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=== North America ===
=== North America ===
In the United States, intermittent fasting became a fad in [[Silicon Valley]].<ref name="solon">{{Cite news |last=Solon |first=Olivia |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2017/sep/04/silicon-valley-ceo-fasting-trend-diet-is-it-safe |title=The Silicon Valley execs who don't eat for days: 'It's not dieting, it's biohacking' |date=2017-09-04 |work=The Guardian |access-date=2018-11-05 |name-list-format=vanc}}</ref> It was the most popular diet in 2018 according to a survey by the [[International Food Information Council]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kohok |first=Shivaani |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/health-48478529 |title=Why is intermittent fasting so popular? |date=3 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://foodinsight.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/2018-FHS-Report-FINAL.pdf |title=2018 Food & Health Survey |date=2018 |website=foodinsight.org |publisher=International Food Information Council}}</ref> The idea of binge eating following dietary restrictions stems from an extrapolation of a post-war famine study, where nineteen prisoners of war were observed during their re-habilitation with unlimited access to food, and found they tended to indulge in binge eating.<ref name="Johnstone2015" />
In the United States, intermittent fasting became a fad in [[Silicon Valley]].<ref name="solon">{{Cite news |last=Solon |first=Olivia |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2017/sep/04/silicon-valley-ceo-fasting-trend-diet-is-it-safe |title=The Silicon Valley execs who don't eat for days: 'It's not dieting, it's biohacking' |date=2017-09-04 |work=The Guardian |access-date=2018-11-05 |name-list-format=vanc}}</ref> It was the most popular diet in 2018 according to a survey by the [[International Food Information Council]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kohok |first=Shivaani |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/health-48478529 |title=Why is intermittent fasting so popular? |date=3 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://foodinsight.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/2018-FHS-Report-FINAL.pdf |title=2018 Food & Health Survey |date=2018 |website=foodinsight.org |publisher=International Food Information Council}}</ref> The idea of binge eating following dietary restrictions stems from an extrapolation of a post-war famine study, where nineteen prisoners of war were observed during their rehabilitation with unlimited access to food, and found they tended to indulge in binge eating.<ref name="Johnstone2015" />


=== Commercial activity ===
=== Commercial activity ===
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== Religious fasting ==
== Religious fasting ==
[[File:Ash_Wednesday_Mass_at_Nazareth_Evangelical_Lutheran_Church.jpg|thumb|300px|The Christian season of [[Lent]] begins on [[Ash Wednesday]], which is observed through [[Fasting#Christianity|fasting]] and the public imposition of ashes, as in this Lutheran celebration of the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]].]]
[[File:Ash_Wednesday_Mass_at_Nazareth_Evangelical_Lutheran_Church.jpg|thumb|300px|The Christian season of [[Lent]] begins on [[Ash Wednesday]], which is observed through [[Fasting#Christianity|fasting]] and the public imposition of ashes, as in this Lutheran celebration of the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]].]]
Intermittent fasting exists in some religious practices.<ref name="Patterson2015" /><ref name=Persynaki2017 /> These include the [[Black Fast]] of [[Christianity]] (commonly practiced during [[Lent]]), [[Vrata]] ([[Hinduism]]), [[Ramadan]] ([[Islam]]), [[Yom Kippur]] and [[Ta'anit|other fasts]] ([[Judaism]]), [[Fast Sunday]] ([[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]), and [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] fasting.<ref name=Persynaki2017 /> Religious fasting practices may only require abstinence from certain foods or last for a short period of time and cause negligible effects.<ref name=Persynaki2017/>
Intermittent fasting is practiced in religious practices across the world.<ref name="Patterson2015" /><ref name=Persynaki2017 /> These include the [[Black Fast]] of [[Christianity]] (commonly practiced during [[Lent]]), [[Vrata]] ([[Hinduism]]), [[Ramadan]] ([[Islam]]), [[Yom Kippur]] and [[Ta'anit|other fasts]] ([[Judaism]]), [[Fast Sunday]] ([[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]), and [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] fasting.<ref name=Persynaki2017 /> Religious fasting practices may only require abstinence from certain foods or, last for a short period of time and cause negligible effects.<ref name=Persynaki2017/>


In Christianity, many adherents of [[Christian denomination]]s including Catholics, Lutherans, Methodists, Anglicans and the Orthodox, often observe the [[Friday Fast]] throughout the year, which commonly includes abstinence from meat.<ref name="Boyers2019">{{cite book |last1=Boyers |first1=Lindsay |title=Intermittent Fasting Basics: Your Guide to the Essentials of Intermittent Fasting—and How It Can Work for You! |date=2019 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-5072-1056-7 |page=19 |language=English}}</ref> Throughout the liturgical season of Lent (and especially on [[Ash Wednesday]] and [[Good Friday]]) in the [[kalendar|Christian kalendar]], many Christians practice a form of intermittent fasting in which one can consume two [[Collation (meal)|collation]]s and one full meal; others partake of the Black Fast, in which no food is consumed until sundown.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://glctulsa.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Fasting-Guidelines-Rev-2016.pdf|title=Fasting Guidelines|publisher=[[Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod]]|language=English|year=2016|accessdate=17 March 2018}}</ref><ref name="StravinskasShaw1998">{{cite book|last1=Stravinskas|first1=Peter M. J.|last2=Shaw|first2=Russell B.|title=Our Sunday Visitor's Catholic Encyclopedia|date=1 September 1998|publisher=Our Sunday Visitor|language=English|isbn=9780879736699|quote=The so-called black fast refers to a day or days of penance on which only one meal is allowed, and that in the evening. The prescription of this type of fast not only forbids the partaking of meats but also of all dairy products, such as eggs, butter, cheese and milk. Wine and other alcoholic beverages are forbidden as well. In short, only bread, water and vegetables form part of the diet for one following such a fast.}}</ref>
In Christianity, many adherents of [[Christian denomination]]s including Catholics, Lutherans, Methodists, Anglicans and the Orthodox, often observe the [[Friday Fast]] throughout the year, which commonly includes abstinence from meat.<ref name="Boyers2019">{{cite book |last1=Boyers |first1=Lindsay |title=Intermittent Fasting Basics: Your Guide to the Essentials of Intermittent Fasting—and How It Can Work for You! |date=2019 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-5072-1056-7 |page=19 |language=English}}</ref> Throughout the liturgical season of Lent (and especially on [[Ash Wednesday]] and [[Good Friday]]) in the [[kalendar|Christian kalendar]], many Christians practice a form of intermittent fasting in which one can consume two [[Collation (meal)|collation]]s and one full meal; others partake of the Black Fast, in which no food is consumed until sundown.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://glctulsa.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Fasting-Guidelines-Rev-2016.pdf|title=Fasting Guidelines|publisher=[[Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod]]|language=English|year=2016|accessdate=17 March 2018}}</ref><ref name="StravinskasShaw1998">{{cite book|last1=Stravinskas|first1=Peter M. J.|last2=Shaw|first2=Russell B.|title=Our Sunday Visitor's Catholic Encyclopedia|date=1 September 1998|publisher=Our Sunday Visitor|language=English|isbn=9780879736699|quote=The so-called black fast refers to a day or days of penance on which only one meal is allowed, and that in the evening. The prescription of this type of fast not only forbids the partaking of meats but also of all dairy products, such as eggs, butter, cheese and milk. Wine and other alcoholic beverages are forbidden as well. In short, only bread, water and vegetables form part of the diet for one following such a fast.}}</ref> Additionally, many Christians make a [[Lenten sacrifice]], including abstaining from alcohol and [[teetotalism|temperance]], as well as eliminating sweets and carbohydrates from one's diet for example.<ref name="Mortimer2016">{{cite web |last1=Mortimer |first1=Caroline |title=The top 10 things most people will (try) to give up for Lent |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/lent-2016-the-top-10-things-most-people-will-try-to-give-up-a6865181.html |publisher=[[The Independent]] |accessdate=17 March 2019 |language=English |date=10 February 2016|quote=Ash Wednesday marks the beginning of Lent - the festival where people give up a guilty pleasure for 40 days until Easter Sunday. Lent marks the 40 days Jesus spent fasting in the desert.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Weight loss tips: Giving up THIS food for Lent will help you lose belly fat and get a flat tummy fast |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/health/article/weight-loss-giving-up-this-food-for-lent-will-help-you-lose-belly-fat-quickly-and-improve-overall-health/377837 |publisher=[[Times Now]] |accessdate=9 May 2020 |language=English |date=8 May 2019}}</ref>


In Buddhism, fasting is undertaken as part of the monastic training of [[Theravada]] Buddhist monks, who fast daily from noon to sunrise of the next day.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Johnston |first=William M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iepJAgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage |title=Encyclopedia of Monasticism |date=2013-12-04 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136787164 |pages=467 |name-list-format=vanc}}</ref> This daily fasting pattern may be undertaken by laypeople following the [[eight precepts]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Cottrell |first=Tara |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3aC0DAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage |title=Buddha's Diet: The Ancient Art of Losing Weight Without Losing Your Mind |last2=Zigmond |first2=Dan |date=2016-09-06 |publisher=Running Press |isbn=9780762460465 |pages=26–27 |name-list-format=vanc}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Johnston |first=William M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iepJAgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage |title=Encyclopedia of Monasticism |date=2013-12-04 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136787164 |pages=467 |name-list-format=vanc}}</ref>
In Buddhism, fasting is undertaken as part of the monastic training of [[Theravada]] Buddhist monks, who fast daily from noon to sunrise of the next day.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Johnston |first=William M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iepJAgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage |title=Encyclopedia of Monasticism |date=2013-12-04 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136787164 |pages=467 |name-list-format=vanc}}</ref> This daily fasting pattern may be undertaken by laypeople following the [[eight precepts]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Cottrell |first=Tara |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3aC0DAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage |title=Buddha's Diet: The Ancient Art of Losing Weight Without Losing Your Mind |last2=Zigmond |first2=Dan |date=2016-09-06 |publisher=Running Press |isbn=9780762460465 |pages=26–27 |name-list-format=vanc}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Johnston |first=William M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iepJAgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage |title=Encyclopedia of Monasticism |date=2013-12-04 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136787164 |pages=467 |name-list-format=vanc}}</ref>

Revision as of 05:42, 11 May 2020

This article is about intentional fasting. For involuntary fasting, see starvation. For fasting before a clinical or surgical intervention, see preoperative fasting.
Intermittent fasting is a strategy for meal timing scheduling.

Intermittent fasting, also known as intermittent energy restriction, is an umbrella term for various meal timing schedules that cycle between voluntary fasting (or reduced calories intake) and non-fasting over a given period.[1][2][3]

Three methods of intermittent fasting are alternate-day fasting, periodic fasting, and daily time-restricted feeding.[1][4] Intermittent fasting may be similar to a calorie-restriction diet.[2] Although being studied in the 21st century as a practice to possibly reduce the risk of diet-related diseases,[1][2][5][6][7] intermittent fasting is also regarded as a fad.[8]

The science concerning intermittent fasting is contested. The American Heart Association (AHA) states that intermittent fasting may produce weight loss, reduce insulin resistance, and lower the risk of cardiometabolic diseases, although its long-term sustainability is unknown.[2] The US National Institute on Aging (NIA) recommends against intermittent fasting because of uncertainties about its effectiveness and safety, particularly for the elderly.[9] A 2019 review concluded that in humans, intermittent-fasting interventions may help with obesity, insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, hypertension, and inflammation.[1]

Forms of intermittent fasting exist in various religious practices, including Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, and Buddhism.[3][10][11]

Types

An alternate day fasting schedule, that alternates between usual eating (feast days) and fast days with reduced or no calories

Three methods of intermittent fasting are alternate-day fasting, periodic fasting, and time-restricted feeding:[1][3][4][8][12][13]

  • Alternate-day fasting involves alternating between a 24-hour "fast day" when the person eats less than 25% of usual energy needs, followed by a 24-hour non-fasting "feast day" period. It is the strictest form of intermittent fasting because there are more days of fasting per week.[2][4] There are two subtypes:[8][14]
    • Complete alternate-day fasting (or total intermittent energy restriction), where no calories are consumed on fast days.
    • Modified alternate-day fasting (or partial intermittent energy restriction) which allows the consumption of up to 25% of daily calorie needs on fasting days instead of complete fasting. This is akin to alternating days with normal eating and days with a very-low-calorie diet.[15]
  • Periodic fasting or whole-day fasting involves any period of consecutive fasting of more than 24 hours, such as the 5:2 diet where there are one or two fast days per week, to the more extreme version with several days or weeks of fasting.[1] During the fasting days, consumption of approximately 500 to 700 calories, or about 25% of regular daily caloric intake, may be allowed instead of complete fasting.[1][2][4][14][16]
  • Time-restricted feeding involves eating only during a certain number of hours each day.[1] Skipping a meal and the 16:8 diet (16 fasting hours cycled by 8 non-fasting hours) are examples. This schedule is thought to leverage the circadian rhythm.[2][4][17]

The science concerning intermittent fasting is preliminary and uncertain due to an absence of studies on its long term effects.[1][2][9][18][19] Preliminary evidence indicates that intermittent fasting may be effective for weight loss, may decrease insulin resistance and fasting insulin, and may improve cardiovascular and metabolic health, although the long term sustainability of these effects has not been studied.[1][2]

Recommendations

The AHA recommends intermittent fasting as an option for weight loss and calorie control as part of an "intentional approach to eating that focuses on the timing and frequency of meals and snacks as the basis of a healthier lifestyle and improved risk factor management".[2] For overweight people, fasting may be integrated into a wider dietary change, such as "placing snacks strategically before meals that might be associated with overeating", planning meals and snacks throughout the day to help manage hunger and control meal portions, and "promote consistent overnight fast periods".[2] The AHA noted that eating some food on a fast day (instead of a complete fast) produced the greatest weight loss and decreases in insulin resistance, when at least 4% weight loss was achieved by obese individuals.[2]

The American Diabetes Association "found limited evidence about the safety and/or effects of intermittent fasting on type 1 diabetes" and preliminary results of weight loss for type 2 diabetes, and so does not recommend any specific dietary pattern for the management of diabetes until more research is done, recommending instead that "health care providers should focus on the key factors that are common among the patterns".[18]

New Zealand's Ministry of Health considers that intermittent fasting can be advised by doctors to some people, except diabetics, stating that these "diets can be as effective as other energy-restricted diets, and some people may find them easier to stick to" but there are possible side effects during fasting days such as "hunger, low energy levels, light-headedness and poor mental functioning" and note that healthy food must be chosen on non-fast days.[19][20]

The NIA stated that although intermittent fasting showed weight loss success in several studies on obese or overweight individuals, it does not recommend intermittent fasting for non-overweight individuals because of uncertainties about its effectiveness and safety, especially for older adults.[9]

According to NHS Choices, people considering the 5:2 diet should first consult a physician, as fasting can sometimes be unsafe.[21][22] A news item in the Canadian Medical Association Journal expressed concern that promotional material for the diet showed people eating high-calorie food, such as hamburgers and chips, and that this could encourage binge eating since the implication was that "if you fast two days a week, you can devour as much junk as your gullet can swallow during the remaining five days".[23]

Given the lack of advantage and the increased incidence of diarrhea, European guidelines do not recommend intermittent feeding.[24][25]

As of 2019, intermittent fasting was a common fad diet, attracting celebrity endorsements and public interest.[26]

UK

Intermittent fasting (specifically the 5:2 diet of Michelle Harvie and Mark Mattson and popularized by Michael Mosley) became popular in the UK in 2012[27][28] after the BBC2 television Horizon documentary Eat, Fast and Live Longer.[29] Via sales of best-selling books, it became widely practiced.[21][30]

North America

In the United States, intermittent fasting became a fad in Silicon Valley.[31] It was the most popular diet in 2018 according to a survey by the International Food Information Council.[32][33] The idea of binge eating following dietary restrictions stems from an extrapolation of a post-war famine study, where nineteen prisoners of war were observed during their rehabilitation with unlimited access to food, and found they tended to indulge in binge eating.[15]

Commercial activity

As of 2019, interest in intermittent fasting led some companies to commercialize diet coaching, dietary supplements and full meal packages.[31][34] These companies were criticized for offering expensive products or services that were not backed by science.[34][35]

Research

Weight

There is some limited evidence that intermittent fasting produces weight loss comparable to a calorie restricted diet.[5][6][7][36][37][38] Most studies on intermittent fasting in humans observed weight losses, ranging from 2.5% to 9.9%.[39][40] Alternate day fasting does not affect lean body mass,[4][41] although one review found a small decrease.[42] Alternate day fasting improves cardiovascular and metabolic biomarkers similarly to a calorie restriction diet for people who are overweight, obese or have a metabolic syndrome.[5][7][13][16][43]

Intermittent fasting has not yet been studied in children, the elderly, or underweight people, and could be harmful in these populations.[5][7][9][44] Intermittent fasting is not recommended for people who are not overweight.[9] The long-term sustainability of intermittent fasting was unknown as of 2018.[9][45][46]

Other effects

Night-time eating has been linked to impaired sleep quality.[14] Intermittent fasting (prevention, treatment, drugs interaction) is not recommended to treat cancer in France,[47][48] the United Kingdom,[49] or the United States,[50] although a few small-scale clinical studies suggest that intermittent fasting may reduce chemotherapy side effects.[51][52] Periodic fasting may have a minor effect on chronic pain and mood disorders.[53][54][55] In preliminary research, intermittent fasting has shown signs of reducing risk factors for certain disorders, including insulin resistance and cardiovascular disease.[56] Intermittent fasting does not affect bone health.[57]

Athletic performance does not benefit from intermittent fasting.[58] Overnight fasting before exercise increases lipolysis, but reduces performance in prolonged exercise (more than 60 min).[59][60]

Adverse effects

Reviews of preliminary clinical studies found that short-term intermittent fasting may produce minor adverse effects, such as continuous feelings of hunger, irritability, and impaired thinking, although these effects appear to dissipate within a month of the fasting practice.[1] However, the data remain sparse, as most studies did not analyze adverse effects specifically.[5][37][61][62] A 2018 systematic review found no major adverse effect.[5] Intermittent fasting is not recommended for pregnant or breastfeeding women, or children and adolescents during maturation, or individuals vulnerable to eating disorders.[12]

Tolerance

Tolerance of a diet is a determinant of its potential effectiveness and maintenance of benefits obtained, such as weight loss or biomarker improvement.[37] A 2019 review found that drop-out rates varied widely from 2% to 38% for intermittent fasting, and from 0% to 50% for a calorie restriction diet.[5]

Putative mechanisms

Preliminary research indicates that fasting may induce a transition through four states: 1) from the fed state or absorptive state during satiety when the primary fuel source is glucose and body fat storage is activated, an effect lasting about 4 hours;[63][64] 2) a postabsorptive state lasting for up to 18 hours when glucagon is secreted and the body uses liver glucose reserves as a fuel source;[4][13][63] 3) a fasted state transitioning progressively to other reserves, such as fat, lactic acid, and alanine as fuel sources, when the liver glucose reserves are depleted, an effect occurring after 12 to 36 hours of continued fast;[64][65][66] 4) a shift from preferential lipid synthesis and fat storage to the mobilization of fat in the form of free fatty acids metabolized into fatty acid-derived ketones to provide energy.[13][64][67][68] Some authors call this transition a "metabolic switch".[1][13][69][7] A 2019 review of weight-change interventions, including alternate day fasting, time-restricted feeding, exercise and overeating, found that body weight homeostasis could not precisely correct for "energetic errors" – the loss or gain of calories – in the short-term.[70]

Intermittent feeding

Other feeding schemes, such as hypocaloric feeding[71] and intermittent feeding, also called bolus feeding were under study.[24] A 2019 meta-analysis found that intermittent feeding may be more beneficial for premature infants, although better designed studies are required to devise clinical practices.[72] In adults, reviews have not found intermittent feeding to increase glucose variability or gastrointestinal intolerance.[73][25] A meta-analysis found intermittent feeding had no influence on gastric residual volumes and aspiration, pneumonia, mortality nor morbidity in people with a trauma, but increased the risk of diarrhea.[24][25]

Food production

Intermittent fasting, or "skip-a-day" feeding, is supposedly the most common feeding strategy for poultry in broiler breeder farms worldwide, as an alternative to adding bulky fibers to the diet to reduce growth. It is perceived as welfare-reducing and thus illegal in several European countries including Sweden. Intermittent fasting in poultry appears to increase food consumption but reduce appetitive behaviors such as foraging.[74]

History

Fasting is an ancient tradition, having been practiced by many cultures and religions over centuries.[8][75][76]

Therapeutic intermittent fasts for the treatment of obesity are investigated since at least 1915, with a renewed interest in the medical community in the 1960s after Bloom and his colleagues published an "enthusiastic report".[77] Intermittent fasts, or "short-term starvation periods", were ranging from 1 to 14 days in these early studies.[78] This enthusiasm penetrated lay magazines, which prompted researchers and clinicians to caution about the use of intermittent fasts without medical monitoring.[79]

A modern type of intermittent fasting, the 5:2 diet, began in the United Kingdom in 2012.[80][81]

Religious fasting

The Christian season of Lent begins on Ash Wednesday, which is observed through fasting and the public imposition of ashes, as in this Lutheran celebration of the Mass.

Intermittent fasting is practiced in religious practices across the world.[3][10] These include the Black Fast of Christianity (commonly practiced during Lent), Vrata (Hinduism), Ramadan (Islam), Yom Kippur and other fasts (Judaism), Fast Sunday (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints), and Buddhist fasting.[10] Religious fasting practices may only require abstinence from certain foods or, last for a short period of time and cause negligible effects.[10]

In Christianity, many adherents of Christian denominations including Catholics, Lutherans, Methodists, Anglicans and the Orthodox, often observe the Friday Fast throughout the year, which commonly includes abstinence from meat.[82] Throughout the liturgical season of Lent (and especially on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday) in the Christian kalendar, many Christians practice a form of intermittent fasting in which one can consume two collations and one full meal; others partake of the Black Fast, in which no food is consumed until sundown.[83][84] Additionally, many Christians make a Lenten sacrifice, including abstaining from alcohol and temperance, as well as eliminating sweets and carbohydrates from one's diet for example.[85][86]

In Buddhism, fasting is undertaken as part of the monastic training of Theravada Buddhist monks, who fast daily from noon to sunrise of the next day.[87] This daily fasting pattern may be undertaken by laypeople following the eight precepts.[88][89]

During Ramadan, Islamic practices are similar to intermittent fasting by not eating or drinking from dawn until sunset, while permitting food intake in the morning before dawn and in the evening after dusk.[10] A meta-analysis on the health of Muslims during Ramadan shows significant weight loss during the fasting period of up to 1.51 kilograms (3.3 lb), but this weight was regained within about two weeks thereafter.[90] The analysis concluded that "Ramadan provides an opportunity to lose weight, but structured and consistent lifestyle modifications are necessary to achieve lasting weight loss."[90] One review found similarities between Ramadan and time-restricted feeding, with the main dissimilarity being the disallowance of water drinking with Islamic fasting.[91] Negative effects of Ramadan fasting include increased risk of hypoglycemia in diabetics, as well as inadequate levels of certain nutrients.[10] Ramadan disallows fluids during the fasting period. This is hazardous for pregnant women, as it is associated with risks of inducing labor and causing gestational diabetes, although it does not appear to affect the child's weight.[92][93][94]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l de Cabo, Rafael; Mattson, Mark P. (December 2019). "Effects of intermittent fasting on health, aging, and disease". New England Journal of Medicine. 381 (26): 2541–51. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1905136. PMID 31881139.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l St-Onge MP, Ard J, Baskin ML, Chiuve SE, Johnson HM, Kris-Etherton P, Varady K, et al. (American Heart Association Obesity Committee of the Council on Lifestyle and Cardiometabolic Health; Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young; Council on Clinical Cardiology; and Stroke) (February 2017). "Meal Timing and Frequency: Implications for Cardiovascular Disease Prevention: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association". Circulation. 135 (9): e96–e121. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000476. PMID 28137935.
  3. ^ a b c d Patterson RE, Laughlin GA, LaCroix AZ, Hartman SJ, Natarajan L, Senger CM, Martínez ME, Villaseñor A, Sears DD, Marinac CR, Gallo LC (August 2015). "Intermittent Fasting and Human Metabolic Health". Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 115 (8): 1203–12. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2015.02.018. PMC 4516560. PMID 25857868. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |displayauthors= ignored (|display-authors= suggested) (help)
  4. ^ a b c d e f g Tinsley GM, La Bounty PM (October 2015). "Effects of intermittent fasting on body composition and clinical health markers in humans". Nutrition Reviews. 73 (10): 661–74. doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuv041. PMID 26374764.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g Cioffi I, Evangelista A, Ponzo V, Ciccone G, Soldati L, Santarpia L, Contaldo F, Pasanisi F, Ghigo E, Bo S (December 2018). "Intermittent versus continuous energy restriction on weight loss and cardiometabolic outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". Journal of Translational Medicine (Systematic review). 16 (1): 371. doi:10.1186/s12967-018-1748-4. PMC 6304782. PMID 30583725. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |displayauthors= ignored (|display-authors= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  6. ^ a b Sainsbury A, Wood RE, Seimon RV, Hills AP, King NA, Gibson AA, Byrne NM (December 2018). "Rationale for novel intermittent dieting strategies to attenuate adaptive responses to energy restriction". Obesity Reviews. 19 Suppl 1: 47–60. doi:10.1111/obr.12787. PMID 30511512.
  7. ^ a b c d e Harris L, Hamilton S, Azevedo LB, Olajide J, De Brún C, Waller G, Whittaker V, Sharp T, Lean M, Hankey C, Ells L (February 2018). "Intermittent fasting interventions for treatment of overweight and obesity in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis" (PDF). JBI Database of Systematic Reviews and Implementation Reports. 16 (2): 507–547. doi:10.11124/JBISRIR-2016-003248. PMID 29419624. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |displayauthors= ignored (|display-authors= suggested) (help)
  8. ^ a b c d Hart, Katherine (2018). "Chapter 4.6 Fad diets and fasting for weight loss in obesity.". In Hankey, Catherine (ed.). Advanced nutrition and dietetics in obesity. Wiley. pp. 177–182. ISBN 9780470670767. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |name-list-format= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help)
  9. ^ a b c d e f "Calorie restriction and fasting diets: What do we know?". National Institute on Aging, US National Institutes of Health. 2018-08-14. Retrieved 29 September 2019.
  10. ^ a b c d e f Persynaki A, Karras S, Pichard C (March 2017). "Unraveling the metabolic health benefits of fasting related to religious beliefs: A narrative review". Nutrition. 35: 14–20. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2016.10.005. PMID 28241983.
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