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Homosexuality is a sexual orientation characterized by esthetic attraction, romantic love, or sexual desire exclusively for another of the same sex. (For an analysis of the difficulties involved in the issue of identification, see homosexuality and transgender and also heterosexuality and bisexuality.)

"Gay" can refer either to homosexuals in general, or specifically to male homosexuals. "Lesbian" refers to female homosexuals. (see Etymology and usage, below).

File:Homosex.JPG

Ancient Greek representation of male love. Bisexual practices were widely accepted and honored in ancient Greece

Etymology

The word homosexual translates literally as "of the same sex," being a hybrid of the Greek prefix homo- meaning "same" (as distinguished from the Latin root homo meaning human) and the Latin root sex meaning "sex."

First appearance

The first known appearance of the term homosexual in print is found in an anonymous 1869 German pamphlet 143 des Preussischen Strafgesetzbuchs und seine Aufrechterhaltung als 152 des Entwurfs eines Strafgesetzbuchs für den Norddeutschen Bund ("Paragraph 143 of the Prussian Penal Code and Its Maintenance as Paragraph 152 of the Draft of a Penal Code for the North German Confederation") written by Karl Maria Kertbeny. This pamphlet advocated the repeal of Prussia's sodomy laws (Bullough et al. ed. (1996)). Kertbeny had previously used the word in a private letter written in 1868 to Karl Heinrich Ulrichs. Kertbeny used Homosexualität in place of Ulrichs's Urningtum; Homosexualisten instead of Urninge, and Homosexualistinnen instead of Urninden.

Poststructuralist theorist Michel Foucault (1980) cites "Westphal's famous article of 1870 on "contrary sexual sensations" as the "date of birth" of the categorization of gay men and lesbians. The term's first known use in English is in Charles Gilbert Chaddock's translation of Richard von Krafft-Ebing's Psychopathia Sexualis, a study on sexual practices. The term was popularized in the 1906 Harden-Eulenburg affair.

Usage

Although some early writers used the adjective homosexual to refer to any single-gender context (such as the Roman Catholic clergy or an all-girls' school), today the term implies a sexual aspect. The term homosocial is now used to describe single-sex contexts that are not specifically sexual. Older terms for homosexuality, such as homophilia and inversion (in which a gay individual would be called a 'homophile' or an 'invert') have fallen into disuse.

Derogatory terms include fag or faggot, which generally refer to gay men; queer, generally inclusive of anyone who is not exclusively heterosexual; homo; and dyke, referring to lesbians. Such terms, however, are sometimes used in a positive way among gay persons (particularly "queer" and "dyke"). Using the term 'gay' as a noun can be considered offensive despite its acceptance as an adjective, i.e., "a gay man" is preferred over "a gay".

Recommended forms

The term homosexual can be used as a noun or adjective to describe same-sex oriented persons as well as their sexual attractions and behaviors. However, some recommend that the terms homosexual and homosexuality be avoided lest their use cause confusion or arouse controversy. In particular the description of individuals as homosexual may be offensive, partially because of the negative clinical association of the word stemming from its use in describing same-sex attraction as a pathological state before homosexuality was removed from the American Psychiatric Association's list of mental disorders in 1973. The use of the word homosexual in describing individuals and same-sex relationships may also be inaccurate.

Same-sex oriented people seldom apply these terms to themselves, and public officials and agencies often avoid them. For instance, the Safe Schools Coalition of Washington's Glossary for school employees advises that gay is the "preferred synonym for homosexual," and goes on to advise avoiding the term homosexual as it is "clinical, distancing and archaic":

Sometimes appropriate in referring to behavior (although same-sex is the preferred adjective). When referring to people, as opposed to behavior, 'homosexual' is considered derogatory and the terms 'gay' and 'lesbian' are preferred. Homosexual places emphasis on sexuality and is to be avoided when describing a person. Gay man or lesbian are the preffered nouns with stress cultural and social matters over sex.

The Guardian Style Guide, Newswatch Diversity Style Guide, American Heritage Dictionary, and the Committee on Lesbian and Gay Concern of the American Psychological Association's Avoiding Heterosexual Bias in Language all agree that "gay" is the preferred term.

Likewise, the use of homosexuality to describe sexual behaviors between people of the same sex may be inaccurate, although it is not perceived as being as offensive as homosexual.

Western people who regard themselves as having a same-gender sexual orientation tend to prefer the terms gay and lesbian. The latter term (noun or adjective) refers specifically to women; the term gay can apply to both men and women - although unqualified usage would more often be referring to men. Other terms include same-gender-loving, and same-sex-oriented.

Which terms are acceptable and which are offensive varies widely with the connotations of the words gay and lesbian are also culturally dependent. For instance, among some sectors of African-American gay sub-culture, same-gender sexual behavior is sometimes viewed as solely for physical pleasure. Men on the down-low (or DL) may engage in regular (although often covert) sex acts with other men while pursuing sexual and romantic relationships with women. These men often regard gay as a term that applies to stereotypically flamboyant and effeminate men of White ancestry, a group with which some feel no affinity. Some experts have suggested that this DL subculture may have come about because of stronger stigmas against same-sex behavior in African-American communities, as well as greater dependence on family networks (who may be prejudice) for support. This DL behaviour may also serve as a cover of secrecy for gay men who would find it difficult to come out.

Non-English terminology

In non-Western countries, an array of other terms has been employed. In ancient China various obscure poetic terms were used to describe behaviors, but not identities. These included "the passion of the cut sleeve," and "split peach" or "sharing a peach" (分桃). Other, less obscure terms have included "male trend" (男風), "allied brothers" (香火兄弟), and "masculine-dragon preference" (龍陽癖).

A common modern Chinese term is "tongzhi" (同志, literally, comrade; also nu tongzhi (女同志)"female comrade"). This was first adopted by researchers in Hong Kong Gender Studies.

In Japan similar obscure historical terms largely influenced by classical Chinese literature were employed until fairly recently when the more descriptive dōseiaisha (同性愛者, literally same-sex-loving person) became the only term available.

More recently the contraction "homo" was used; somewhat confusingly this term was used both positively and pejoratively. Nowadays the terms gei (ゲイ, a transliteration of gay) and rezu or rezubian (レズ、レズビアン, transliterations of lesbian) are the most common in the gay community, while pejorative terms like okama (a word of obscure origin literally meaning a cooking pot) are sometimes used. (For further information, see Gays In China and Gays In Japan).

Anthropology and Sociology

Incidence and prevalence of homosexuality

Estimates of the modern prevalence of homosexuality vary considerably, and are complicated by differing or even ambiguous definitions of homosexuality. Recent estimates in Western countries range from 1% to 10%.

Historically, however, in areas where same-sex relationships were integrated in the culture, such as Ancient Greece, parts of Melanesia, Renaissance Florence, and pre-modern Japan, romantic relationships were engaged in by a majority of the male population.

See: Prevalence of same-sex orientation.

Homosexuality as one end of a bisexual continuum

Some people who are in general heterosexual may have mild or occasional interest in members of their own sex. They are often referred to as bi-curious. Conversely, many people who identify themselves as gay, or who might feel greater same-sex attraction, have engaged in heterosexual activities or even had long-term heterosexual relationships. This practice can sometimes be an aspect of being in the closet, or may be described as bi-curious or bisexual behaviour, but what is clear is that a person's sexuality cannot always be strictly defined.

Some studies, notably Sexual Behavior in the Human Male and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953) by Alfred Kinsey, point out that when asked to rate themselves on a continuum from completely heterosexual to completely homosexual, and when the individual's behavior as well as their identity is analyzed, the majority of people appear to be at least somewhat bisexual. During their lives most people have some attraction to both sexes, although usually one sex as greater attraction. Kinsey and his followers therefore consider only a minority (5-10%) to be fully or exclusively heterosexual or homosexual. Conversely, only an even smaller minority can be considered "fully" bisexual, if that term is defined as having equal attraction for both sexes. Some later studies have suggested that Kinsey's studies exaggerate the occurrence of not only bisexuality, but homosexuality as a whole in the population at large, but his idea of a sexuality continuum still enjoys wide acceptance.

Sexual activity with a person of the same sex, in and of itself, does not necessarily demonstrate same-sex orientation. Not all people who are attracted to or have sexual relationships with other people of their sex identify as gay or even bisexual. Some people frequently have sex with people of the same sex yet still see themselves as heterosexual. It is important therefore to distinguish between sexual behavior, same-sex atrraction, and gay identity, which need not coincide. For example, people in prison, the military, or other sex-segregated environments may engage in what is known as "situational sexual behavior" despite identifying and living as exlusively heterosexual outside these environments.

Similarly, some people engage in same gender sex for reasons other than desire. One example is otherwise heterosexual male prostitutes (hustlers) or pornographic actors who earn money by having sex with other men. This is sometimes called being "gay for pay."

Homosexual behaviour in other species

Main article: Homosexuality in animals

Homosexual behavior appears to be fairly common amongst birds and mammals such as apes and giraffes. Some believe that this behavior has its origin in male social organization and social dominance, similar to that in prison sexuality.

Homosexual behavior can be found amongst the bonobo, which is a fully bisexual species.
The black swans of Australia will form sexually active male-male mated pairs and steal nests or form temporary bonds with females to obtain eggs.
A March 2004 study by Dr. Charles E. Roselli et al. (Oregon Health and Science University) states that homosexuality in male sheep (found in 8% of rams) is related to a region in their brain which they called the "ovine Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus" (oSDN) and which is two times smaller than the corresponding region in heterosexual male sheep. "The dense cluster of neurons that comprise the oSDN express cytochrome P450 aromatase. Aromatase mRNA levels in the oSDN were significantly greater in female-oriented rams than in ewes, whereas male-oriented rams exhibited intermediate levels of expression." These results suggest that "...naturally occurring variations in sexual partner preferences may be related to differences in brain anatomy and its capacity for estrogen synthesis." Read the abstract of the study. It is possible but unproven that this hypothesis could apply also to humans.

Why do different sexual orientations exist?

Main articles: Causes of sexual orientation & Same-sex Orientation & Medical Science

Considerable debate continues over what determines a person's sexual orientation (especially with regard to genetic vs. environmental) factors, whether that orientation is immutable or chosen. Some people maintain that being gay is like being a speeder, and say that it is learned behavior. Other people maintain that it is far too difficult to extinguish same-sex orientation and/or to replace them with heterosexual motivations, impulses, and behaviors for homosexuality to be simply a learned behavior. They assert that there must be innate reasons for sexual motivations that in a high frequency of cases direct male sexual interests to females and vice-versa, and that in the case of gay people innate factors of this same general category are present but are directed toward atypical targets.

Some scientific studies have pointed to findings that gay men's brain anatomy is similar to heterosexual women and different from their heterosexual male counterparts. Other findings include that fingerprints of gay men match closely with those of heterosexual women, and fingerprints are formed 16 weeks after conception within the womb which could point to homosexuality being determined by genetic factors. In identical twins, researchers have also found that if one self-identifies as a gay man or lesbian the chance of the other being gay is increased to 50%. Scientific inquiry into the reasons for homosexuality is still an emerging field of study, and new research is constantly changing the way science views homosexuality.

Some religious organisations that believe that homosexuality is a choice now offer conversion therapies for lesbians and gay men in an attempt to change their orientation to heterosexuality. These conversion therapies have been condemned by a number professional organisations in the medical / scientific field for causing depression - sometimes leading to suicide - and being of little value. The American Psychological Association in 1997 passed a resolution declaring therapists engaged in such conversion therapies to be following unethical practice.

The American Academy of Pediatrics, American Counseling Association, American Association of School Administrators, American Federation of Teachers, American Psychological Association, American School Health Association, Interfaith Alliance Foundation, National Association of School Psychologists, National Association of Social Workers, and National Education Association have developed and endorsed a statement in 1999 reading:

The most important fact about 'reparative therapy,' also sometimes known as 'conversion' therapy, is that it is based on an understanding of homosexuality that has been rejected by all the major health and mental health professions. The American Academy of Pediatrics, the American Counseling Association, the American Psychiatric Association, the American Psychological Association, the National Association of School Psychologists, and the National Association of Social Workers, together representing more than 477,000 health and mental health professionals, have all taken the position that homosexuality is not a mental disorder and thus there is no need for a 'cure.' ...health and mental health professional organizations do not support efforts to change young people's sexual orientation through 'reparative therapy' and have raised serious concerns about its potential to do harm.

Social considerations

File:Gay-flag-6.png

The rainbow flag is widely used as the symbol of gay pride.

Societal attitudes towards same-sex relationships have varied over the centuries, from requiring all males to engage in relationships, to casual integration, through acceptance, to seeing the practice as a minor sin, and finally to proscribing it under penalty of death.

Religion

The religious response to gay people varies. At the present time the teachings of the Abrahamic religions are being interpreted by the more conservative sects or denominations to view same-sex relationships a sin, while Buddhism, Shinto and some other religions hold that sexuality in general can interfere with the spiritual life and social order, but place no importance on the gender of the object of desire. In those cultures influenced by fundamentalist interpretations of religions, same-sex relationships are considered a perversion and has been outlawed (see sodomy law, consensual crime); in some jurisdictions sexual activity between those of the same gender remain a capital crime. (See religion and same-sex orientation for a comprehensive discussion.)

Law

The relationship between the moral condemnation of the gay community and its legal status is complicated. For instance, in England buggery was a crime under medieval canon law because it was banned by the Church. However, prosecutions for this offence died out. Sex between those of the same gender was formally banned by Parliament in the 19th century as one of a range of sexual offences, alongside sex with under-age girls, as part of an expression of a general moral outrage related to events of that time.

Persecution of gay men and lesbians is common across cultures and ideologies. While it often claims religious justification, the experience of gays under Nazi germany is a recent egregious example of persecution by a racially based (rather than religiously-based) doctrine. The Nazis viewed same-sex attraction as a sign of eugenic moral weakness, rather than as a sin.

File:Gaymap.PNG

Map showing variances in laws on same-gender sexual activity

In pre-industrial western societies same-gender sex was generally accepted by the lower classes and the upper class, less so among the bourgeoisie, though most professed to consider it immoral. However, with the rise of urbanisation and the nuclear family, same-gender sex became less tolerated and even outlawed in some cases.

By the 19th Century most areas adopting the Code Napoleon (French-based civil law) had no specific ban on same-gender sex, while many areas with British-based Common Law systems had anti-sodomy statutes and executed gay men and lesbians as late as the end of the 1800's.

Beginning in the 20th century, gay rights movements, as part of the broader civil rights movements, in concert with the development of the often activist academic treatment of sexuality in queer studies, have led to changes in social acceptance and in the media portrayal of the gay community.

The legalization and legal equality of same-gender sex, together with legal status for same-sex marriage and non-gender-specific civil unions is one of the major goals of gay rights advocates to protect families of gay couples.

In recent years a number of jurisdictions have relaxed or eliminated laws curbing same-gender sex, including sodomy laws and laws preventing gay citizens from serving in their country's armed forces.

In Bulgaria gay sex between adults (over 18) was legalized in 1951, in Hungary and Czechoslovakia - in 1961. In England and Wales, gay sex was legalized in 1967, for consenting males aged over 21. Scotland followed in 1980, and Northern Ireland in 1982. The age of consent was lowered in 1994 from 21 to 18, and again in 2000 to 16 in mainland Britain and 17 in Northern Ireland. This last change gave it equal treatment with the heterosexual age of consent. However, not until 2003 were the earlier offences of buggery and gross indecency abolished so that gay sex was treated in the same way as heterosexual sex (previously it was illegal for gay sex to involve more than two people, or for anyone to watch).

In the United States, the trend culminated on June 26, 2003 with the landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision Lawrence v. Texas which overturned all sodomy laws in the United States.

In China no specific law has targeted any gay behavior, but gay men are often convicted of being "rascals," which can lead to a jail sentence or to re-education.

In Japan there are no laws against same-gender sex.

History

Main article: History of same-gender sex

The sexual orientation of pre-modern figures is a topic of intense controversy. It may be accepted, for example, that the sex lives of historical figures such as Alexander the Great, Hadrian, Virgil, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Plato, Christopher Marlowe (who coined the term 'quean') and William Shakespeare included or were centred upon relationships with people of their own gender. Terms such as "gay" or "bisexual" might be applied to them in that sense. But many regard this as risking the anachronistic introduction of a modern social construction of sexuality that is foreign to their times. For example, their societies might have focused upon the sexual role one took in these encounters, namely active, passive, both, or neither, as a key social marker. This particular system of designation is currently the norm in many areas of Latin America.

Modern Western gay identity as it is currently understood is largely a product of 19th century psychology as well as the years of post-Stonewall gay liberation. It is generally not applicable as a standard when investigating same-gender sex and people's identities in past ages.

It could be noted, on the other hand, that when evidence that a particular historical figure's sex life pointed exclusively toward an attraction to people of an opposite gender describing them as heterosexual rarely evokes such controversy. This tendency among Western historians, to view heterosexuality as an acceptable norm while regarding arguments that a particular historical figure may have been gay as controversial or requiring more evidence than a claim of opposite-sex attraction might warrant, is often attributed to homophobia on the part of historians and is referred to within queer studies as heteronormativity.

Europe

The earliest western documents concerning same-sex relationships come from Ancient Greece, where same-sex relationships were a societal norm, valued for their pedagogic benefits and as a means of population control. As Kenneth J. Dover points out, such relationships did not replace marriage between man and woman but occurred before and beside it. These relationships were typically pederastic, and it would be less common for a man to have a mature male mate (though some did): typically, a man would be the erastes (lover) to an adolescent eromenos (loved one). In this relationship, claims Dover, it was considered "improper" for the eromenos to feel desire, as that would not be masculine. Driven by desire and admiration, the erastes would devote himself unselfishly to providing all the education his eromenos required to thrive in society. In recent times, the research by Dover has been questioned in light of massive evidence of love poetry and paintings on ceramic vases, which suggest a more emotional connection than earlier researchers have liked to acknowledge.

Cities in northern Italy, Florence and Venice in particular, were renowned for the widespread practice of same-sex love, engaged in by a majority of the male population and constructed along the classical pattern, as documented in recent studies by Michael Rocke and Guido Ruggiero.

Middle East and Central Asia

Continuing the ancient tradition of male love in which Ganymede, cup-boy to the gods, symbolized the ideal boyfriend, Muslim - primarily Sufi - poets in medieval Arab lands and in Persia wrote odes to the beautiful wine boys who served them in the taverns and shared their beds at night. Among the Muslims the practice of pederasty was widespread, if not universal (as documented by Richard Francis Burton, André Gide and many others), and has survived into modern times. It continues to surface despite efforts to keep it quiet, as it did after the American invasion of Afghanistan, when the same-sex love customs of Kandahar, in which adult men take on adolescent lovers, became widely known.

In Central Asia, on the Silk Route, the two traditions of the east and the west met, and gave rise to a strong local culture of same-sex love. This was centered around the bacha (a Turkik Uzbeki term etymologically realted to the Persian bachcheh, catamite), typically an adolescent male entertainer who donned resplendent attire and makeup and sang and danced erotic songs.

These Muslim bachas were trained from childhood and carried on their trade until their beard began to grow. Though the tradition eventually succumbed to Stalinist repression and western morality, early Russian explorers were able to document the practice.

Eastern Asia

In Asia same-sex love has been a central feature of everyday life, in China since at least 600 BCE, and in Japan for over one thousand years. Such relationships were typically pederastic and marked by differences in age and social position. However, the instances of same-sex affection and sexual interactions described in the Hong Lou Meng (Dream of the Red Chamber, or Story of the Stone) seem as familiar to observers in the present as do equivalent stories of romances between heterosexuals during the same period. For more information see Gays in China and Gays in Japan.

Similarly, Thailand had no concept of homosexuality until the late 20th century. Kathoey or ladyboys have been a feature of Thai society for many centuries. They were men who dressed as women. They were generally accepted by society without much question, although a family was often disappointed if one of their sons became a Kathoey. The teachings of Buddhism, dominant in Thai society was accepting of a third gender designation.

In many societies of Melanesia same-sex relationships are an integral part of the culture. In some tribes of Papua New Guinea, for example, it is considered a normal ritual responsibility for a boy to have a relationship as a part of his ascent into manhood. Many Melanesian societies, however, have become antagonistic towards same-sex relationships since the introduction of Christianity by European missionaries.

Modern developments

In 1973, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Psychiatric Manual of Psychiatric Disorders (DSM) removed homosexuality as a mental disorder from the manual.

During the last few decades, in part due to their history of shared oppression, gays in the West have developed a shared culture, although not all gays participate in it, and many gay men and women specifically decline to do so. (See gay pride, gay shame.)

External links

Background

Medical & Scientific Organisations' Statements On Homosexuality

Organizations active for gay rights

Stonewall (UK) - gay lobby group in the UK
Outrage (UK) - direct action gay political activists
Human Rights Campaign
Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation
Lambda Legal Defense Fund
NGLTF (National Gay & Lesbian Task Force) US Lobbying group
Out In America

Organizations advocating gay-to-straight behavior modification

National Association for Research and Therapy of Homosexuality
Parents and Friends of ExGays and Gays
Exodus International Christian Organization

Organizations that offer support to lesbians and gay men

American Psychological Association
International Lesbian and Gay Association
London Lesbian Gay Switchboard - the first in the world, started as East London Gay Switchboard in 1974.
Soulforce, Inc. - interfaith movement representing GLBT people.

Organizations that offer support to lesbian and gay families

Proud Parenting

Periodicals

Advocate Magazine
White Crane Magazine (gay wisdom & culture)
Gay news, shopping, topics, local
Gay news
Unità (in Italian)
ScotsGay Magazine From Scotland

References

Christopher Bagley and Pierre Tremblay, (1998), "On the Prevalence of Homosexuality and Bisexuality, in a Random Community Survey of 750 Men Aged 18 to 27", Journal of Homosexuality, Volume 36, Number 2, pages 1-18.
Lester G. Brown, Two Spirit People, 1997, Harrington Park Press, ISBN 1-56023-089-4
Kenneth J. Dover, Greek Homosexuality, 1979, Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd., London, ISBN 0674362616 (o.p. hardcover), ISBN 0674362705 (pbk.).
Bret Hinsch, Passions of the Cut Sleeve: The Male Homosexual Tradition in China, The University of California Press, 1990, ISBN 0-520-06720-7.
Norman Roth. The care and feeding of gazelles - Medieval Arabic and Hebrew love poetry. IN: Lazar & Lacy. Poetics of Love in the Middle Ages. George Mason University Press, 1989.
Arno Schmitt & Jehoeda Sofer (eds). Sexuality and Eroticism Among Males in Moslem Societies. Haworth Press, 1992.
Alfred C. Kinsey, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, 1948, ISBN 0721654452 (o.p.), ISBN 0253334128 (reprint).
Alfred C. Kinsey, Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, 1953, ISBN 0721654509 (o.p.), ISBN 0671786156 (o.p. pbk.), ISBN 025333411X (reprint).
LeVay, S., Science, 1991, 253, 1034?1037.
Rocke, Michael, (1996), Forbidden Friendships: Homosexuality and male Culture in Renaissance Florence, ISBN 0-91-512292-5
Ruggiero, Guido, (1985), The Boundaries of Eros, ISBN 0-91-505696-5
Smith, T.W. (1991). Adult sexual behavior in 1989: Number of partners, frequency of intercourse and risk of AIDS. Family Planning Perspectives 23(3), 102-107.
Bullough et al. (eds.) (1996). Handbook of Medieval Sexuality. Garland Publishing. ISBN 0815312873.
Foucault, Michel (1990). The History of Sexuality vol. 1: An Introduction, p.43. Trans. Robert Hurley. New York: Vintage.

@@ Line 126: / Line 126: @@
 ''See also'': [[List of countries which permit or outlaw homosexual behavior|List of countries which permit or outlaw same-gender sex]]
-==Art==
-''Main article: [[Art of same-sex love]] One of the primary manifestations of same-sex love in the world has been through the medium of art. The aspects of that expression cover every form of art known, and artists with homoerotic inclinations have been in very forefront of artistic progress. Homoerotic sensibilities are at the foundation of art in the west, since those roots can be traced back to the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]].
-[to be continued]
 ==History==