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* {{cite journal |last1=Marslen-Wilson| first1=William|last2= Tyler | first2=Lorraine Komisarjevsky|title=The temporal structure of spoken language understanding |journal=Cognition |year=1980|volume=8|issue=1|pages=1–71|ref=harv |doi=10.1016/0010-0277(80)90015-3| citeseerx=10.1.1.299.7676 | pmid=7363578}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Marslen-Wilson| first1=William|last2= Tyler | first2=Lorraine Komisarjevsky|title=The temporal structure of spoken language understanding |journal=Cognition |year=1980|volume=8|issue=1|pages=1–71|ref=harv |doi=10.1016/0010-0277(80)90015-3| citeseerx=10.1.1.299.7676 | pmid=7363578}}
* {{cite journal| last=Moray|first=Neville|title=Attention in dichotic listening: Affective cues and the influence of instructions|journal=Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology |volume =11|year=1959|issue =1|pages =56–60 | doi=10.1080/17470215908416289|ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal| last=Moray|first=Neville|title=Attention in dichotic listening: Affective cues and the influence of instructions|journal=Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology |volume =11|year=1959|issue =1|pages =56–60 | doi=10.1080/17470215908416289|ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal|last=Liberman|first=Alvin M.|last2=Mattingly|first2=Ignatius G.|year=1985|title=The motor theory of speech perception revised|journal=Cognition|volume=21|issue=1|pages=1–36|doi=10.1016/0010-0277(85)90021-6|issn=0010-0277|ref=harv}}


[[Category:Phonetics]]
[[Category:Phonetics]]

Revision as of 02:37, 29 May 2020

Speech shadowing is a psycholinguistic experimental technique in which subjects repeat speech at a delay to the onset of hearing the phrase.[1] The time between hearing the speech and responding, is how long the brain takes to process speech. While a person is asked to repeat words, they automatically process the syntax and semantics of the words spoken.[2] Words repeated during the practice of shadowing imitate the parlance of the overheard words more than the same words read aloud by that subject.[3] Speech shadowing is also used as an interpreting and translating method, as well as in language learning.[4][4]

The reaction time between hearing a word and repeating it has been recorded at 250 ms for a standardised test .[2] However, for people with strongly left dominant brains, the reaction time has been recorded at 150 ms .[5] Functional imaging finds that the shadowing of non-words[6] occurs through the dorsal stream. This area links auditory and motor representations of speech through a pathway that starts in the superior temporal cortex, extends to the inferior parietal cortex and ends with the posterior inferior frontal cortex (Broca's area).[7]

Speech shadowing was first used as a research technique by the Leningrad Group led by Valerij Kozhevnikov and Ludmilla Chistovich in the late 1950s.[5][8] It has also been used with research on speech perception[2] and stuttering.[9]


History

Lenigrad group

The Lenigrad group was interested in the time difference between the articulation and perception of speech. The speech shadowing technique was formulated to measure this difference.[10] To measure the initiation of speech, an artificial palate was placed in the speaker’s mouth. When the tongue moved to begin pronunciation and touched the plate, the measurement of reaction time began.[10] The experiment concluded that the reaction time for consonants was consistently shorter than the reaction time to any vowel. The reaction time to a vowel depended on the consonant that came before it.[10] This supported the phoneme as being the most basic unit of speech registered by the brain, rather than a syllable. The phoneme is the smallest distinguishable unit of sound, but the smallest unit that has assigned meaning is a consonant-vowel syllable.[10]

Biological Functioning

Research has developed a biological model as to how the meaning of speech can be perceived instantaneously even though the sentence has never been heard before. An understanding of syntactic, lexical and phonemic characteristics is first required for this to occur.[11] Speech perception also requires the physical components of the auditory system to recognise similarities in sounds. Within the basilar membrane, energy is transferred, and specific frequencies can be activated and detected by auditory hairs. The auditory hairs can be stimulated to sharpened activity when a tonal emission is held for 100 ms.[11] This length of time indicates that speech shadowing ability can be enhanced by a moderately paced phrase.[11]

Motor theory of speech perception

See also: Motor theory of speech perception

The mechanisms of speech shadowing could also be accounted for by the motor theory of speech perception. It states that shadowed words are perceived by shifting attention towards to motions and gestures that are created during pronunciation of speech instead of an attentional shift towards rhythmic and tonal characteristics of sound.[12] The behaviourist theory cites that the motor system has primary functioning during both speech perception and production. Auditory and visual analysis has established that the vocal tract has developed a coarticulation of consonants and vowels during shadowing.[13] This provides evidence that human speech is a communication form of efficient coding rather than a complex semantics and syntax.[13] The interaction between the coding of perception and production of speech in this motor theory has also gained more evidence through the discovery of mirror neurones.[13]

Experimental applications

The speech shadowing technique is used in dichotic listening tests. The first one to apply this technique was E. Colin Cherry in 1953.[14] During dichotic listening tests, subjects are presented with two different messages, one in their right ear and one in their left. The participants are then asked to focus on one of the two messages, as this is where the speech shadowing technique is used. Participants are instructed to shadow the attended message by repeating it out loud with a delay of a few seconds between hearing a word and repeating the word. The speech shadowing technique is significant for these experiments because it ensures that the subjects are attending to the desired message.[15] Various other stimuli are then presented to the other ear, and subjects are afterwards queried on what they can recall from the other message.[16]

Through the use of speech shadowing, attention, specifically divided attention, has also been studied and tested.[17][18][19][17] Results from an experiment where participants were tasked with speech shadowing words and phrases from a speaker while in a simulated driving experience suggested that our attention may be impaired.[18] Demonstrating that speaking and/or listening while performing another cognitive task, such as driving will impair one’s ability to drive safely.[18]

These experiments with speech shadowing strongly suggest a relationship between location of sound and the amount of attention speech shadowing requires. If the words or phrases come from an area not at the target for attention, (e.g. from beside the driver), speech shadowing tends to be more distracting. On the other hand, if the words or phrases come from the general direction of the main target it is easier to perform speech shadowing accurately and drive safely.[18] This is mainly because the technique of shadowing requires more cognitive activity than simple listening and speaking.

Language

Learning

When learning a foreign language, shadowing has proven to be an effective way of practicing listening and speaking with the intent to improve the learners’ ability[19] and follows the interactionist's perspective of language development.[20] When using speech shadowing in a learning setting, how well one does gets a score, so that the learner knows where they are and how much improvement can be made. However, because of the nature of speech shadowing, it has proven difficult to come to a consensus of what an accurate scoring system would look like. The learner would often slur words and skip sounds all together in order to keep up with the pace of the words or phrases that they are to repeat.[21] Automatic scores using alignment-based and clustering-based scoring techniques were designed and implemented. These new scoring techniques demonstrate improved learning of a foreign language through the practice of speech shadowing.[19]

Interpretation

Interpreters also use the speech shadowing technique, with modifications to the delivery and expected result.[22] The first difference is that the shadowing response is chosen to be delivered in a different language to the initial vocalisation of the phrase. The phrase is also not translated verbatim. Languages do not carry parallel words of meaning, so the role of an interpreter is to place emphasis on semantics during translation.[22] Speech shadowing is incredibly important for interpreters, because if they are to wait for the person speaking to pause for them to interpret, then they would be completely under control of the speaker for pacing. The listeners would end up only getting large amounts of information rushed in between pauses, instead of a steady, conversation-like flow.

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ Marslen-Wilson, William D. (1985). "Speech shadowing and speech comprehension". Speech Communication. 4 (1–3): 55–73. doi:10.1016/0167-6393(85)90036-6. ISSN 0167-6393.
  2. ^ a b c Marslen-Wilson, W. (1973). "Linguistic structure and speech shadowing at very short latencies". Nature. 244 (5417): 522–523. Bibcode:1973Natur.244..522M. doi:10.1038/244522a0. PMID 4621131.
  3. ^ Shockley, Kevin; Sabadini, Laura; Fowler, Carol (2004-05-01). "Imitation in shadowing words". Perception & Psychophysics. 66 (3): 422–9. doi:10.3758/BF03194890. PMID 15283067.
  4. ^ a b Luo, Dean; Minematsu, Nobuaki; Yamauchi, Yutaka; Hirose, Keikichi (December 2008). "Automatic Assessment of Language Proficiency through Shadowing". 2008 6th International Symposium on Chinese Spoken Language Processing. IEEE: 1–4. doi:10.1109/chinsl.2008.ecp.22. ISBN 978-1-4244-2942-4.
  5. ^ a b Marslen-Wilson, W. D. (1985). "Speech shadowing and speech comprehension". Speech Communication. 4 (1–3): 55–73. doi:10.1016/0167-6393(85)90036-6.
  6. ^ Peschke, C.; Ziegler, W.; Kappes, J.; Baumgaertner, A. (2009). "Auditory–motor integration during fast repetition: The neuronal correlates of shadowing". NeuroImage. 47 (1): 392–402. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.03.061. PMID 19345269.
  7. ^ Hickok, G.; Poeppel, D. (2004). "Dorsal and ventral streams: A framework for understanding aspects of the functional anatomy of language". Cognition. 92 (1–2): 67–99. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2003.10.011. PMID 15037127.
  8. ^ Chistovich, L. A.; Pickett, J. M.; Porter, R. J. (1998). "Speech research at the I. P. Pavlov Institute in Leningrad/St. Petersburg". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 103 (5): 3024. Bibcode:1998ASAJ..103.3024C. doi:10.1121/1.422540.
  9. ^ Harbison Jr, D. C.; Porter Jr, R. J.; Tobey, E. A. (1989). "Shadowed and simple reaction times in stutterers and nonstutterers". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 86 (4): 1277–1284. Bibcode:1989ASAJ...86.1277H. doi:10.1121/1.398742. PMID 2808903.
  10. ^ a b c d Pickett, J.M. (1985). "Shadows, echoes and auditory analysis of speech". Speech Communication. 4 (1–3): 19–30. doi:10.1016/0167-6393(85)90033-0. ISSN 0167-6393.
  11. ^ a b c Čistovič, L.; Golusina, A.; Lublinskaja, V.; Malinnikova, Τ.; Žukova, Μ. (1968). "Psychological Methods in Speech Perception Research". STUF - Language Typology and Universals. 21 (1–6). doi:10.1524/stuf.1968.21.16.33. ISSN 2196-7148.
  12. ^ Lane, Harlan (1965). "The motor theory of speech perception: A critical review". Psychological Review. 72 (4): 275–309. doi:10.1037/h0021986. ISSN 0033-295X.
  13. ^ a b c Galantucci, Bruno; Fowler, Carol A.; Turvey, M. T. (2006). "The motor theory of speech perception reviewed". Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 13 (3): 361–377. doi:10.3758/bf03193857. ISSN 1069-9384.
  14. ^ Cherry 1953, p. 976.
  15. ^ Goldstein, B. (2011). Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience--with coglab manual. (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
  16. ^ Cherry 1953, p. 977-979.
  17. ^ a b Luo, Dean; Minematsu, Nobuaki; Yamauchi, Yutaka; Hirose, Keikichi (December 2008). "Automatic Assessment of Language Proficiency through Shadowing". 2008 6th International Symposium on Chinese Spoken Language Processing. IEEE: 1–4. doi:10.1109/chinsl.2008.ecp.22. ISBN 978-1-4244-2942-4.
  18. ^ a b c d Spence, Charles; Read, Liliana (May 2003). "Speech Shadowing While Driving". Psychological Science. 14 (3): 251–256. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.02439. ISSN 0956-7976. PMID 12741749.
  19. ^ a b c Martinsen, Rob; Montgomery, Cherice; Willardson, Véronique (2017-11-24). "The Effectiveness of Video-Based Shadowing and Tracking Pronunciation Exercises for Foreign Language Learners". Foreign Language Annals. 50 (4): 661–680. doi:10.1111/flan.12306. ISSN 0015-718X.
  20. ^ Berk, Laura E. (2018). Development through the lifespan (Seventh ed.). Hoboken, NJ. ISBN 978-0-13-441969-5. OCLC 946161390.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  21. ^ Dean, Lou (December 2007). "Automatic pronunciation evaluation of language learners' utterances generated through shadowing". Interspeech 2008. 9.
  22. ^ a b Lambert, Sylvie (2002-09-30). "Shadowing". Meta. 37 (2): 263–273. doi:10.7202/003378ar. ISSN 1492-1421.

Bibliography

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