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Ambush predators or sit-and-wait predators are carnivorous animals that capture or trap prey by stealth or by strategy (typically not conscious), rather than by speed or by strength. Ambush predators sit and wait for prey, often from a concealed position, and then launch a rapid surprise attack.

The ambush may be set by hiding in a burrow, by camouflage, by aggressive mimicry, or by the use of a trap. The predator then uses a combination of senses to assess the prey and to time the strike. Nocturnal ambush predators such as cats and snakes have vertical slit pupils, helping them to judge the distance to prey in dim light^{[citation needed]}. Different ambush predators use a variety of means to capture their prey, from the long sticky tongues of chameleons to the expanding mouths of frogfishes.

Ambush predation is widely distributed in the animal kingdom, spanning some members of numerous groups such as the starfish, cephalopods, crustaceans, spiders, insects such as mantises, and vertebrates such as many snakes and fishes.

Strategy

Video of a water bug nymph attacking a fish

Ambush predators usually remain motionless (sometimes hidden) and wait for prey to come within ambush distance before pouncing. Ambush predators are often camouflaged, and may be solitary. Pursuit predation becomes a better strategy than ambush predation when the predator is faster than the prey.^[1] Ambush predators use many intermediate strategies. For example, when a pursuit predator is faster than its prey over a short distance, but not in a long chase, then either stalking or ambush becomes necessary as part of the strategy.^[1]

Bringing the prey within range

Concealment

Ambush often relies on concealment, whether by staying out of sight or by means of camouflage.

Burrows

Trapdoor spider Misgolas rapax in its burrow

The trapdoor spider Sason robustum and its nest

Ambush predators such as trapdoor spiders and Australian crab spiders on land and mantis shrimps in the sea rely on concealment, constructing and hiding in burrows. These provide effective concealment at the price of a restricted field of vision.^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]

Trapdoor spiders excavate a burrow and seal the entrance with a web trapdoor hinged on one side with silk. The best-known is the thick, bevelled "cork" type, which neatly fits the burrow's opening. The other is the "wafer" type; it is a basic sheet of silk and earth. The door's upper side is often effectively camouflaged with local materials such as pebbles and sticks. The spider spins silk fishing lines, or trip wires, that radiate out of the burrow entrance. When the spider is using the trap to capture prey, its chelicerae (protruding mouthparts) hold the door shut on the end furthest from the hinge. Prey make the silk vibrate, and alert the spider to open the door and ambush the prey.^[6]^[7]

Camouflage

Tasselled wobbegong relies on its disruptive camouflage to ambush fish and invertebrates.

Striated frogfish uses camouflage and aggressive mimicry in the form of a fishing rod-like esca (lure) on its head to attract prey.

Many ambush predators make use of camouflage so that their prey can come within striking range without detecting their presence. Among insects, coloration in ambush bugs closely matches the flower heads where they wait for prey.^[8] Among fishes, the warteye stargazer buries itself nearly completely in the sand and waits for prey.^[9] The devil scorpionfish typically lies partially buried on the sea floor or on a coral head during the day, covering itself with sand and other debris to further camouflage itself.^[10]^[11]^[12]^[13] The tasselled wobbegong is a shark whose adaptations as an ambush predator include a strongly flattened and camouflaged body with a fringe that breaks up its outline.^[14]

Aggressive mimicry

Claimed mimic: zone-tailed hawk

Prey and possible model: Turkey vulture

Many ambush predators actively attract their prey towards them before ambushing them. This strategy is called aggressive mimicry, using the false promise of nourishment to lure prey. The alligator snapping turtle is a well-camouflaged ambush predator. Its tongue bears a conspicuous pink extension that resembles a worm and can be wriggled around;^[15] fish that try to eat the "worm" are themselves eaten by the turtle. Similarly, some reptiles such as Elaphe rat snakes employ caudal luring (tail luring) to entice small vertebrates into striking range.^[16]

The zone-tailed hawk, which resembles the turkey vulture, flies among flocks of turkey vultures, then suddenly breaks from the formation and ambushes one of them as its prey.^[17]^[18] There is however some controversy about whether this is a true case of wolf in sheep's clothing mimicry.^[19]

Flower mantises are aggressive mimics, resembling flowers convincingly enough to attract prey that come to collect pollen and nectar. The orchid mantis actually attracts its prey, pollinator insects, more effectively than flowers do.^[20]^[21]^[22]^[23] Crab spiders, similarly, are coloured like the flowers they habitually rest on, but again, they can lure their prey even away from flowers.^[24]

Traps

Antlion larva with grasping mandibles

Antlion's sandpit trap

Some ambush predators build traps to help capture their prey. Lacewings are a flying insect in the order Neuroptera. In some species, their larval form, known as the antlion, is an ambush predator. Eggs are laid in the earth, often in caves or under a rocky ledge. The juvenile creates a small, crater shaped trap. The antlion hides under a light cover of sand or earth. When an ant, beetle or other prey slides into the trap, the antlion grabs the prey with its powerful jaws.^[25]^[26]

Some but not all web-spinning spiders are sit-and-wait ambush predators. The sheetweb spiders (Linyphiidae) tend to stay with their webs for long periods and so resemble sit-and-wait predators, whereas the orb-weaving spiders (such as the Araneidae) tend to move frequently from one patch to another (and thus resemble active foragers).^[27]

Detection and assessment

Ambush predators must time their strike carefully. They need to detect the prey, assess it as worth attacking, and strike when it is in exactly the right place. They have evolved a variety of adaptations that facilitate this assessment. For example, pit vipers prey on small birds, choosing targets of the right size for their mouth gape: larger snakes choose larger prey. They prefer to strike prey that is both warm and moving;^[29] their pit organs between the eye and the nostril contain infrared (heat) receptors, enabling them to find and perhaps judge the size of their small, warm-blooded prey.^[30]

The deep-sea tripodfish Bathypterois grallator uses tactile and mechanosensory cues to identify food in its low-light environment.^[31] The fish faces into the current, waiting for prey to drift by.^[32]^[33]^[34]

Several species of Felidae (cats) and snakes have vertically elongated (slit) pupils, advantageous for nocturnal ambush predators as it helps them to estimate the distance to prey in dim light; diurnal and pursuit predators in contrast have round pupils.^[28]

Capturing the prey

Mantis shrimp captures its prey rapidly with its mantis-like front legs.

Frogfish traps its prey by suddenly opening its jaws and sucking the prey in.

Ambush predators often have adaptations for seizing their prey rapidly and securely. The capturing movement has to be rapid to trap the prey, given that the attack is not modifiable once launched.^[5]^[35] Zebra mantis shrimp capture agile prey such as fish primarily at night while hidden in burrows, striking very hard and fast, with a mean peak speed 2.30 m/s (5.1 mph) and mean duration of 24.98 ms.^[35]

Chameleons (family Chamaeleonidae) are highly adapted as ambush predators.^[36] They can change colour to match their surroundings and often climb through trees with a swaying motion, probably to mimic the movement of the leaves and branches they are surrounded by.^[36] All chameleons are primarily insectivores and feed by ballistically projecting their tongues, often twice the length of their bodies, to capture prey.^[37]^[38] The tongue is projected in as little as 0.07 seconds,^[39]^[40] and is launched at an acceleration of over 41 g.^[40] The power with which the tongue is launched, over 3000 W kg⁻¹, is more than muscle can produce, indicating that energy is stored in an elastic tissue for sudden release.^[39]

All fishes face a basic problem when trying to swallow prey: opening their mouth may pull food in, but closing it will push the food out again. Frogfishes capture their prey by suddenly opening their jaws, with a mechanism which enlarges the volume of the mouth cavity up to 12-fold and pulls the prey (crustaceans, molluscs and other whole fishes) into the mouth along with water; the jaws close without reducing the volume of the mouth cavity. The attack can be as fast as 6 milliseconds.^[41]

Taxonomic range

Ambush predation is widely distributed across the animal kingdom. It is found in many vertebrates including fishes such as the frogfishes (anglerfishes) of the sea bottom, and the pikes of freshwater; reptiles including crocodiles,^[42] snapping turtles,^[43] the mulga dragon,^[44] and many snakes such as the black mamba;^[45] mammals such as the cats;^[46] and birds such as the anhinga (darter).^[47] The strategy is found in several invertebrate phyla including arthropods such as mantises,^[48]^[49]^[50] purseweb spiders,^[51] and some crustaceans;^[2] cephalopod molluscs such as the colossal squid;^[52] and starfish such as Leptasterias tenera.^[53]

References

^ ^a ^b Scharf, I.; Nulman, E.; Ovadia, O.; Bouskila, A. (2006). "Efficiency evaluation of two competing foraging modes under different conditions" (PDF). The American Naturalist. 168 (3): 350–357. doi:10.1086/506921. PMID 16947110. S2CID 13809116.
^ ^a ^b deVries, M. S.; Murphy, E. A. K.; Patek S. N. (2012). "Strike mechanics of an ambush predator: the spearing mantis shrimp". Journal of Experimental Biology. 215 (Pt 24): 4374–4384. doi:10.1242/jeb.075317. PMID 23175528.
^ "Trapdoor spiders". BBC. Retrieved 12 December 2014.
^ "Trapdoor spider". Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum. 2014. Retrieved 12 December 2014.
^ ^a ^b Moore, Talia Y.; Biewener, Andrew A. (2015). "Outrun or Outmaneuver: Predator–Prey Interactions as a Model System for Integrating Biomechanical Studies in a Broader Ecological and Evolutionary Context" (PDF). Integrative and Comparative Biology. 55 (6): 1188–97. doi:10.1093/icb/icv074. PMID 26117833.
^ "Trapdoor spiders". BBC. Retrieved December 12, 2014.
^ "Trapdoor spider". Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum. 2014. Retrieved December 12, 2014.
^ Boyle, Julia; Start, Denon (2020). Galván, Ismael (ed.). "Plasticity and habitat choice match colour to function in an ambush bug". Functional Ecology. 34 (4): 822–829. doi:10.1111/1365-2435.13528. ISSN 0269-8463.
^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Gillellus uranidea". FishBase. April 2013 version.
^ Gosline, William A. (July 1994). "Function and structure in the paired fins of scorpaeniform fishes". Environmental Biology of Fishes. 40 (3): 219–226. doi:10.1007/BF00002508. hdl:2027.42/42637. S2CID 30229791.
^ World Database of Marine Species: Spiny devil fish Archived 2012-03-04 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed 03-22-2010.
^ Michael, Scott (Winter 2001). "Speak of the devil: fish in the genus Inimicus" (PDF). SeaScope. 18. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-13. Retrieved 2010-03-27.
^ WetWebMedia.com: The Ghoulfish/Scorpion/Stonefishes of the Subfamily Choridactylinae (Inimicinae), by Bob Fenner. Accessed 03-27-2010.
^ Ceccarelli, D. M.; Williamson, D. H. (2012-02-04). "Sharks that eat sharks: opportunistic predation by wobbegongs". Coral Reefs. 31 (2): 471. Bibcode:2012CorRe..31..471C. doi:10.1007/s00338-012-0878-z.
^ Spindel, E. L.; Dobie, J. L.; Buxton, D. F. (2005). "Functional mechanisms and histologic composition of the lingual appendage in the alligator snapping turtle, Macroclemys temmincki (Troost) (Testudines: Chelydridae)". Journal of Morphology. 194 (3): 287–301. doi:10.1002/jmor.1051940308. PMID 29914228. S2CID 49305881.
^ Mullin, S.J. (1999). "Caudal distraction by rat snakes (Colubridae, Elaphe): A novel behaviour used when capturing mammalian prey". Great Basin Naturalist. 59: 361–367.
^ Smith, William John (2009). The Behavior of Communicating: an ethological approach. Harvard University Press. p. 381. ISBN 978-0-674-04379-4. Others rely on the technique adopted by a wolf in sheep's clothing—they mimic a harmless species. ... Other predators even mimic their prey's prey: angler fish (Lophiiformes) and alligator snapping turtles Macroclemys temmincki can wriggle fleshy outgrowths of their fins or tongues and attract small predatory fish close to their mouths.
^ Willis, E. O. (1963). "Is the Zone-Tailed Hawk a Mimic of the Turkey Vulture?". The Condor. 65 (4): 313–317. doi:10.2307/1365357. JSTOR 1365357.
^ Clark, William S. (2004). "Is the zone-tailed hawk a mimic?". Birding. 36 (5): 495–498.
^ Cott, Hugh (1940). Adaptive Coloration in Animals. Methuen. pp. 392–393.
^ Annandale, Nelson (1900). "Observations on the habits and natural surroundings of insects made during the 'Skeat Expedition' to the Malay Peninsula, 1899–1900". Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. 69: 862–865.
^ O'Hanlon, James C.; Holwell, Gregory I.; Herberstein, Marie E. (2014). "Pollinator deception in the orchid mantis". The American Naturalist. 183 (1): 126–132. doi:10.1086/673858. PMID 24334741. S2CID 2228423.
^ Levine, Timothy R. (2014). Encyclopedia of Deception. Sage Publications. p. 675. ISBN 978-1-4833-8898-4. In aggressive mimicry, the predator is 'a wolf in sheep's clothing'. Mimicry is used to appear harmless or even attractive to lure its prey.
^ Vieira, Camila; Ramires, Eduardo N.; Vasconcellos-Neto, João; Poppi, Ronei J.; Romero, Gustavo Q. (2017). "Crab Spider Lures Prey In Flowerless Neighborhoods". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 9188. Bibcode:2017NatSR...7.9188V. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-09456-y. PMC 5569008. PMID 28835630.
^ "Video of antlion larva ambushing an ant". National Geographic. Retrieved November 30, 2014.
^ "Antlion ambush". BBC. Retrieved November 30, 2014.
^ Janetos, Anthony C. (1982). "Foraging tactics of two guilds of web-spinning spiders". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 10 (1): 19–27. doi:10.1007/bf00296392. S2CID 19631772.
^ ^a ^b Banks, M. S.; Sprague, W. W.; Schmoll, J.; Parnell, J. A. Q.; Love, G. D. (2015-08-07). "Why do animal eyes have pupils of different shapes?". Science Advances. 1 (7): e1500391. Bibcode:2015SciA....1E0391B. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1500391. PMC 4643806. PMID 26601232. Supplement: List of species by pupil shape.
^ Shine, R.; Sun, L.-X. (2003). "Attack strategy of an ambush predator: which attributes of the prey trigger a pit-viper's strike?". Functional Ecology. 17 (3): 340–348. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2435.2003.00738.x.
^ Fang, Janet (2010-03-14). "Snake infrared detection unravelled". Nature. doi:10.1038/news.2010.122.
^ Hoar, W. S.; Randall, D. J.; Conte, F. P. (1997). Deep-Sea Fishes. Fish Physiology. Vol. 16. Academic Press. p. 344. ISBN 0-12-350440-6.
^ Hyde, N. (2009). Deep Sea Extremes. Crabtree Publishing Company. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-7787-4501-3.
^ Winner, C. (2006). Life on the Edge. Lerner Publications. pp. 18. ISBN 0-8225-2499-6.
^ Gage, J. D.; Tyler, P.A. (1992). Deep-sea biology: a natural history of organisms at the deep-sea floor. Cambridge University Press. p. 86. ISBN 0-521-33665-1.
^ ^a ^b deVries, M. S.; Murphy, E. A. K. & Patek, S. N. (2012). "Strike mechanics of an ambush predator: the spearing mantis shrimp". Journal of Experimental Biology. 215 (24): 4374–4384. doi:10.1242/jeb.075317. PMID 23175528.
^ ^a ^b Tolley, Krystal A.; Herrel, Anthony (2013). The Biology of Chameleons. University of California Press. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-520-95738-1. Chameleons may also employ a form of movement-based camouflage, ... [they] often rhythmically rock backward and forward as they walk ... [perhaps] imitating a swaying leaf ... moving in the breeze ... The behavior is widespread in highly cryptic, generally slow-moving, ambush predators, notably chameleons and some snakes and mantids
^ Anderson, C. V.; Sheridan, T.; Deban, S. M. (2012). "Scaling of the ballistic tongue apparatus in chameleons". Journal of Morphology. 273 (11): 1214–1226. doi:10.1002/jmor.20053. PMID 22730103. S2CID 21033176.
^ Anderson, Christopher V. (2009) Rhampholeon spinosus feeding video. chamaeleonidae.com
^ ^a ^b de Groot, J. H.; van Leeuwen, J. L. (2004). "Evidence for an elastic projection mechanism in the chameleon tongue". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B. 271 (1540): 761–770. doi:10.1098/rspb.2003.2637. PMC 1691657. PMID 15209111.
^ ^a ^b Anderson, C.V.; Deban, S. M. (2010). "Ballistic tongue projection in chameleons maintains high performance at low temperature". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 107 (12): 5495–5499. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107.5495A. doi:10.1073/pnas.0910778107. PMC 2851764. PMID 20212130.
^ Bray, Dianne. "Eastern Frogfish, Batrachomoeus dubius". Fishes of Australia. Archived from the original on 14 September 2014. Retrieved 14 September 2014.
^ "Nile Crocodile: Photos, Video, E-card, Map – National Geographic Kids". Kids.nationalgeographic.com. 2002. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
^ "Common Snapping Turtle". Canadian Museum of Nature. 2013. Retrieved December 2, 2014.
^ Browne-Cooper, Robert; Brian Bush; Brad Maryan; David Robinson (2007). Reptiles and Frogs in the Bush: Southwestern Australia. University of Western Australia Press. pp. 145, 146. ISBN 9781920694746.
^ Richardson, Adele (2004). Mambas. Mankato, Minnesota: Capstone Press. p. 25. ISBN 9780736821377. Retrieved 2010-05-19.
^ Etnyre, Erica; Lande, Jenna; Mckenna, Alison. "Felidae | Cats". Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 28 September 2018.
^ Ryan, P. G. (2007). "Diving in shallow water: the foraging ecology of darters (Aves: Anhingidae)". Journal of Avian Biology. 38 (4): 507–514. doi:10.1111/j.2007.0908-8857.04070.x.
^ "Praying mantis ambushes a grasshopper". National Geographic. Retrieved November 30, 2014.
^ "Nature wildlife: Praying mantis". BBC. Retrieved November 30, 2014.
^ "How the praying mantis hides". Pawnation. Retrieved November 30, 2014.
^ Piper, R. (2007). Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals. Greenwood Press.
^ Bourton, J. (2010). "Monster colossal squid is slow not fearsome predator". BBC. Retrieved December 1, 2014.
^ Hendler, G.; Franz, D. R. (1982). "The biology of a brooding seastar, Leptasterias tenera, in Block Island Sound". Biological Bulletin. 162 (1): 273–289. doi:10.2307/1540983. JSTOR 1540983. Archived from the original on 2015-09-23. Retrieved 2014-12-01.

External links

Predation lecture University of Washington

[Scharf-1] Scharf, I.; Nulman, E.; Ovadia, O.; Bouskila, A. (2006). "Efficiency evaluation of two competing foraging modes under different conditions" (PDF). The American Naturalist. 168 (3): 350–357. doi:10.1086/506921. PMID 16947110. S2CID 13809116.

[deVries-2] Vries, M. S.; Murphy, E. A. K.; Patek S. N. (2012). "Strike mechanics of an ambush predator: the spearing mantis shrimp". Journal of Experimental Biology. 215 (Pt 24): 4374–4384. doi:10.1242/jeb.075317. PMID 23175528.

[3] "Trapdoor spiders". BBC. Retrieved 12 December 2014.

[4] "Trapdoor spider". Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum. 2014. Retrieved 12 December 2014.

[MooreBiewener2015-5] Moore, Talia Y.; Biewener, Andrew A. (2015). "Outrun or Outmaneuver: Predator–Prey Interactions as a Model System for Integrating Biomechanical Studies in a Broader Ecological and Evolutionary Context" (PDF). Integrative and Comparative Biology. 55 (6): 1188–97. doi:10.1093/icb/icv074. PMID 26117833.

[6] "Trapdoor spiders". BBC. Retrieved December 12, 2014.

[7] "Trapdoor spider". Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum. 2014. Retrieved December 12, 2014.

[8] Boyle, Julia; Start, Denon (2020). Galván, Ismael (ed.). "Plasticity and habitat choice match colour to function in an ambush bug". Functional Ecology. 34 (4): 822–829. doi:10.1111/1365-2435.13528. ISSN 0269-8463.

[9] Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Gillellus uranidea". FishBase. April 2013 version.

[Gosline-10] Gosline, William A. (July 1994). "Function and structure in the paired fins of scorpaeniform fishes". Environmental Biology of Fishes. 40 (3): 219–226. doi:10.1007/BF00002508. hdl:2027.42/42637. S2CID 30229791.

[WDMS-11] World Database of Marine Species: Spiny devil fish Archived 2012-03-04 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed 03-22-2010.

[Michael-12] Michael, Scott (Winter 2001). "Speak of the devil: fish in the genus Inimicus" (PDF). SeaScope. 18. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-13. Retrieved 2010-03-27.

[Fenner-13] WetWebMedia.com: The Ghoulfish/Scorpion/Stonefishes of the Subfamily Choridactylinae (Inimicinae), by Bob Fenner. Accessed 03-27-2010.

[CeccarelliWilliamson2012-14] Ceccarelli, D. M.; Williamson, D. H. (2012-02-04). "Sharks that eat sharks: opportunistic predation by wobbegongs". Coral Reefs. 31 (2): 471. Bibcode:2012CorRe..31..471C. doi:10.1007/s00338-012-0878-z.

[15] Spindel, E. L.; Dobie, J. L.; Buxton, D. F. (2005). "Functional mechanisms and histologic composition of the lingual appendage in the alligator snapping turtle, Macroclemys temmincki (Troost) (Testudines: Chelydridae)". Journal of Morphology. 194 (3): 287–301. doi:10.1002/jmor.1051940308. PMID 29914228. S2CID 49305881.

[mullin-16] Mullin, S.J. (1999). "Caudal distraction by rat snakes (Colubridae, Elaphe): A novel behaviour used when capturing mammalian prey". Great Basin Naturalist. 59: 361–367.

[Smith2009-17] Smith, William John (2009). The Behavior of Communicating: an ethological approach. Harvard University Press. p. 381. ISBN 978-0-674-04379-4. Others rely on the technique adopted by a wolf in sheep's clothing—they mimic a harmless species. ... Other predators even mimic their prey's prey: angler fish (Lophiiformes) and alligator snapping turtles Macroclemys temmincki can wriggle fleshy outgrowths of their fins or tongues and attract small predatory fish close to their mouths.

[18] Willis, E. O. (1963). "Is the Zone-Tailed Hawk a Mimic of the Turkey Vulture?". The Condor. 65 (4): 313–317. doi:10.2307/1365357. JSTOR 1365357.

[19] Clark, William S. (2004). "Is the zone-tailed hawk a mimic?". Birding. 36 (5): 495–498.

[Cott-20] Cott, Hugh (1940). Adaptive Coloration in Animals. Methuen. pp. 392–393.

[21] Annandale, Nelson (1900). "Observations on the habits and natural surroundings of insects made during the 'Skeat Expedition' to the Malay Peninsula, 1899–1900". Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. 69: 862–865.

[22] O'Hanlon, James C.; Holwell, Gregory I.; Herberstein, Marie E. (2014). "Pollinator deception in the orchid mantis". The American Naturalist. 183 (1): 126–132. doi:10.1086/673858. PMID 24334741. S2CID 2228423.

[Levine2014-23] Levine, Timothy R. (2014). Encyclopedia of Deception. Sage Publications. p. 675. ISBN 978-1-4833-8898-4. In aggressive mimicry, the predator is 'a wolf in sheep's clothing'. Mimicry is used to appear harmless or even attractive to lure its prey.

[VieiraRamiresVasconcellos-NetoPoppi2017-24] Vieira, Camila; Ramires, Eduardo N.; Vasconcellos-Neto, João; Poppi, Ronei J.; Romero, Gustavo Q. (2017). "Crab Spider Lures Prey In Flowerless Neighborhoods". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 9188. Bibcode:2017NatSR...7.9188V. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-09456-y. PMC 5569008. PMID 28835630.

[25] "Video of antlion larva ambushing an ant". National Geographic. Retrieved November 30, 2014.

[26] "Antlion ambush". BBC. Retrieved November 30, 2014.

[Janetos1982-27] Janetos, Anthony C. (1982). "Foraging tactics of two guilds of web-spinning spiders". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 10 (1): 19–27. doi:10.1007/bf00296392. S2CID 19631772.

[BanksSpragueSchmoll_Parnell2015-28] Banks, M. S.; Sprague, W. W.; Schmoll, J.; Parnell, J. A. Q.; Love, G. D. (2015-08-07). "Why do animal eyes have pupils of different shapes?". Science Advances. 1 (7): e1500391. Bibcode:2015SciA....1E0391B. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1500391. PMC 4643806. PMID 26601232. Supplement: List of species by pupil shape.

[ShineSun2003-29] Shine, R.; Sun, L.-X. (2003). "Attack strategy of an ambush predator: which attributes of the prey trigger a pit-viper's strike?". Functional Ecology. 17 (3): 340–348. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2435.2003.00738.x.

[Fang2010-30] Fang, Janet (2010-03-14). "Snake infrared detection unravelled". Nature. doi:10.1038/news.2010.122.

[hoar-31] Hoar, W. S.; Randall, D. J.; Conte, F. P. (1997). Deep-Sea Fishes. Fish Physiology. Vol. 16. Academic Press. p. 344. ISBN 0-12-350440-6.

[32] Hyde, N. (2009). Deep Sea Extremes. Crabtree Publishing Company. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-7787-4501-3.

[33] Winner, C. (2006). Life on the Edge. Lerner Publications. pp. 18. ISBN 0-8225-2499-6.

[34] Gage, J. D.; Tyler, P.A. (1992). Deep-sea biology: a natural history of organisms at the deep-sea floor. Cambridge University Press. p. 86. ISBN 0-521-33665-1.

[Mantis-35] Vries, M. S.; Murphy, E. A. K. & Patek, S. N. (2012). "Strike mechanics of an ambush predator: the spearing mantis shrimp". Journal of Experimental Biology. 215 (24): 4374–4384. doi:10.1242/jeb.075317. PMID 23175528.

[TolleyHerrel2013-36] Tolley, Krystal A.; Herrel, Anthony (2013). The Biology of Chameleons. University of California Press. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-520-95738-1. Chameleons may also employ a form of movement-based camouflage, ... [they] often rhythmically rock backward and forward as they walk ... [perhaps] imitating a swaying leaf ... moving in the breeze ... The behavior is widespread in highly cryptic, generally slow-moving, ambush predators, notably chameleons and some snakes and mantids

[Anderson_et_al._2012-37] Anderson, C. V.; Sheridan, T.; Deban, S. M. (2012). "Scaling of the ballistic tongue apparatus in chameleons". Journal of Morphology. 273 (11): 1214–1226. doi:10.1002/jmor.20053. PMID 22730103. S2CID 21033176.

[38] Anderson, Christopher V. (2009) Rhampholeon spinosus feeding video. chamaeleonidae.com

[de_Groot_&_van_Leeuwen_2004-39] Groot, J. H.; van Leeuwen, J. L. (2004). "Evidence for an elastic projection mechanism in the chameleon tongue". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B. 271 (1540): 761–770. doi:10.1098/rspb.2003.2637. PMC 1691657. PMID 15209111.

[Anderson_&_Deban_2010-40] Anderson, C.V.; Deban, S. M. (2010). "Ballistic tongue projection in chameleons maintains high performance at low temperature". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 107 (12): 5495–5499. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107.5495A. doi:10.1073/pnas.0910778107. PMC 2851764. PMID 20212130.

[BrayFishes-41] Bray, Dianne. "Eastern Frogfish, Batrachomoeus dubius". Fishes of Australia. Archived from the original on 14 September 2014. Retrieved 14 September 2014.

[42] "Nile Crocodile: Photos, Video, E-card, Map – National Geographic Kids". Kids.nationalgeographic.com. 2002. Retrieved 2010-03-16.

[nature-43] "Common Snapping Turtle". Canadian Museum of Nature. 2013. Retrieved December 2, 2014.

[Bush2007-44] Browne-Cooper, Robert; Brian Bush; Brad Maryan; David Robinson (2007). Reptiles and Frogs in the Bush: Southwestern Australia. University of Western Australia Press. pp. 145, 146. ISBN 9781920694746.

[Adele2-45] Richardson, Adele (2004). Mambas. Mankato, Minnesota: Capstone Press. p. 25. ISBN 9780736821377. Retrieved 2010-05-19.

[46] Etnyre, Erica; Lande, Jenna; Mckenna, Alison. "Felidae | Cats". Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 28 September 2018.

[47] Ryan, P. G. (2007). "Diving in shallow water: the foraging ecology of darters (Aves: Anhingidae)". Journal of Avian Biology. 38 (4): 507–514. doi:10.1111/j.2007.0908-8857.04070.x.

[48] "Praying mantis ambushes a grasshopper". National Geographic. Retrieved November 30, 2014.

[49] "Nature wildlife: Praying mantis". BBC. Retrieved November 30, 2014.

[50] "How the praying mantis hides". Pawnation. Retrieved November 30, 2014.

[Piper2007-51] Piper, R. (2007). Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals. Greenwood Press.

[52] Bourton, J. (2010). "Monster colossal squid is slow not fearsome predator". BBC. Retrieved December 1, 2014.

[Hendler-53] Hendler, G.; Franz, D. R. (1982). "The biology of a brooding seastar, Leptasterias tenera, in Block Island Sound". Biological Bulletin. 162 (1): 273–289. doi:10.2307/1540983. JSTOR 1540983. Archived from the original on 2015-09-23. Retrieved 2014-12-01.

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@@ Line 22: / Line 22: @@
 {{multiple image|align=center|image1=Sydney-brown-trapdoor-spider 002.jpg|width1=166|caption1=[[Trapdoor spider]] ''[[Misgolas rapax]]'' in its burrow|image2=Sason robustum and its nest.jpg|width2=300|caption2=The trapdoor spider ''[[Sason robustum]]'' and its nest}}{{-}}
-Ambush predators such as [[trapdoor spider]]s and [[Thomisus spectabilis|Australian crab spiders]] on land and [[mantis shrimp]]s in the sea rely on concealment, constructing and hiding in burrows. These provide effective concealment at the price of a restricted field of vision.<ref name=deVries>{{cite journal |author=deVries, M. S. |author2=Murphy, E. A. K. |author3=Patek S. N. |title=Strike mechanics of an ambush predator: the spearing mantis shrimp |year=2012 |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=215 |issue=Pt 24 |pages=4374–4384 |doi=10.1242/jeb.075317 |pmid=23175528|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Liphistius |title=Trapdoor spiders |publisher=[[BBC]] |accessdate=12 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.desertmuseum.org/books/nhsd_trapdoor_spider.php|accessdate=12 December 2014 |title=Trapdoor spider |publisher=Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum |year=2014}}</ref><ref name="MooreBiewener2015">{{cite journal | last1=Moore | first1=Talia Y. | last2=Biewener | first2=Andrew A. | title=Outrun or Outmaneuver: Predator–Prey Interactions as a Model System for Integrating Biomechanical Studies in a Broader Ecological and Evolutionary Context | journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology | date=2015 | doi=10.1093/icb/icv074 |url=https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/25858000/MooreICB2015_Preprint.pdf?sequence=1 | pmid=26117833 | volume=55| issue=6 | pages=1188–97 }}</ref>
+Ambush predators such as [[trapdoor spider]]s and [[Thomisus spectabilis|Australian crab spiders]] on land and [[mantis shrimp]]s in the sea rely on concealment, constructing and hiding in burrows. These provide effective concealment at the price of a restricted field of vision.<ref name=deVries>{{cite journal |author=deVries, M. S. |author2=Murphy, E. A. K. |author3=Patek S. N. |title=Strike mechanics of an ambush predator: the spearing mantis shrimp |year=2012 |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=215 |issue=Pt 24 |pages=4374–4384 |doi=10.1242/jeb.075317 |pmid=23175528|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Liphistius |title=Trapdoor spiders |publisher=[[BBC]] |access-date=12 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.desertmuseum.org/books/nhsd_trapdoor_spider.php|access-date=12 December 2014 |title=Trapdoor spider |publisher=Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum |year=2014}}</ref><ref name="MooreBiewener2015">{{cite journal | last1=Moore | first1=Talia Y. | last2=Biewener | first2=Andrew A. | title=Outrun or Outmaneuver: Predator–Prey Interactions as a Model System for Integrating Biomechanical Studies in a Broader Ecological and Evolutionary Context | journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology | date=2015 | doi=10.1093/icb/icv074 |url=https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/25858000/MooreICB2015_Preprint.pdf?sequence=1 | pmid=26117833 | volume=55| issue=6 | pages=1188–97 }}</ref>
-Trapdoor spiders excavate a burrow and seal the entrance with a web trapdoor hinged on one side with silk. The best-known is the thick, bevelled "cork" type, which neatly fits the burrow's opening. The other is the "wafer" type; it is a basic sheet of silk and earth. The door's upper side is often effectively camouflaged with local materials such as pebbles and sticks. The spider spins silk fishing lines, or trip wires, that radiate out of the burrow entrance.  When the spider is using the trap to capture prey, its [[chelicerae]] (protruding mouthparts) hold the door shut on the end furthest from the hinge. Prey make the silk vibrate, and alert the spider to open the door and ambush the prey.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Liphistius |title=Trapdoor spiders |publisher=BBC |accessdate=December 12, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.desertmuseum.org/books/nhsd_trapdoor_spider.php |accessdate=December 12, 2014 |title=Trapdoor spider |publisher=Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum |year=2014}}</ref>
+Trapdoor spiders excavate a burrow and seal the entrance with a web trapdoor hinged on one side with silk. The best-known is the thick, bevelled "cork" type, which neatly fits the burrow's opening. The other is the "wafer" type; it is a basic sheet of silk and earth. The door's upper side is often effectively camouflaged with local materials such as pebbles and sticks. The spider spins silk fishing lines, or trip wires, that radiate out of the burrow entrance.  When the spider is using the trap to capture prey, its [[chelicerae]] (protruding mouthparts) hold the door shut on the end furthest from the hinge. Prey make the silk vibrate, and alert the spider to open the door and ambush the prey.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Liphistius |title=Trapdoor spiders |publisher=BBC |access-date=December 12, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.desertmuseum.org/books/nhsd_trapdoor_spider.php |access-date=December 12, 2014 |title=Trapdoor spider |publisher=Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum |year=2014}}</ref>
 ====Camouflage====
@@ Line 30: / Line 30: @@
 {{multiple image |align=center|image1=Tasselled Wobbegong Shark (14280770698).jpg |width1=200 |caption1=[[Tasselled wobbegong]] relies on its [[disruptive camouflage]] to ambush fish and invertebrates. |image2=Striped anglerfish ( Antennarius striatus ).jpg |width2=227 |caption2=[[Striated frogfish]] uses [[camouflage]] and [[aggressive mimicry]] in the form of a fishing rod-like [[esca|esca (lure)]] on its head to attract prey.}}{{-}}
-Many ambush predators make use of [[camouflage]] so that their prey can come within striking range without detecting their presence. Among insects, coloration in [[Phymata americana|ambush bugs]] closely matches the flower heads where they wait for prey.<ref>{{Cite journal| last1=Boyle |first1=Julia |last2=Start |first2=Denon |date=2020 |editor-last=Galván |editor-first=Ismael |title=Plasticity and habitat choice match colour to function in an ambush bug|journal=Functional Ecology |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=822–829 |doi=10.1111/1365-2435.13528 |issn=0269-8463}}</ref> Among fishes, the [[Gillellus uranidea|warteye stargazer]] buries itself nearly completely in the sand and waits for prey.<ref>{{FishBase |genus=Gillellus |species=uranidea | month=April | year=2013}}</ref> The [[Inimicus filamentosus|devil scorpionfish]] typically lies partially buried on the sea floor or on a coral head during the day, covering itself with sand and other debris to further camouflage itself.<ref name="Gosline">{{cite journal|last=Gosline |first=William A. |date=July 1994 |title=Function and structure in the paired fins of scorpaeniform fishes |journal=Environmental Biology of Fishes |volume=40 |issue=3|pages=219–226 |doi=10.1007/BF00002508|hdl=2027.42/42637 |s2cid=30229791 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name=WDMS>World Database of Marine Species: [http://www.seadb.net/schedule.php?ids=694 Spiny devil fish] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304131009/http://www.seadb.net/schedule.php?ids=694 |date=2012-03-04 }}. Accessed 03-22-2010.</ref><ref name=Michael>{{cite journal |last=Michael |first=Scott |title=Speak of the devil: fish in the genus ''Inimicus'' |journal=SeaScope |volume=18 |date=Winter 2001 |url=http://www.instantocean.com/sites/InstantOcean/knowledge/seascope/past/SS_Vol18_2001.pdf |accessdate=2010-03-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713043740/http://www.instantocean.com/sites/InstantOcean/knowledge/seascope/past/SS_Vol18_2001.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-13 }}</ref><ref name=Fenner>WetWebMedia.com: [http://www.wetwebmedia.com/inimicines.htm The Ghoulfish/Scorpion/Stonefishes of the Subfamily Choridactylinae (Inimicinae)], by Bob Fenner. Accessed 03-27-2010.</ref> The [[tasselled wobbegong]] is a shark whose adaptations as an ambush predator include a strongly flattened and camouflaged body with a [[camouflage fringe|fringe]] that breaks up its outline.<ref name="CeccarelliWilliamson2012">{{cite journal | last1=Ceccarelli | first1=D. M. | last2=Williamson | first2=D. H. | title=Sharks that eat sharks: opportunistic predation by wobbegongs | journal=Coral Reefs | volume=31 | issue=2 | date=2012-02-04 | doi=10.1007/s00338-012-0878-z | pages=471| bibcode=2012CorRe..31..471C | doi-access=free }}</ref>
+Many ambush predators make use of [[camouflage]] so that their prey can come within striking range without detecting their presence. Among insects, coloration in [[Phymata americana|ambush bugs]] closely matches the flower heads where they wait for prey.<ref>{{Cite journal| last1=Boyle |first1=Julia |last2=Start |first2=Denon |date=2020 |editor-last=Galván |editor-first=Ismael |title=Plasticity and habitat choice match colour to function in an ambush bug|journal=Functional Ecology |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=822–829 |doi=10.1111/1365-2435.13528 |issn=0269-8463}}</ref> Among fishes, the [[Gillellus uranidea|warteye stargazer]] buries itself nearly completely in the sand and waits for prey.<ref>{{FishBase |genus=Gillellus |species=uranidea | month=April | year=2013}}</ref> The [[Inimicus filamentosus|devil scorpionfish]] typically lies partially buried on the sea floor or on a coral head during the day, covering itself with sand and other debris to further camouflage itself.<ref name="Gosline">{{cite journal|last=Gosline |first=William A. |date=July 1994 |title=Function and structure in the paired fins of scorpaeniform fishes |journal=Environmental Biology of Fishes |volume=40 |issue=3|pages=219–226 |doi=10.1007/BF00002508|hdl=2027.42/42637 |s2cid=30229791 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name=WDMS>World Database of Marine Species: [http://www.seadb.net/schedule.php?ids=694 Spiny devil fish] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304131009/http://www.seadb.net/schedule.php?ids=694 |date=2012-03-04 }}. Accessed 03-22-2010.</ref><ref name=Michael>{{cite journal |last=Michael |first=Scott |title=Speak of the devil: fish in the genus ''Inimicus'' |journal=SeaScope |volume=18 |date=Winter 2001 |url=http://www.instantocean.com/sites/InstantOcean/knowledge/seascope/past/SS_Vol18_2001.pdf |access-date=2010-03-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713043740/http://www.instantocean.com/sites/InstantOcean/knowledge/seascope/past/SS_Vol18_2001.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-13 }}</ref><ref name=Fenner>WetWebMedia.com: [http://www.wetwebmedia.com/inimicines.htm The Ghoulfish/Scorpion/Stonefishes of the Subfamily Choridactylinae (Inimicinae)], by Bob Fenner. Accessed 03-27-2010.</ref> The [[tasselled wobbegong]] is a shark whose adaptations as an ambush predator include a strongly flattened and camouflaged body with a [[camouflage fringe|fringe]] that breaks up its outline.<ref name="CeccarelliWilliamson2012">{{cite journal | last1=Ceccarelli | first1=D. M. | last2=Williamson | first2=D. H. | title=Sharks that eat sharks: opportunistic predation by wobbegongs | journal=Coral Reefs | volume=31 | issue=2 | date=2012-02-04 | doi=10.1007/s00338-012-0878-z | pages=471| bibcode=2012CorRe..31..471C | doi-access=free }}</ref>
 ===Aggressive mimicry===
@@ Line 47: / Line 47: @@
 {{Multiple image | direction = horizontal | align = center | width1 = 203 | image1 = Antlion1 by Jonathan Numer.jpg | caption1 = [[Antlion]] larva with grasping mandibles | width2 = 180 | image2 = Antlion trap.jpg | caption2 = Antlion's sandpit trap}}{{-}}
-Some ambush predators build traps to help capture their prey. Lacewings are a flying insect in the order [[Neuroptera]]. In some species, their larval form, known as the [[antlion]], is an ambush predator. Eggs are laid in the earth, often in caves or under a rocky ledge. The juvenile creates a small, crater shaped trap. The antlion hides under a light cover of sand or earth. When an ant, beetle or other prey slides into the trap, the antlion grabs the prey with its powerful jaws.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=National Geographic |url=http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/antlion_trap |title=Video of antlion larva ambushing an ant |accessdate=November 30, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p007stjv |title=Antlion ambush |publisher=[[BBC]] |accessdate=November 30, 2014}}</ref>
+Some ambush predators build traps to help capture their prey. Lacewings are a flying insect in the order [[Neuroptera]]. In some species, their larval form, known as the [[antlion]], is an ambush predator. Eggs are laid in the earth, often in caves or under a rocky ledge. The juvenile creates a small, crater shaped trap. The antlion hides under a light cover of sand or earth. When an ant, beetle or other prey slides into the trap, the antlion grabs the prey with its powerful jaws.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=National Geographic |url=http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/antlion_trap |title=Video of antlion larva ambushing an ant |access-date=November 30, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p007stjv |title=Antlion ambush |publisher=[[BBC]] |access-date=November 30, 2014}}</ref>
 Some but not all [[spider web|web-spinning]] [[spider]]s are sit-and-wait ambush predators. The sheetweb spiders ([[Linyphiidae]]) tend to stay with their webs for long periods and so resemble sit-and-wait predators, whereas the orb-weaving spiders (such as the [[Araneidae]]) tend to move frequently from one patch to another (and thus resemble active foragers).<ref name="Janetos1982">{{cite journal | last=Janetos | first=Anthony C. | title=Foraging tactics of two guilds of web-spinning spiders | journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology | volume=10 | issue=1 | year=1982 | doi=10.1007/bf00296392 | pages=19–27| s2cid=19631772 }}</ref>
@@ Line 69: / Line 69: @@
 [[Chameleons]] (family Chamaeleonidae) are highly adapted as ambush predators.<ref name=TolleyHerrel2013>{{cite book |last1=Tolley |first1=Krystal A. |last2=Herrel |first2=Anthony |title=The Biology of Chameleons |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l3BMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA128 |year=2013 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-95738-1 |page=128 |quote=Chameleons may also employ a form of movement-based camouflage, ... [they] often rhythmically rock backward and forward as they walk ... [perhaps] imitating a swaying leaf ... moving in the breeze ... The behavior is widespread in highly cryptic, generally slow-moving, ambush predators, notably chameleons and some snakes and mantids}}</ref> They can change colour to match their surroundings and often climb through trees with a swaying motion, probably to mimic the movement of the leaves and branches they are surrounded by.<ref name=TolleyHerrel2013/>  All chameleons are primarily [[insectivore]]s and feed by [[projectile use by living systems|ballistically projecting]] their [[tongue]]s, often twice the length of their bodies, to capture prey.<ref name="Anderson et al. 2012">{{cite journal | doi=10.1002/jmor.20053 | pmid=22730103 | title=Scaling of the ballistic tongue apparatus in chameleons | author1=Anderson, C. V. | author2=Sheridan, T. | author3=Deban, S. M. | journal=Journal of Morphology | year=2012 | volume=273 | issue=11 | pages=1214–1226 | s2cid=21033176 }}</ref><ref>Anderson, Christopher V. (2009) [http://www.chamaeleonidae.com/Movies/Pages/Rhampholeon_spinosus.html ''Rhampholeon spinosus'' feeding video]. chamaeleonidae.com</ref>  The tongue is projected in as little as 0.07 seconds,<ref name=" de Groot & van Leeuwen 2004"/><ref name="Anderson & Deban 2010">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0910778107 | title= Ballistic tongue projection in chameleons maintains high performance at low temperature |author1=Anderson, C.V.  |author2=Deban, S. M. | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | year=2010 | volume=107 | issue=12 | pages=5495–5499 | bibcode= 2010PNAS..107.5495A | pmid=20212130 | pmc=2851764| url=https://works.bepress.com/stephen_deban/3/download/ }}</ref> and is launched at an acceleration of over 41 [[G force|''g'']].<ref name="Anderson & Deban 2010"/> The [[Power (physics)|power]] with which the tongue is launched, over 3000 W kg<sup>−1</sup>, is more than muscle can produce, indicating that energy is stored in an elastic tissue for sudden release.<ref name="de Groot & van Leeuwen 2004">{{cite journal | title= Evidence for an elastic projection mechanism in the chameleon tongue |author1=de Groot, J. H. |author2=van Leeuwen, J. L. | journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B | year=2004 | volume=271 | issue= 1540 | pages=761–770 | doi=10.1098/rspb.2003.2637 | pmc=1691657 | pmid=15209111}}</ref>
-All fishes face a basic problem when trying to swallow prey: opening their mouth may pull food in, but closing it will push the food out again. [[Frogfish]]es capture their prey by suddenly opening their jaws, with a mechanism which enlarges the volume of the mouth cavity up to 12-fold and pulls the prey ([[crustaceans]], [[molluscs]] and other whole fishes) into the mouth along with water; the jaws close without reducing the volume of the mouth cavity. The attack can be as fast as 6 milliseconds.<ref name=BrayFishes>{{cite web |last=Bray |first=Dianne |title=Eastern Frogfish, Batrachomoeus dubius |url=http://www.fishesofaustralia.net.au/home/species/2835 |website=Fishes of Australia |accessdate=14 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140914181407/http://www.fishesofaustralia.net.au/home/species/2835 |archive-date=14 September 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
+All fishes face a basic problem when trying to swallow prey: opening their mouth may pull food in, but closing it will push the food out again. [[Frogfish]]es capture their prey by suddenly opening their jaws, with a mechanism which enlarges the volume of the mouth cavity up to 12-fold and pulls the prey ([[crustaceans]], [[molluscs]] and other whole fishes) into the mouth along with water; the jaws close without reducing the volume of the mouth cavity. The attack can be as fast as 6 milliseconds.<ref name=BrayFishes>{{cite web |last=Bray |first=Dianne |title=Eastern Frogfish, Batrachomoeus dubius |url=http://www.fishesofaustralia.net.au/home/species/2835 |website=Fishes of Australia |access-date=14 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140914181407/http://www.fishesofaustralia.net.au/home/species/2835 |archive-date=14 September 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
 ==Taxonomic range==
 Ambush predation is widely distributed across the [[animal|animal kingdom]]. It is found in many vertebrates including fishes such as the frogfishes (anglerfishes) of the sea bottom, and the [[Esocidae|pikes]] of freshwater;
-reptiles including crocodiles,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kids.nationalgeographic.com/Animals/CreatureFeature/Nile-crocodile |title=Nile Crocodile: Photos, Video, E-card, Map – National Geographic Kids |publisher=Kids.nationalgeographic.com |date=2002 |accessdate=2010-03-16}}</ref> [[common snapping turtle|snapping turtles]],<ref name=nature>{{cite web|url=http://nature.ca/notebooks/english/snapper.htm|title=Common Snapping Turtle|year=2013|accessdate=December 2, 2014|publisher=Canadian Museum of Nature}}</ref> the [[mulga dragon]],<ref name="Bush2007">{{cite book |last=Browne-Cooper |first= Robert|author2=Brian Bush |author3=Brad Maryan |author4=David Robinson  |title= Reptiles and Frogs in the Bush: Southwestern Australia|year= 2007|publisher=University of Western Australia Press |isbn= 9781920694746 |pages=145, 146 }}</ref> and many snakes such as the [[black mamba]];<ref name="Adele2">{{cite book |last=Richardson |first=Adele |title=Mambas |publisher=Capstone Press |year=2004 |location=Mankato, Minnesota |pages=25 |isbn=9780736821377 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMoGSbemC1UC&q=mamba%20adele%20richardson&pg=PA14 |accessdate=2010-05-19}}</ref> mammals such as the cats;<ref>{{cite web |last1=Etnyre |first1=Erica |last2=Lande |first2=Jenna |last3=Mckenna |first3=Alison |title=Felidae {{!}} Cats |url=http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Felidae/ |website=Animal Diversity Web |accessdate=28 September 2018}}</ref> and birds such as the [[anhinga]] (darter).<ref>{{cite journal| journal= Journal of Avian Biology |volume=38 |pages=507–514 |year=2007 | title= Diving in shallow water: the foraging ecology of darters (Aves: Anhingidae)| author=Ryan, P. G.|issue=4 | doi=10.1111/j.2007.0908-8857.04070.x}}</ref> The strategy is found in several invertebrate phyla including arthropods such as [[mantis]]es,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/praying-mantis-vs-grasshopper-predation|title=Praying mantis ambushes a grasshopper|publisher=National Geographic |accessdate=November 30, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Mantis |publisher=[[BBC]] |title=Nature wildlife: Praying mantis |accessdate=November 30, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Mantis |title=How the praying mantis hides |publisher=Pawnation |accessdate=November 30, 2014}}</ref> [[atypical tarantula|purseweb spiders]],<ref name="Piper2007">{{cite book |author=Piper, R. |author-link=Ross Piper |year=2007 |title=Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals|url=https://archive.org/details/extraordinaryani0000pipe|url-access=registration|publisher=[[Greenwood Press]]}}</ref> and some [[crustacean]]s;<ref name=deVries/> [[cephalopod]] molluscs such as the [[colossal squid]];<ref>{{cite web |author=Bourton, J. |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_8664000/8664542.stm |title=Monster colossal squid is slow not fearsome predator |publisher=[[BBC]] |year=2010|accessdate=December 1, 2014}}</ref> and [[starfish]] such as ''[[Leptasterias tenera]]''.<ref name=Hendler>{{cite journal |author1=Hendler, G. |author2=Franz, D. R. |year=1982 |title=The biology of a brooding seastar, ''Leptasterias tenera'', in Block Island Sound |journal=Biological Bulletin |volume=162 |issue=1 |pages=273–289 |url=http://www.biolbull.org/content/162/3/273.full.pdf+html |doi=10.2307/1540983 |jstor=1540983 |access-date=2014-12-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923202110/http://www.biolbull.org/content/162/3/273.full.pdf+html |archive-date=2015-09-23 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
+reptiles including crocodiles,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kids.nationalgeographic.com/Animals/CreatureFeature/Nile-crocodile |title=Nile Crocodile: Photos, Video, E-card, Map – National Geographic Kids |publisher=Kids.nationalgeographic.com |date=2002 |access-date=2010-03-16}}</ref> [[common snapping turtle|snapping turtles]],<ref name=nature>{{cite web|url=http://nature.ca/notebooks/english/snapper.htm|title=Common Snapping Turtle|year=2013|access-date=December 2, 2014|publisher=Canadian Museum of Nature}}</ref> the [[mulga dragon]],<ref name="Bush2007">{{cite book |last=Browne-Cooper |first= Robert|author2=Brian Bush |author3=Brad Maryan |author4=David Robinson  |title= Reptiles and Frogs in the Bush: Southwestern Australia|year= 2007|publisher=University of Western Australia Press |isbn= 9781920694746 |pages=145, 146 }}</ref> and many snakes such as the [[black mamba]];<ref name="Adele2">{{cite book |last=Richardson |first=Adele |title=Mambas |publisher=Capstone Press |year=2004 |location=Mankato, Minnesota |pages=25 |isbn=9780736821377 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMoGSbemC1UC&q=mamba%20adele%20richardson&pg=PA14 |access-date=2010-05-19}}</ref> mammals such as the cats;<ref>{{cite web |last1=Etnyre |first1=Erica |last2=Lande |first2=Jenna |last3=Mckenna |first3=Alison |title=Felidae {{!}} Cats |url=http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Felidae/ |website=Animal Diversity Web |access-date=28 September 2018}}</ref> and birds such as the [[anhinga]] (darter).<ref>{{cite journal| journal= Journal of Avian Biology |volume=38 |pages=507–514 |year=2007 | title= Diving in shallow water: the foraging ecology of darters (Aves: Anhingidae)| author=Ryan, P. G.|issue=4 | doi=10.1111/j.2007.0908-8857.04070.x}}</ref> The strategy is found in several invertebrate phyla including arthropods such as [[mantis]]es,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/praying-mantis-vs-grasshopper-predation|title=Praying mantis ambushes a grasshopper|publisher=National Geographic |access-date=November 30, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Mantis |publisher=[[BBC]] |title=Nature wildlife: Praying mantis |access-date=November 30, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Mantis |title=How the praying mantis hides |publisher=Pawnation |access-date=November 30, 2014}}</ref> [[atypical tarantula|purseweb spiders]],<ref name="Piper2007">{{cite book |author=Piper, R. |author-link=Ross Piper |year=2007 |title=Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals|url=https://archive.org/details/extraordinaryani0000pipe|url-access=registration|publisher=[[Greenwood Press]]}}</ref> and some [[crustacean]]s;<ref name=deVries/> [[cephalopod]] molluscs such as the [[colossal squid]];<ref>{{cite web |author=Bourton, J. |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_8664000/8664542.stm |title=Monster colossal squid is slow not fearsome predator |publisher=[[BBC]] |year=2010|access-date=December 1, 2014}}</ref> and [[starfish]] such as ''[[Leptasterias tenera]]''.<ref name=Hendler>{{cite journal |author1=Hendler, G. |author2=Franz, D. R. |year=1982 |title=The biology of a brooding seastar, ''Leptasterias tenera'', in Block Island Sound |journal=Biological Bulletin |volume=162 |issue=1 |pages=273–289 |url=http://www.biolbull.org/content/162/3/273.full.pdf+html |doi=10.2307/1540983 |jstor=1540983 |access-date=2014-12-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923202110/http://www.biolbull.org/content/162/3/273.full.pdf+html |archive-date=2015-09-23 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
 ==See also==