPHI': Arabic Constellations in Renaissance Astronomy |journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=117–124 |year=2016 |last1=Kunitzsch |first1=Paul}}</ref> Apianus is also remembered for publishing the only known depiction of the [[Bedouin]] constellations in 1533. On this map [[Ursa Minor]] is an old woman and three maidens, [[Draco (constellation)|Draco]] is four camels and [[Cepheus (constellation)|Cepheus]] was illustrated as a shepherd with sheep and dog.<ref>Carole Stott, Celestial Charts, Antique Maps of the Heavens, 1995, Studio Editions, London, England P38-39</ref> [[File:Apian, coat of arms, leisnig - d.jpg|thumb|upright|Arms of coat of nobility Apian in [[Leisnig]] / [[Saxony]]|left]]
Despite many calls from other universities, including [[Leipzig]], [[Padua]], [[Tübingen]], and [[Vienna]], Apianus remained in [[Ingolstadt]] until his death. Although he neglected his teaching duties, the university evidently was proud to host such an esteemed scientist. Apianus's work included in mathematics—in 1527 he published a variation of [[Pascal's triangle]], and in 1534 a table of [[sine]]s— as well as astronomy. In 1531, he observed [[Halley's Comet]] and noted that a [[comet]]'s tail always point away from the sun.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Barker|first=Peter|date=2008|title=Stoic alternatives to Aristotelian cosmology : Pena, Rothmann and Brahe, Summary|journal=Revue d'histoire des sciences|language=fr|volume=Tome 61|issue=2|pages=265–286|doi=10.3917/rhs.612.0265|issn=0151-4105}}</ref> [[Girolamo Fracastoro]] also detected this in 1531, but Apianus's publication was the first to also include graphics. He designed [[sundial]]s, published manuals for astronomical instruments and crafted volvelles ("Apian wheels"), measuring instruments useful for calculating time and distance for astronomical and astrological applications.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Wolfschmidt, Gudrun|title=Peter Apian as an astronomical instrument maker|journal=Astronomische Gesellschaft Abstract Series|volume=11|page=107|bibcode=1995AGAb...11..107W|year=1995}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=North|first=J. D.|date=1966|title=Werner, Apian, Blagrave and the Meteoroscope|journal=The British Journal for the History of Science|language=en|volume=3|issue=1|pages=57–65|doi=10.1017/s0007087400000194|issn=1474-001X}}</ref>
Despite many calls from other universities, including [[Leipzig]], [[Padua]], [[Tübingen]], and [[Vienna]], Apianus remained in [[Ingolstadt]] until his death. Although he neglected his teaching duties, the university evidently was proud to host such an esteemed scientist. Apianus's work included in mathematics—in 1527 he published a variation of [[Pascal's triangle]], and in 1534 a table of [[sine]]s— as well as astronomy. In 1531, he observed [[Halley's Comet]] and noted that a [[comet]]'s tail always point away from the sun.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Barker|first=Peter|date=2008|title=Stoic alternatives to Aristotelian cosmology : Pena, Rothmann and Brahe, Summary|journal=Revue d'histoire des sciences|language=fr|volume=Tome 61|issue=2|pages=265–286|doi=10.3917/rhs.612.0265|issn=0151-4105}}</ref> [[Girolamo Fracastoro]] also detected this in 1531, but Apianus's publication was the first to also include graphics. He designed [[sundial]]s, published manuals for astronomical instruments and crafted volvelles ("Apian wheels"), measuring instruments useful for calculating time and distance for astronomical and astrological applications.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Wolfschmidt, Gudrun|title=Peter Apian as an astronomical instrument maker|journal=Astronomische Gesellschaft Abstract Series|volume=11|page=107|bibcode=1995AGAb...11..107W|year=1995}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=North|first=J. D.|date=1966|title=Werner, Apian, Blagrave and the Meteoroscope|journal=The British Journal for the History of Science|language=en|volume=3|issue=1|pages=57–65|doi=10.1017/s0007087400000194|issn=1474-001X}}</ref>


Apianus married the daughter of a councilman of Landshut, Katharina Mosner, in 1526. They had 14 children together, 5 girls and 9 sons, one of whom was [[Philipp Apian]] (1531–1589), who, in addition to his own research, preserved the legacy of his father.<ref>Ralf Kern. Wissenschaftliche Instrumente in ihrer Zeit. Volume 1: Vom Astrolab zum mathematischen Besteck. Cologne, 2010. p. 332.</ref>
Apianus married the daughter of a councilman of Landshut, Katharina Mosner, in 1526. They would have fourteen children together, five girls and nine sons, one of whom was [[Philipp Apian]] (1531–1589), who, in addition to his own research, preserved the legacy of his father.<ref>Ralf Kern. Wissenschaftliche Instrumente in ihrer Zeit. Volume 1: Vom Astrolab zum mathematischen Besteck. Cologne, 2010. p. 332.</ref>


== Selected works ==
== Selected works ==

Revision as of 04:34, 3 May 2020

Apianus on a 16th-century engraving by Theodor de Bry

Petrus Apianus (April 16, 1495 – April 21, 1552),[1] also known as Peter Apian, Peter Bennewitz, and Peter Bienewitz, was a German humanist, known for his works in mathematics, astronomy and cartography.[2] His work on "cosmography", the field that dealt with the earth and its position in the universe, was presented in his most famous publications, Astronomicum Caesareum (1540) and Cosmographicus liber (1524. His books were extremely influential in his time, with the numerous editions in multiple languages being published until 1609. The lunar crater Apianus and asteroid 19139 Apian are named in his honour.[2]

Life and work

Apianus was born as Peter Bienewitz (or Bennewitz) in Leisnig in Saxony; his father, Martin, was a shoemaker. The family was relatively well off, belonging to the middle-class citizenry of Leisnig. Apianus was educated at the Latin school in Rochlitz. From 1516 to 1519 he studied at the University of Leipzig; during this time, he Latinized his name to Apianus (lat. apis means "bee"; "Biene" is the German word for bee).

In 1519, Apianus moved to Vienna and continued his studies at the University of Vienna, which was considered one of the leading universities in geography and mathematics at the time and where Georg Tannstetter taught. When the plague broke out in Vienna in 1521, he completed his studies with a BA and moved to Regensburg and then to Landshut. At Landshut, he produced his Cosmographicus liber (1524), a highly respected work on astronomy and navigation which was to see at least 30 reprints in 14 languages and that remained popular until the end of the 16th century. Later editions were produced by Gemma Frisius.[3]

Cordiform projection in a map of the world by Apianus 1524 which is one of the earliest maps that shows America.[4][5]

In 1527, Peter Apianus was called to the University of Ingolstadt as a mathematician and printer. His print shop started small. Among the first books he printed were the writings of Johann Eck, Martin Luther's antagonist. This print shop was active between 1543 and 1540 and became well known for its high-quality editions of geographic and cartographic works.[citation needed] It is thought that he used stereotype printing techniques on woodblocks.[6] The printer's logo included the motto Industria superat vires in Greek, Hebrew, and Latin around the figure of a boy.[7]

A volvelle from Astronomicum Caesareum (1540)

Through his work, Apianus became a favourite of emperor Charles V, who had praised Cosmographicus liber at the Imperial Diet of 1530 and granted him a printing monopoly in 1532 and 1534. In 1535, the emperor made Apianus an armiger, i.e. granted him the right to display a coat of arms. In 1540, Apianus printed the Astronomicum Caesareum, dedicated to Charles V. Charles promised him a truly royal sum (3,000 golden guilders),[a] appointed him his court mathematician, and made him a Reichsritter (a Free Imperial Knight) and in 1544 even an Imperial Count Palatine. All this furthered Apianus's reputation as an eminent scientist. Astronomicum Caesareum is noted for its visual appeal. Printed and bound decoratively, with about 100 known copies,[9] it included several Volvelles that allowed users to calculate dates, the positions of constellations and so on.[10][11][12] Apianus noted that it took a month to produce some of the plates. Thirty-five octagonal paper cut instruments were included with woodcuts that are thought to have been made by Hans Brosamer (c. 1495 – 1555) who may have trained under Lucas Cranach, Sr. in Wittemberg.[13] It also incorporated star and constellation names from the work of the Arab astronomer Azophi (Abu al-Husain al-Sufi AD 903–986).[14] Apianus is also remembered for publishing the only known depiction of the Bedouin constellations in 1533. On this map Ursa Minor is an old woman and three maidens, Draco is four camels and Cepheus was illustrated as a shepherd with sheep and dog.[15]

Arms of coat of nobility Apian in Leisnig / Saxony

Despite many calls from other universities, including Leipzig, Padua, Tübingen, and Vienna, Apianus remained in Ingolstadt until his death. Although he neglected his teaching duties, the university evidently was proud to host such an esteemed scientist. Apianus's work included in mathematics—in 1527 he published a variation of Pascal's triangle, and in 1534 a table of sines— as well as astronomy. In 1531, he observed Halley's Comet and noted that a comet's tail always point away from the sun.[16] Girolamo Fracastoro also detected this in 1531, but Apianus's publication was the first to also include graphics. He designed sundials, published manuals for astronomical instruments and crafted volvelles ("Apian wheels"), measuring instruments useful for calculating time and distance for astronomical and astrological applications.[17][18]

Apianus married the daughter of a councilman of Landshut, Katharina Mosner, in 1526. They would have fourteen children together, five girls and nine sons, one of whom was Philipp Apian (1531–1589), who, in addition to his own research, preserved the legacy of his father.[19]

Selected works

Peter Apian's geocentric cosmology from Cosmographia, 1524
Folium populi, 1533
  • Cosmographicus liber (also called Cosmographia), Landshut 1524.
  • Ein newe und wolgegründete underweisung aller Kauffmanns Rechnung in dreyen Büchern, mit schönen Regeln und fragstücken begriffen, Ingolstadt 1527. A handbook of commercial arithmetic; depicted in the painting The Ambassadors by Hans Holbein the Younger.
  • Cosmographiae introductio, cum quibusdam Geometriae ac Astronomiae principiis ad eam rem necessariis, Ingolstadt 1529.[20]: 4 
  • Ein kurtzer bericht der Observation unnd urtels des jüngst erschinnen Cometen..., Ingolstadt 1532. On his comet observations.[citation needed]
  • Quadrans Apiani astronomicus, Ingolstadt 1532. On quadrants.[20]: 90 
  • Horoscopion Apiani..., Ingolstadt 1533. On sundials.[20]: 91 
  • Instrument Buch..., Ingolstadt 1533. A scientific book on astronomical instruments in German.[20]: 97 
  • Instrumentum primi mobilis, Nuremberg 1534. On trigonometry, contains sine tables.[20]: 103 
  • Astronomicum Caesareum, Ingolstadt 1540.

Footnotes

  1. ^ Whether Apian ever received the promised money is uncertain; in any case he wrote a letter to the emperor in 1549 asking him to finally pay the promised sum.[8]

References

  1. ^ Kish (1970)
  2. ^ a b "19139 Apian (1989 GJ8)". Minor Planet Center. Retrieved 3 January 2018.
  3. ^ Broecke, Steven Vanden (2006). "The Use of Visual Media in Renaissance Cosmography: The Cosmography of Peter Apian and Gemma Frisius". Paedagogica Historica. 36: 130–150. doi:10.1080/0030923000360107.
  4. ^ Keuning, Johannes (2008). "The history of geographical map projections until 1600". Imago Mundi. 12: 1–24. doi:10.1080/03085695508592085.
  5. ^ Kish, George (2008). "The cosmographic heart: Cordiform maps of the 16th century". Imago Mundi. 19: 13–21. doi:10.1080/03085696508592261.
  6. ^ Woodward, David (2008). "Some evidence for the use of stereotyping on Peter Apian's world map of 1530". Imago Mundi. 24: 43–48. doi:10.1080/03085697008592348.
  7. ^ Johnson, A. F. (1965-06-01). "Devices of German Printers, 1501–1540". The Library. s5-XX (2): 81–107. doi:10.1093/library/s5-xx.2.81. ISSN 0024-2160.
  8. ^ "APIAN, Peter (ursprünglich Bienewitz oder Bennewitz)". Bautz.de. Retrieved 2013-03-19.
  9. ^ Gingerich, Owen (2016). "Apianus's Astronomicum Caesareum and its Leipzig Facsimile". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 2 (3): 168–177. doi:10.1177/002182867100200303.
  10. ^ Gislén, Lars (2017). "Apinanus' latitude volvelles – how were they made?". Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage. 20: 13–20.
  11. ^ Stebbins, F. A. (1959). "A Sixteenth-Century Planetarium". Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. 53: 197–203. Bibcode:1959JRASC..53..197S.
  12. ^ Apian, Peter; Ionides, S. A. (1 January 1936). "Caesars' Astronomy: (Astronomicum Caesareum)". Osiris. 1: 356–389. doi:10.1086/368431. ISSN 0369-7827.
  13. ^ Kremer, Richard L (2011). "Experimenting with Paper Instruments in Fifteenth-and Sixteenth-Century Astronomy: Computing Syzygies with Isotemporal Lines and Salt Dishes". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 42 (2): 223–258. doi:10.1177/002182861104200207.
  14. ^ Kunitzsch, Paul (2016). "Peter Apian and 'AZOPHI': Arabic Constellations in Renaissance Astronomy". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 18 (2): 117–124. doi:10.1177/002182868701800204.
  15. ^ Carole Stott, Celestial Charts, Antique Maps of the Heavens, 1995, Studio Editions, London, England P38-39
  16. ^ Barker, Peter (2008). "Stoic alternatives to Aristotelian cosmology : Pena, Rothmann and Brahe, Summary". Revue d'histoire des sciences (in French). Tome 61 (2): 265–286. doi:10.3917/rhs.612.0265. ISSN 0151-4105.
  17. ^ Wolfschmidt, Gudrun (1995). "Peter Apian as an astronomical instrument maker". Astronomische Gesellschaft Abstract Series. 11: 107. Bibcode:1995AGAb...11..107W.
  18. ^ North, J. D. (1966). "Werner, Apian, Blagrave and the Meteoroscope". The British Journal for the History of Science. 3 (1): 57–65. doi:10.1017/s0007087400000194. ISSN 1474-001X.
  19. ^ Ralf Kern. Wissenschaftliche Instrumente in ihrer Zeit. Volume 1: Vom Astrolab zum mathematischen Besteck. Cologne, 2010. p. 332.
  20. ^ a b c d e van Ostroy, Fernand Gratien (1902). Bibliographie de l'oeuvre de Pierre Apian (in French). P. Jacquin.

Further reading

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