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Same-sex marriage

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"Marriage equality" and "gay marriage" redirect here. For other uses, see marriage equality (disambiguation) and gay marriage (disambiguation).

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Marriage

Recognized

Civil unions or registered partnerships but not marriage
Minimal recognition
See also
Notes
  1. ^ a b Performed in the Netherlands proper (including the Caribbean Netherlands), as well as in Aruba and Curaçao. May be registered in Sint Maarten in such cases, but the rights of marriage are not guaranteed.
  2. ^ Neither performed nor recognized in Niue, Tokelau, or the Cook Islands.
  3. ^ Neither performed nor recognized in six British Overseas Territories.
  4. ^ a b Neither performed nor recognized in some tribal nations. Recognized but not performed in several other tribal nations and American Samoa.
  5. ^ Registered foreign marriages confer all marriage rights. Domestic common-law marriages confer most rights of marriage. Domestic civil marriage recognized by some cities.
  6. ^ a b c d e The Coman v. Romania ruling of the European Court of Justice obliges the state to provide residency rights for the foreign spouses of EU citizens. Some member states, including Romania, do not follow the ruling.
  7. ^ A "declaration of family relationship" is available in several of Cambodia's communes which may be useful in matters such as housing, but is not legally binding.
  8. ^ Guardianship agreements, conferring some limited legal benefits, including decisions about medical and personal care.
  9. ^ Inheritance, guardianship rights, and residency rights for foreign spouses of legal residents.
  10. ^ Courts have recognised guru–shishya, nata pratha or maitri karar–type contractual relationships, but they are not legally binding.
  11. ^ Some cities and prefectures issue partnership certificates, but they are not legally binding.
  12. ^ Marriages conducted abroad between a Namibian national and a foreign spouse recognized for residency rights.
  13. ^ Hospital visitation rights through a "legal representative" status.
  1. ^ a b Not yet in effect.
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Two men marry, surrounded by wedding party, in New Orleans, United States on 11 November 2017

Same-sex marriage, also known as gay marriage, is the marriage of two people of the same legal sex or gender. There are records of marriage between people of the same sex dating back to the first century. In the modern era, marriage equality for same-sex couples was first legally acknowledged in the Netherlands on 1 April 2001, after royal assent was given by Queen Beatrix.[1]

As of 2022, marriage between same-sex couples is legally performed and recognized in 30 countries (nationwide or in some jurisdictions) with the most recent being Chile in March 2022, and Switzerland starting 1 July 2022. Adoption rights are not necessarily covered, though most states with same-sex marriage allow those couples to jointly adopt. In contrast, 34 countries (as of 2021) have definitions of marriage in their constitutions that prevent marriage between couples of the same sex, most enacted in recent decades as a preventative measure. Some other countries have constitutionally mandated Islamic law, which is generally interpreted as prohibiting marriage between same-sex couples. In six of the former and most of the latter, homosexuality itself is criminalized.

The application of marriage law equally to same-sex and opposite-sex couples (called marriage equality) has varied by jurisdiction, and has come about through legislative change to marriage law, court rulings based on constitutional guarantees of equality, recognition that marriage of same-sex couples is allowed by existing marriage law,[2] and by direct popular vote (via referendums and initiatives). The recognition of same-sex marriage is considered to be a human right and a civil right as well as a political, social, and religious issue.[3] The most prominent supporters of same-sex marriage are human rights and civil rights organizations as well as the medical and scientific communities, while the most prominent opponents are religious fundamentalist groups. Polls consistently show continually rising support for the recognition of same-sex marriage in all developed democracies and in some developing democracies.

Scientific studies show that the financial, psychological, and physical well-being of gay people are enhanced by marriage, and that the children of same-sex parents benefit from being raised by married same-sex couples within a marital union that is recognized by law and supported by societal institutions.[4] Social science research indicates that the exclusion of homosexuals from marriage stigmatizes and invites public discrimination against them, with research also repudiating the notion that either civilization or viable social orders depend upon restricting marriage to heterosexuals.[5][6] Same-sex marriage can provide those in committed same-sex relationships with relevant government services and make financial demands on them comparable to that required of those in opposite-sex marriages, and also gives them legal protections such as inheritance and hospital visitation rights.[7] Opposition to same-sex marriage is based on claims such as that homosexuality is unnatural and abnormal, that children are better off when raised by opposite-sex couples, that same-sex couples cannot procreate, and that the recognition of same-sex unions will promote homosexuality in society.[8] The former two claims are refuted by scientific studies, which show that homosexuality is a natural and normal variation in human sexuality, and that sexual orientation is not a choice. Many studies have shown that children of same-sex couples fare just as well as the children of opposite-sex couples; some studies have shown benefits to being raised by same-sex couples.[9]

Terminology

Alternative terms

Some proponents of the legal recognition of same-sex marriage—such as Marriage Equality USA (founded in 1998), Freedom to Marry (founded in 2003), and Canadians for Equal Marriage—have long used the terms marriage equality and equal marriage to signal that their goal was for same-sex marriage to be recognized on equal ground with opposite-sex marriage.[10][11][12][13][14][15][16] The Associated Press recommends the use of same-sex marriage over gay marriage.[17]

Use of the term marriage

Anthropologists have struggled to determine a definition of marriage that absorbs commonalities of the social construct across cultures around the world.[18][19] Many proposed definitions have been criticized for failing to recognize the existence of same-sex marriage in some cultures, including in more than 30 African cultures, such as the Kikuyu and Nuer.[19][20][21]

With several countries revising their marriage laws to recognize same-sex couples in the 21st century, all major English dictionaries have revised their definition of the word marriage to either drop gender specifications or supplement them with secondary definitions to include gender-neutral language or explicit recognition of same-sex unions.[22][23] The Oxford English Dictionary has recognized same-sex marriage since 2000.[24]

Opponents of same-sex marriage who want marriage to be restricted to pairings of a man and a woman, such as The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Catholic Church, and the Southern Baptist Convention, use the term traditional marriage to mean opposite-sex marriage.[25][26]

History

Main articles: History of same-sex unions, Timeline of same-sex marriage, and History of homosexuality

Ancient

A reference to marriage between same-sex couples appears in the Sifra, which was written in the 3rd century CE. The Book of Leviticus prohibited homosexual relations, and the Hebrews were warned not to "follow the acts of the land of Egypt or the acts of the land of Canaan" (Lev. 18:22, 20:13). The Sifra clarifies what these ambiguous "acts" were, and that they included marriage between same-sex couples: "A man would marry a man and a woman a woman, a man would marry a woman and her daughter, and a woman would be married to two men."[27]

What is arguably the first historical mention of the performance of marriages between same-sex couples occurred during the early Roman Empire according to controversial[28] historian John Boswell.[29] These were usually reported in a critical or satirical manner.[30]

Child emperor Elagabalus referred to his chariot driver, a blond slave from Caria named Hierocles, as his husband.[31] He also married an athlete named Zoticus in a lavish public ceremony in Rome amidst the rejoicings of the citizens.[32][33][34]

The first Roman emperor to have married a man was Nero, who is reported to have married two other males on different occasions. The first was with one of Nero's own freedmen, Pythagoras, with whom Nero took the role of the bride.[35] Later, as a groom, Nero married Sporus, a young boy, to replace his wife Poppaea Sabina following her death,[36][37] and married him in a very public ceremony with all the solemnities of matrimony, after which Sporus was forced to pretend to be the female concubine that Nero had killed and act as though they were really married.[36] A friend gave the "bride" away as required by law. The marriage was celebrated in both Greece and Rome in extravagant public ceremonies.[38]

Conubium existed only between a civis Romanus and a civis Romana (that is, between a male Roman citizen and a female Roman citizen), so that a marriage between two Roman males (or with a slave) would have no legal standing in Roman law (apart, presumably, from the arbitrary will of the emperor in the two aforementioned cases).[39] Furthermore, according to Susan Treggiari, "matrimonium was then an institution involving a mother, mater. The idea implicit in the word is that a man took a woman in marriage, in matrimonium ducere, so that he might have children by her."[40]

In 342 AD, Christian emperors Constantius II and Constans issued a law in the Theodosian Code (C. Th. 9.7.3) prohibiting marriage between same-sex couples in Rome and ordering execution for those so married.[41] Professor Fontaine of Cornell University Classics Department has pointed out that there is no provision for marriage between same-sex couples in Roman Law, and the text from 342 CE is corrupt, "marries a woman" might be "goes to bed in a dishonorable manner with a man" as a condemnation of homosexual behavior between men.[42] The Boxer Codex, dated 1590, records the normality and acceptance of same-sex marriage in the native cultures of the Philippines prior to colonization.[43]

Contemporary

Newly married couple in Minnesota shortly after the legalization of same-sex marriage in the United States

Historians variously trace the beginning of the modern movement in support of same-sex marriage to anywhere from around the 1980s to the 1990s. In United States of America same-sex marriage became an official request of gay rights movement after the Second National March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights in 1987.[44][45]

In 1989, Denmark became the first country to legally recognize a relationship for same-sex couples, establishing registered partnerships, which gave those in same-sex relationships "most rights of married heterosexuals, but not the right to adopt or obtain joint custody of a child".[46] In 2001, the metropolitan Netherlands became the first country to broaden marriage laws to include same-sex couples after royal assent was given by Queen Beatrix.[1][47] Since then, same-sex marriage has been established by law in 28 other countries, including most of the Americas and Western Europe. Yet its spread has been uneven — South Africa is the only country in Africa to take the step; Taiwan is the only one in Asia.[48]

Timeline

Main article: Timeline of same-sex marriage

Dates are when marriages between same-sex couples began to be officially certified. Marriage between same-sex couples is still not performed locally in some polities that recognize it when performed in other jurisdictions (e.g. several Mexican states).

2001 Netherlands Netherlands (1 April)
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006 South Africa South Africa (30 November)
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022

Same-sex marriage around the world

Main articles: Legal status of same-sex marriage, Same-sex union legislation, and Recognition of same-sex unions by country

Note: for this section, "same-sex marriage" means marriage specifically between couples of the same sex.

Same-sex marriage is legally performed and recognized (nationwide or in some parts) in the following countries: Argentina, Australia,[a] Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Realm of Denmark,[b] Ecuador, Finland, France,[c] Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Luxembourg, Malta, Mexico,[d] metropolitan Netherlands,[e] metropolitan New Zealand,[f] Norway, Portugal, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Taiwan, United Kingdom,[g] United States,[h] and Uruguay. In Switzerland same-sex marriage will be performed from July 1, 2022.[51]

  Marriage open to same-sex couples (rings: individual cases)
  Civil unions or domestic partnerships
  Legislation or binding domestic court ruling establishing same-sex marriage, but marriage is not yet provided for
  Same-sex marriage recognized with full rights when performed in certain other jurisdictions
  Limited legal recognition (unregistered cohabitation, legal guardianship)
  Local certification without legal force
  Limited recognition of marriage performed in certain other jurisdictions (residency rights for spouses)
  Country subject to an international court ruling to recognize same-sex marriage
  Same-sex unions not legally recognized

Same-sex marriage is under consideration by the legislature or the courts in Andorra,[52] Cuba,[53] Curaçao,[54] the Czech Republic,[55] India,[56] Japan,[57] Liechtenstein,[58] various states in Mexico (e.g. Durango,[59] Tamaulipas and Veracruz), the Navajo Nation,[60] and Peru.[61] Civil unions, as a first step toward marriage, have been considered in a number of countries, including Thailand[62] and Barbados since 2020, Serbia since 2021[63] and Latvia since 2022.

On 12 March 2015, the European Parliament passed a non-binding resolution encouraging EU institutions and member states to "[reflect] on the recognition of same-sex marriage or same-sex civil union as a political, social and human and civil rights issue".[64][65][66] In 2018, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruled that all signatory countries must allow same-sex marriage.

In response to the international spread of same-sex marriage, a number of countries have enacted preventative constitutional bans, with the most recent being Georgia in 2018 and Russia in 2020. In other countries, constitutions have been adopted which have wording specifying that marriage is between a man and a woman, although, especially with the older constitutions, they were not necessarily worded with the intent to ban same-sex marriage.[citation needed]

  Same-sex marriage banned by secular constitution
  Same-sex marriage banned by constitutionally mandated Islamic law or morality
  Same-sex marriage banned for Muslims
  No constitutional ban

International court rulings

European Court of Human Rights

In 2010, the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) ruled in Schalk and Kopf v Austria, a case involving an Austrian same-sex couple who were denied the right to marry.[67] The court found, by a vote of 4 to 3, that their human rights had not been violated.[68] The court further stated that same-sex unions are not protected under art. 12 of ECHR ("Right to marry"), which exclusively protects the right to marry of opposite-sex couples (without regard if the sex of the partners is the result of birth or of sex change), but they are protected under art. 8 of ECHR ("Right to respect for private and family life") and art. 14 ("Prohibition of discrimination"). Furthermore, under European Convention of Human Rights, states are not obliged to allow same-sex marriage:[69]

The Court acknowledged that a number of Contracting States had extended marriage to same-sex partners, but went on to say that this reflected their own vision of the role of marriage in their societies and did not flow from an interpretation of the fundamental right as laid down by the Contracting States in the Convention in 1950. The Court concluded that it fell within the State’s margin of appreciation as to how to regulate the effects of the change of gender on pre-existing marriages.

— European Court of Human Rights, Schalk and Kopf v Austria[67]

British Judge Sir Nicolas Bratza, then head of the European Court of Human Rights, delivered a speech in 2012 that signaled the court was ready to declare same-sex marriage a "human right", as soon as enough countries fell into line.[70][71][72]

Article 12 of the European Convention on Human Rights states that: "Men and women of marriageable age have the right to marry and to found a family, according to the national laws governing the exercise of this right",[73] not limiting marriage to those in a heterosexual relationship. However, the ECHR stated in Schalk and Kopf v Austria that this provision was intended to limit marriage to heterosexual relationships, as it used the term "men and women" instead of "everyone".[67]

European Union

Further information: Coman and Others v General Inspectorate for Immigration and Ministry of the Interior

On 5 June 2018, the European Court of Justice ruled, in a case from Romania, that, under the specific conditions of the couple in question, married same-sex couples have the same residency rights as other married couples in an EU country, even if that country does not permit or recognize same-sex marriage.[74][75] However, the ruling was not implemented in Romania and on 14 September 2021 the European Parliament passed a resolution calling on the European Commission to ensure that the ruling is respected across the EU.[76][77]

Inter-American Court of Human Rights

On 8 January 2018, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACHR) ruled that the American Convention on Human Rights mandates and requires the legal recognition of same-sex marriage. The landmark ruling was fully binding on Costa Rica and set binding precedent in the other signatory countries. The Court recommended that governments issue temporary decrees recognizing same-sex marriage until new legislation is brought in. Among states without universal same-sex marriage, the ruling applies to Barbados, Bolivia, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru and Suriname.

The Court said that governments "must recognize and guarantee all the rights that are derived from a family bond between people of the same sex". They also said that it was inadmissible and discriminatory for a separate legal provision to be established (such as civil unions) instead of same-sex marriage. The Court demanded that governments "guarantee access to all existing forms of domestic legal systems, including the right to marriage, in order to ensure the protection of all the rights of families formed by same-sex couples without discrimination". Recognizing the difficulty in passing such laws in countries where there is strong opposition to same-sex marriage, it recommended that governments pass temporary decrees until new legislation is brought in.[78]

The ruling has directly led to the legal recognition of same-sex marriage in Costa Rica and Ecuador. In the wake of the ruling, lawsuits regarding same-sex marriage have also been filed in Bolivia, Honduras,[79] Panama,[80] Paraguay (to recognize marriages performed abroad),[81] and Peru,[82] all of which are under the jurisdiction of the IACHR.

International organizations

The terms of employment of the staff of international organizations (not commercial) in most cases are not governed by the laws of the country where their offices are located. Agreements with the host country safeguard these organizations' impartiality.

Despite their relative independence, few organizations recognize same-sex partnerships without condition. The agencies of the United Nations recognize same-sex marriages if the country of citizenship of the employees in question recognizes the marriage.[83] In some cases, these organizations do offer a limited selection of the benefits normally provided to mixed-sex married couples to de facto partners or domestic partners of their staff, but even individuals who have entered into a mixed-sex civil union in their home country are not guaranteed full recognition of this union in all organizations. However, the World Bank does recognize domestic partners.[84]

Other arrangements

Civil unions

Main article: Civil union
Many advocates, such as this November 2008 protester at a demonstration in New York City against California Proposition 8, reject the notion of civil unions, describing them as inferior to the legal recognition of same-sex marriage.[85]

Civil union, civil partnership, domestic partnership, registered partnership, unregistered partnership, and unregistered cohabitation statuses offer varying legal benefits of marriage. As of 11 December 2024, countries that have an alternative form of legal recognition other than marriage on a national level are: Andorra, Croatia, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Greece, Hungary, Israel, Italy, Liechtenstein, San Marino, Slovenia and Switzerland.[86][87] Poland and Slovakia offer more limited rights. On a subnational level, the Mexican state of Veracruz, and the Dutch constituent country of Aruba allow same-sex couples to access civil unions or partnerships, but restrict marriage to couples of the opposite sex. Additionally, various cities and counties in Cambodia and Japan offer same-sex couples varying levels of benefits, which include hospital visitation rights and others.

Additionally, seventeen countries that have legally recognized same-sex marriage have an alternative form of recognition for same-sex couples, usually available to heterosexual couples as well: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, France, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, South Africa, Spain, the United Kingdom and Uruguay.[88][89][90][91]

They are also available in parts of the United States (Arizona[note 1], California, Colorado, Hawaii, Illinois, New Jersey, Nevada and Oregon) and Canada.[92][93]

Non-sexual same-sex marriage

Kenya

Main article: LGBT rights in Kenya

Female same-sex marriage is practiced among the Gikuyu, Nandi, Kamba, Kipsigis, and to a lesser extent neighboring peoples. About 5–10% of women are in such marriages. However, this is not seen as homosexual, but is instead a way for families without sons to keep their inheritance within the family.[94]

Nigeria

Main article: Same-sex marriage in Nigeria

Among the Igbo people and probably other peoples in the south of the country, there are circumstances where a marriage between women is considered appropriate, such as when a woman has no child and her husband dies, and she takes a wife to perpetuate her inheritance and family lineage.[95]

Studies

The American Anthropological Association stated on 26 February 2004:

The results of more than a century of anthropological research on households, kinship relationships, and families, across cultures and through time, provide no support whatsoever for the view that either civilization or viable social orders depend upon marriage as an exclusively heterosexual institution. Rather, anthropological research supports the conclusion that a vast array of family types, including families built upon same-sex partnerships, can contribute to stable and humane societies.[6]

Research findings from 1998 to 2015 from the University of Virginia, Michigan State University, Florida State University, the University of Amsterdam, the New York State Psychiatric Institute, Stanford University, the University of California-San Francisco, the University of California-Los Angeles, Tufts University, Boston Medical Center, the Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health, and independent researchers also support the findings of this study.[96][vague]

Adolescence

A study of nationwide data from across the United States from January 1999 to December 2015 revealed that the rate of attempted suicide among school students in grades 9–12 declined by 7% and the rate of attempted suicide among high schoolers of a minority sexual orientation in grades 9–12 declined by 14% in states that established same-sex marriage, resulting in about 134,000 fewer attempting suicide each year in the United States. The researchers took advantage of the gradual manner in which same-sex marriage was established in the United States (expanding from one state in 2004 to all fifty states in 2015) to compare the rate of attempted suicide among youth in each state over the time period studied. Once same-sex marriage was established in a particular state, the reduction in the rate of attempted suicide among youth in that state became permanent. No reduction in the rate of attempted suicide among teenage youth occurred in a particular state until that state recognized same-sex marriage.[97][98] The lead researcher of the study stated that "laws that have the greatest impact on gay adults may make gay kids feel more hopeful for the future".[99][100][101]

Parenting

Main article: LGBT parenting
Lesbian couple with children

Professional organizations of psychologists have concluded that children stand to benefit from the well-being that results when their parents' relationship is recognized and supported by society's institutions, e.g. civil marriage. For example, the Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) stated in 2006 that "parents' financial, psychological and physical well-being is enhanced by marriage and that children benefit from being raised by two parents within a legally-recognized union."[102] The CPA has stated that the stress encountered by gay and lesbian parents and their children are more likely the result of the way society treats them than because of any deficiencies in fitness to parent.[102]

The American Academy of Pediatrics concluded in 2006, in an analysis published in the journal Pediatrics:

There is ample evidence to show that children raised by same-gender parents fare as well as those raised by heterosexual parents. More than 25 years of research have documented that there is no relationship between parents' sexual orientation and any measure of a child's emotional, psychosocial, and behavioral adjustment... The rights, benefits, and protections of civil marriage can further strengthen these families.[103]

Health

The American Psychological Association stated in 2004: "Denial of access to marriage to same-sex couples may especially harm people who also experience discrimination based on age, race, ethnicity, disability, gender and gender identity, religion, socioeconomic status and so on." It has also averred that same-sex couples who may only enter into a civil union, as opposed to a marriage, "are denied equal access to all the benefits, rights, and privileges provided by federal law to those of married couples", which has adverse effects on the well-being of same-sex partners.[104]

As of 2006, the data of current psychological and other social science studies on same-sex marriage in comparison to mixed-sex marriage indicate that same-sex and mixed-sex relationships do not differ in their essential psychosocial dimensions; that a parent's sexual orientation is unrelated to their ability to provide a healthy and nurturing family environment; and that marriage bestows substantial psychological, social, and health benefits. Same-sex parents and carers and their children are likely to benefit in numerous ways from legal recognition of their families, and providing such recognition through marriage will bestow greater benefit than civil unions or domestic partnerships.[103][105]

In 2009, a pair of economists at Emory University tied the passage of state bans on same-sex marriage in the United States to an increase in the rates of HIV infection.[106][107] The study linked the passage of a same-sex marriage ban in a state to an increase in the annual HIV rate within that state of roughly 4 cases per 100,000 population.[108] In 2010, a Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health study examining the effects of institutional discrimination on the psychiatric health of lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) individuals found an increase in psychiatric disorders, including a more than doubling of anxiety disorders, among the LGB population living in states that instituted bans on same-sex marriage. According to the author, the study highlighted the importance of abolishing institutional forms of discrimination, including those leading to disparities in the mental health and well-being of LGB individuals. Institutional discrimination is characterized by societal-level conditions that limit the opportunities and access to resources by socially disadvantaged groups.[109][110]

Issues

See also: LGBT rights opposition

While few societies have recognized same-sex unions as marriages, the historical and anthropological record reveals a large range of attitudes towards same-sex unions ranging from praise, through full acceptance and integration, sympathetic toleration, indifference, prohibition and discrimination, to persecution and physical annihilation.[citation needed] Opponents of same-sex marriages have argued that same-sex marriage, while doing good for the couples that participate in them and the children they are raising,[111] undermines a right of children to be raised by their biological mother and father.[112] Some supporters of same-sex marriages take the view that the government should have no role in regulating personal relationships,[113] while others argue that same-sex marriages would provide social benefits to same-sex couples.[114] The debate regarding same-sex marriages includes debate based upon social viewpoints as well as debate based on majority rules, religious convictions, economic arguments, health-related concerns, and a variety of other issues.[citation needed]

Parenting

Main articles: LGBT parenting and Same-sex marriage and the family
Male couple with a child

Scientific literature indicates that parents' financial, psychological and physical well-being is enhanced by marriage and that children benefit from being raised by two parents within a legally recognized union (either a mixed-sex or same-sex union). As a result, professional scientific associations have argued for same-sex marriage to be legally recognized as it will be beneficial to the children of same-sex parents or carers.[115][102][116][117][118]

Scientific research has been generally consistent in showing that lesbian and gay parents are as fit and capable as heterosexual parents, and their children are as psychologically healthy and well-adjusted as children reared by heterosexual parents.[102][118][119][120] According to scientific literature reviews, there is no evidence to the contrary.[103][121][122][123]

Adoption

Main article: LGBT adoption
Legal status of adoption by same-sex couples around the world:
  Joint adoption allowed1
  Second-parent (stepchild) adoption allowed2
  No laws allowing adoption by same-sex couples and no same-sex marriage
  Same-sex marriage but adoption by married same-sex couples not allowed

All states that allow same-sex marriage also allow the joint adoption of children by people of the same sex[citation needed] with the exceptions of Jalisco, Nayarit and Quintana Roo in Mexico. In addition, Andorra and Israel, which do not recognize same-sex marriage nonetheless permit joint adoption by unmarried same-sex couples. Some additional states allow stepchild adoption by those who are in a same-sex relationship but are unmarried: Croatia, Estonia, Italy (on a case-by-case basis), Slovenia and Switzerland.[124]

As of 2010, more than 16,000 same-sex couples were raising an estimated 22,000 adopted children in the United States,[125] 4% of all adopted children.[126]

Surrogacy and IVF treatment

Main article: Assisted reproductive technology

A gay or bisexual man has the option of surrogacy, the process in which a woman bears a child for another person through artificial insemination or carries another woman's surgically implanted fertilized egg to birth. A lesbian or bisexual woman has the option of artificial insemination.[127][128] Whether these arrangements are legal are subject to controversy in several jurisdictions.[129]

Transgender and intersex people

See also: Transgender rights and Intersex human rights

The legal status of same-sex marriage may have implications for the marriages of couples in which one or both parties are transgender, depending on how sex is defined within a jurisdiction. Transgender and intersex individuals may be prohibited from marrying partners of the "opposite" sex or permitted to marry partners of the "same" sex due to legal distinctions.[citation needed] In any legal jurisdiction where marriages are defined without distinction of a requirement of a male and female, these complications do not occur. In addition, some legal jurisdictions recognize a legal and official change of gender, which would allow a transgender male or female to be legally married in accordance with an adopted gender identity.[130]

In the United Kingdom, the Gender Recognition Act 2004 allows a person who has lived in their chosen gender for at least two years to receive a gender recognition certificate officially recognizing their new gender. Because in the United Kingdom marriages were until recently only for mixed-sex couples and civil partnerships are only for same-sex couples, a person had to dissolve their civil partnership before obtaining a gender recognition certificate[citation needed], and the same was formerly true for marriages in England and Wales, and still is in other territories. Such people are then free to enter or re-enter civil partnerships or marriages in accordance with their newly recognized gender identity. In Austria, a similar provision requiring transsexual people to divorce before having their legal sex marker corrected was found to be unconstitutional in 2006.[131] In Quebec, prior to the legalization of same-sex marriage, only unmarried people could apply for legal change of gender. With the advent of same-sex marriage, this restriction was dropped. A similar provision including sterilization also existed in Sweden, but was phased out in 2013.[132] In the United States, transgender and intersex marriages was subject to legal complications.[133] As definitions and enforcement of marriage are defined by the states, these complications vary from state to state,[134] as some of them prohibit legal changes of gender.[135]

Divorce

Main article: Divorce of same-sex couples

In the United States of America before the case of Obergefell v. Hodges, couples in same-sex marriages could only obtain a divorce in jurisdictions that recognized same-sex marriages, with some exceptions.[136]

Judicial and legislative

Main article: Conflict of marriage laws § Same-sex marriage

There are differing positions regarding the manner in which same-sex marriage has been introduced into democratic jurisdictions. A "majority rules" position holds that same-sex marriage is valid, or void and illegal, based upon whether it has been accepted by a simple majority of voters or of their elected representatives.[137]

In contrast, a civil rights view holds that the institution can be validly created through the ruling of an impartial judiciary carefully examining the questioning and finding that the right to marry regardless of the gender of the participants is guaranteed under the civil rights laws of the jurisdiction.[138]

Public opinion

Public opinion of same-sex marriage. Fraction in favor:[139]
See also: Public opinion of same-sex marriage in the United States and Public opinion of same-sex marriage in Australia

Numerous polls and studies on the issue have been conducted. A trend of increasing support for same-sex marriage has been revealed across many countries of the world, often driven in large part by a generational difference in support. Polling that was conducted in developed democracies in this century shows a majority of people in support of same-sex marriage. Support for same-sex marriage has increased across every age group, political ideology, religion, gender, race and region of various developed countries in the world.[140][141][142][143][144][needs update]

Various detailed polls and studies on same-sex marriage that were conducted in several countries show that support for same-sex marriage significantly increases with higher levels of education and is also significantly stronger among younger generations, with a clear trend of continually increasing support.[145][146][147][148][149][needs update]

Opinion polls for same-sex marriage by country
  Same-sex marriage performed nationwide
  Same-sex marriage performed in some parts of the country
  Civil unions or registered partnerships nationwide
  Civil unions or registered partnerships pending
  Same-sex marriage rights pending
  Same-sex sexual activity is illegal
Country Pollster Year For[i] Against[i] Neither[j] Margin
of error 		Ref.
Albania Albania IPSOS 2023 26%
 73%
(74%) 		1% [150]
Andorra Andorra Institut d'Estudis Andorrans 2013 70%
(79%) 		19%
(21%) 		11% [151]
Antigua and Barbuda Antigua and Barbuda AmericasBarometer 2017 12% – – [152]
Argentina Argentina Ipsos 2024 69%
(81%) 		16% [9% support some rights]
(19%) 		15% not sure ±5% [153]
Pew Research Center 2023 67%
(72%) 		26%
(28%) 		7% ±3.6% [154]
Armenia Armenia Pew Research Center 2015 3%
(3%) 		96%
(97%) 		1% ±3% [155]
[156]
Aruba Aruba 2021 46%
 [157]
Australia Australia Ipsos 2024 64%
(73%) 		25% [13% support some rights]
(28%) 		12% not sure ±3.5% [153]
Pew Research Center 2023 75%
(77%) 		23% 2% ±3.6% [154]
Austria Austria Eurobarometer 2023 65%
(68%) 		30%
(32%) 		5% [158]
The Bahamas Bahamas AmericasBarometer 2015 11% – – [159]
Belarus Belarus Pew Research Center 2015 16%
(16%) 		81%
(84%) 		3% ±4% [155]
[156]
Belgium Belgium Ipsos 2024 69%
(78%) 		19% [9% support some rights]
(22%) 		12% not sure ±5% [153]
Eurobarometer 2023 79% 19% 2% not sure [158]
Belize Belize AmericasBarometer 2014 8% – – [159]
Bolivia Bolivia AmericasBarometer 2017 35% 65% – ±1.0% [152]
Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina IPSOS 2023 26%
(27%) 		71%
(73%) 		3% [150]
Brazil Brazil Ipsos (more urban/educated than representative) 2024 51%
(62%) 		31% [17% support some rights]
(38%) 		18% not sure ±3.5% [k] [153]
Pew Research Center 2023 52%
(57%) 		40%
(43%) 		8% ±3.6% [154]
Bulgaria Bulgaria Eurobarometer 2023 17%
(18%) 		75%
(82%) 		8% [158]
Cambodia Cambodia Pew Research Center 2023 57%
(58%) 		42% 1% [154]
Canada Canada Ipsos 2024 65%
(75%) 		22% [10% support some rights]
(25%) 		13% not sure ±3.5% [153]
Pew Research Center 2023 79%
(84%) 		15%
(16%) 		6% ±3.6% [154]
Chile Chile Cadem 2024 77%
(82%) 		22%
(18%) 		2% ±3.6% [160]
China China Ipsos (more urban/educated than representative) 2021 43%
(52%) 		39% [20% support some rights]
(48%) 		18% not sure ±3.5% [k] [161]
Colombia Colombia Ipsos (more urban/educated than representative) 2024 46%
(58%) 		33% [19% support some rights]
(42%) 		21% ±5% [k] [153]
Costa Rica Costa Rica CIEP 2018 35% 64% 1% [162]
Croatia Croatia Eurobarometer 2023 42%
(45%) 		51%
(55%) 		7% [158]
Cuba Cuba Apretaste 2019 63% 37% – [163]
Cyprus Cyprus Eurobarometer 2023 50%
(53%) 		44%
(47%) 		6% [158]
Czech Republic Czech Republic Eurobarometer 2023 60% 34% 6% [158]
Denmark Denmark Eurobarometer 2023 93% 5% 2% [158]
Dominica Dominica AmericasBarometer 2017 10% 90% – ±1.1% [152]
Dominican Republic Dominican Republic CDN 37 2018 45% 55% - [164]
Ecuador Ecuador AmericasBarometer 2019 23%
(31%) 		51%
(69%) 		26% [165]
El Salvador El Salvador Universidad Francisco Gavidia 2021 82.5% – [166]
Estonia Estonia Eurobarometer 2023 41%
(45%) 		51%
(55%) 		8% [158]
Finland Finland Eurobarometer 2023 76%
(81%) 		18%
(19%) 		6% [158]
France France Ipsos 2024 62%
(70%) 		26% [16% support some rights]
(30%) 		12% not sure ±3.5% [153]
Pew Research Center 2023 82%
(85%) 		14%
(15%) 		4% ±3.6% [154]
Eurobarometer 2023 79%
(85%) 		14
(%)
(15%) 		7% [158]
Georgia (country) Georgia Women's Initiatives Supporting Group 2021 10%
(12%) 		75%
(88%) 		15% [167]
Germany Germany Ipsos 2024 73%
(83%) 		18% [10% support some rights]
(20%) 		12% not sure ±3.5% [153]
Pew Research Center 2023 80%
(82%) 		18% 2% ±3.6% [154]
Eurobarometer 2023 84%
(87%) 		13%< 3% [158]
Greece Greece Pew Research Center 2023 48%
(49%) 		49%
(51%) 		3% ±3.6% [154]
Eurobarometer 2023 57%
(59%) 		40%
(41%) 		3% [158]
Grenada Grenada AmericasBarometer 2017 12% 88% – ±1.4%c [152]
Guatemala Guatemala AmericasBarometer 2017 23% 77% – ±1.1% [152]
Guyana Guyana AmericasBarometer 2017 21% 79% – ±1.3% [159]
Haiti Haiti AmericasBarometer 2017 5% 95% – ±0.3% [152]
Honduras Honduras CID Gallup 2018 17%
(18%) 		75%
(82%) 		8% [168]
Hong Kong Hong Kong Pew Research Center 2023 58%
(59%) 		40%
(41%) 		2% [154]
Hungary Hungary Ipsos 2024 44%
(56%) 		35% [18% support some rights]
(44%) 		21% not sure ±5% [153]
Pew Research Center 2023 31%
(33%) 		64%
(67%) 		5% ±3.6% [154]
Eurobarometer 2023 42%
(45%) 		52%
(55%) 		6% [158]
Iceland Iceland Gallup 2006 89% 11% – [169]
India India Pew Research Center 2023 53%
(55%) 		43%
(45%) 		4% ±3.6% [154]
Indonesia Indonesia Pew Research Center 2023 5% 92%
(95%) 		3% ±3.6% [154]
Republic of Ireland Ireland Ipsos (more urban/educated than representative) 2024 68%
(76%) 		21% [8% support some rights]
(23%) 		10% ±5%[k] [153]
Eurobarometer 2023 86%
(91%) 		9% 5% [158]
Israel Israel Pew Research Center 2023 36%
(39%) 		56%
(61%) 		8% ±3.6% [154]
Italy Italy Ipsos 2024 58%
(66%) 		29% [19% support some rights]
(33%) 		12% not sure ±3.5% [153]
Pew Research Center 2023 73%
(75%) 		25% 2% ±3.6% [154]
Eurobarometer 2023 69%
(72%) 		27%
(28%) 		4% [158]
Jamaica Jamaica AmericasBarometer 2017 16% 84% – ±1.0% [152]
Japan Japan Kyodo News 2023 64%
(72%) 		25%
(28%) 		11% [170]
Asahi Shimbun 2023 72%
(80%) 		18%
(20%) 		10% [171]
Ipsos 2024 42%
(54%) 		31% [25% support some rights]
(40%) 		22% not sure ±3.5% [153]
Pew Research Center 2023 68%
(72%) 		26%
(28%) 		6% ±2.75% [154]
Kazakhstan Kazakhstan Pew Research Center 2016 7%
(7%) 		89%
(93%) 		4% [155]
[156]
Kenya Kenya Pew Research Center 2023 9% 90%
(91%) 		1% ±3.6% [154]
Kosovo Kosovo IPSOS 2023 20%
(21%) 		77%
(79%) 		3% [150]
Latvia Latvia Eurobarometer 2023 36% 59% 5% [158]
Liechtenstein Liechtenstein Liechtenstein Institut 2021 72% 28% 0% [172]
Lithuania Lithuania Eurobarometer 2023 39% 55% 6% [158]
Luxembourg Luxembourg Eurobarometer 2023 84% 13% 3% [158]

Malaysia Malaysia

Pew Research Center 2023 17% 82%
(83%) 		1% [154]
Malta Malta Eurobarometer 2023 74% 24% 2% [158]
Mexico Mexico Ipsos (more urban/educated than representative) 2024 55% 29% [16% support some rights] 17% not sure ±3.5%[k] [153]
Pew Research Center 2023 63%
(66%) 		32%
(34%) 		5% ±3.6% [154]
Moldova Moldova Europa Libera Moldova 2022 14% 86% [173]
Montenegro Montenegro IPSOS 2023 36%
(37%) 		61%
(63%) 		3% [150]
Mozambique Mozambique (3 cities) Lambda 2017 28%
(32%) 		60%
(68%) 		12% [174]
Netherlands Netherlands Ipsos 2024 77% 15% [8% support some rights] 8% not sure ±5% [153]
Pew Research Center 2023 89%
(90%) 		10% 1% ±3.6% [154]
Eurobarometer 2023 94% 5% 2% [158]
New Zealand New Zealand Ipsos 2023 70%
(78%) 		20% [11% support some rights]
(22%) 		9% ±3.5% [175]
Nicaragua Nicaragua AmericasBarometer 2017 25% 75% – ±1.0% [152]
Nigeria Nigeria Pew Research Center 2023 2% 97%
(98%) 		1% ±3.6% [154]
North Macedonia North Macedonia IPSOS 2023 20%
(21%) 		78%
(80%) 		2% [150]
Norway Norway Pew Research Center 2017 72%
(79%) 		19%
(21%) 		9% [155]
[156]
Panama Panama AmericasBarometer 2017 22% 78% – ±1.1% [152]
Paraguay Paraguay AmericasBarometer 2017 26% 74% – ±0.9% [152]
Peru Peru Ipsos (more urban/educated than representative) 2024 36%
 44% [30% support some rights] 20% ±5% [k] [153]
Philippines Philippines SWS 2018 22%
(26%) 		61%
(73%) 		16% [176]
Poland Poland Ipsos 2024 51%
(54%) 		43%
(46%) 		6% [177]
Pew Research Center 2023 41%
(43%) 		54%
(57%) 		5% ±3.6% [154]
United Surveys by IBRiS 2024 50%
(55%) 		41%
(45%) 		9% [178]
Eurobarometer 2023 50% 45% 5% [158]
Portugal Portugal Ipsos 2023 80%
(84%) 		15% [11% support some rights]
(16%) 		5% [175]
Eurobarometer 2023 81% 14% 5% [158]
Romania Romania Ipsos 2023 25%
(30%) 		59% [26% support some rights]
(70%) 		17% ±3.5% [175]
Eurobarometer 2023 25% 69% 6% [158]
Russia Russia Ipsos (more urban/educated than representative) 2021 17%
(21%) 		64% [12% support some rights]
(79%) 		20% not sure ±4.8% [k] [161]
FOM 2019 7%
(8%) 		85%
(92%) 		8% ±3.6% [179]
Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Kitts and Nevis AmericasBarometer 2017 9% 91% – ±1.0% [152]
Saint Lucia Saint Lucia AmericasBarometer 2017 11% 89% – ±0.9% [152]
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Saint Vincent and the Grenadines AmericasBarometer 2017 4% 96% – ±0.6% [152]
Serbia Serbia IPSOS 2023 24%
(25%) 		73%
(75%) 		3% [150]
Singapore Singapore Ipsos (more urban/educated than representative) 2024 33% 46% [21% support some rights] 21% ±5% [k] [153]
Pew Research Center 2023 45%
(47%) 		51%
(53%) 		4% [154]
Slovakia Slovakia Focus 2024 36%
(38%) 		60%
(62%) 		4% [180]
Eurobarometer 2023 37% 56% 7% [158]
Slovenia Slovenia Eurobarometer 2023 62%
(64%) 		37%
(36%) 		2% [158]
South Africa South Africa Ipsos (more urban/educated than representative) 2024 53% 32% [14% support some rights] 13% ±5% [k] [153]
Pew Research Center 2023 38%
(39%) 		59%
(61%) 		3% ±3.6% [154]
South Korea South Korea Ipsos 2024 36% 37% [16% support some rights] 27% not sure ±5% [153]
Pew Research Center 2023 41%
(42%) 		56%
(58%) 		3% [154]
Spain Spain Ipsos 2024 73%
(80%) 		19% [13% support some rights]
(21%) 		9% not sure ±3.5% [153]
Pew Research Center 2023 87%
(90%) 		10% 3% ±3.6% [154]
Eurobarometer 2023 88%
(91%) 		9%
(10%) 		3% [158]
Sri Lanka Sri Lanka Pew Research Center 2023 23%
(25%) 		69%
(75%) 		8% [154]
Suriname Suriname AmericasBarometer 2014 18% – – [159]
Sweden Sweden Ipsos 2024 78%
(84%) 		15% [8% support some rights]
(16%) 		7% not sure ±5% [153]
Pew Research Center 2023 92%
(94%) 		6% 2% ±3.6% [154]
Eurobarometer 2023 94% 5% 1% [158]
Switzerland Switzerland Ipsos 2023 54%
(61%) 		34% [16% support some rights]
(39%) 		13% not sure ±3.5% [175]
Taiwan Taiwan CNA 2023 63% 37% [181]
Pew Research Center 2023 45%
(51%) 		43%
(49%) 		12% [154]
Thailand Thailand Ipsos (more urban/educated than representative) 2024 58% 29% [20% support some rights] 12% not sure ±5%[k] [153]
Pew Research Center 2023 60%
(65%) 		32%
(35%) 		8% [154]
Trinidad and Tobago Trinidad and Tobago AmericasBarometer 2014 16% – – [159]
Turkey Turkey Ipsos (more urban/educated than representative) 2024 18%
(26%) 		52% [19% support some rights]
(74%) 		30% not sure ±5% [k] [153]
Ukraine Ukraine Rating 2023 37%
(47%) 		42%
(53%) 		22% ±1.5% [182]
United Kingdom United Kingdom YouGov 2023 77%
(84%) 		15%
(16%) 		8% [183]
Ipsos 2024 66%
(73%) 		24% [11% support some rights]
(27%) 		10% not sure ±3.5% [153]
Pew Research Center 2023 74%
(77%) 		22%
(23%) 		4% ±3.6% [154]
United States United States Ipsos 2024 51%
(62%) 		32% [14% support some rights]
(39%) 		18% not sure ±3.5% [153]
Pew Research Center 2023 63%
(65%) 		34%
(35%) 		3% ±3.6% [154]
Uruguay Uruguay LatinoBarómetro 2023 78%
(80%) 		20% 2% [184]
Venezuela Venezuela Equilibrium Cende 2023 55%
(63%) 		32%
(37%) 		13% [185]
Vietnam Vietnam Pew Research Center 2023 65%
(68%) 		30%
(32%) 		5% [175]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Same-sex marriage is performed and recognized by law in Australia itself and in the non-self-governing possessions of Norfolk Island, Christmas Island and the Cocos Islands, which follow Australian law.
  2. ^ Same-sex marriage is performed and recognized by law in metropolitan Denmark, the Faroe Islands and Greenland, which together make up the Realm of Denmark.
  3. ^ Same-sex marriage is performed and recognized by law in metropolitan France and in all French overseas regions and possessions, which follow a single legal code.
  4. ^ Same-sex marriage is legally recognized throughout Mexico, and it is legally available in most states and in its consulates abroad, though the process is not everywhere as straightforward as it is for opposite-sex marriage and does not always include adoption rights. Locally, it is available only by court injunction (amparo) in five states, namely Tabasco, Mexico (Edomex), Veracruz, Durango and Tamaulipas – though as of 2021, the last three are in the process of legislating for same-sex marriage, and courts in all states are legally required to issue an injunction when petitioned. Same-sex marriage is available in some municipalities but not statewide in Guerrero.
  5. ^ Same-sex marriage is performed and recognized by law in the Netherlands proper, including the Caribbean municipalities of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba. Marriages entered into there have minimal recognition in Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten, which together make up the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
  6. ^ Same-sex marriage is performed and recognized by law in New Zealand proper, but not in its possession of Tokelau, nor in the Cook Islands and Niue, which make up the Realm of New Zealand.
  7. ^ Same-sex marriage is performed and recognized by law in all parts of the United Kingdom and in its non-Caribbean possessions, but not in its Caribbean possessions, namely Anguilla, Bermuda, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, Montserrat and the Turks and Caicos Islands.
  8. ^ Same-sex marriage is performed and recognized by law in all fifty states of the USA and in the District of Columbia, in all overseas territories except American Samoa, and in all tribal nations that do not have their own marriage laws, as well as in most nations that do. The largest of the dozen or so known exceptions among the federal reservations are Navajo and Gila River, and the largest among the shared-sovereignty Oklahoma Tribal Statistical Areas are the Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw and Citizen Potawatomi. These polities ban same-sex marriage and do not recognize marriages from other jurisdictions, though members may still marry under state law and be accorded all the rights of marriage under state and federal law.
  9. ^ a b Because some polls do not report 'neither', those that do are listed with simple yes/no percentages in parentheses, so their figures can be compared.
  10. ^ Comprises: Neutral; Don't know; No answer; Other; Refused.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k [+ more urban/educated than representative]
  1. ^ Legally available in the municipalities of Bisbee, Clarkdale, Cottonwood, Jerome, Sedona and Tucson.

References

  1. ^ a b Winter, Caroline (4 December 2014). "In 14 years, same-sex marriage has spread round the world". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 13 January 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2022.
  2. ^ "Same-sex Oklahoma couple marries legally under tribal law". KOCO. 26 September 2013. Archived from the original on 22 October 2013. Retrieved 22 October 2013.
  3. ^ Multiple sources:
  4. ^ Multiple sources:
  5. ^ "Brief of Amici Curiae American Anthropological Association et al., supporting plaintiffs-appellees and urging affirmance – Appeal from United States District Court for the Northern District of California Civil Case No. 09-CV-2292 VRW (Honorable Vaughn R. Walker)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 December 2010. Retrieved 5 November 2010.
  6. ^ a b American Anthropological Association (2004). "Statement on Marriage and the Family". Archived from the original on 12 September 2015. Retrieved 18 September 2015.
  7. ^ Handbook of Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender Administration and Policy — Page 13, Wallace Swan – 2004
  8. ^ Cline, Austin (16 July 2017). "Common Arguments Against Gay Marriage". Archived from the original on 14 April 2019. Retrieved 26 September 2017.
  9. ^ Multiple sources:
  10. ^ "Marriage Equality". Garden State Equality. Archived from the original on 26 July 2014. Retrieved 24 July 2012.
  11. ^ "Marriage 101". Freedom to Marry. Archived from the original on 16 February 2010. Retrieved 28 September 2012.
  12. ^ Pratt, Patricia (29 May 2012). "Albany area real estate and the Marriage Equality Act". Albany Examiner. Retrieved 25 December 2012. On July 24, 2011 the Marriage Equality Act became a law in New York State forever changing the state's legal view of what a married couple is.
  13. ^ "Vote on Illinois marriage equality bill coming in January: sponsors". Chicago Phoenix. 13 December 2012. Archived from the original on 26 December 2012. Retrieved 23 December 2012.
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  15. ^ Mulholland, Helene (27 September 2012). "Ed Miliband calls for gay marriage equality". The Guardian. London, UK. Archived from the original on 28 September 2013. Retrieved 23 December 2012.
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  17. ^ @apstylebook (12 February 2019). "The term same-sex marriage is preferred over gay marriage. In places where it's legal, same-sex marriage is no different than other marriages, so the term should be used only when germane and needed to distinguish from marriages between heterosexual couples. #APStyleChat" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
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  22. ^ "Dictionaries take lead in redefining modern marriage". The Washington Times. 24 May 2004. Archived from the original on 18 September 2012. Retrieved 25 September 2012.
  23. ^ "Webster Makes It Official: Definition of Marriage Has Changed". American Bar Association. Archived from the original on 27 April 2015. Retrieved 28 September 2012.
  24. ^ Redman, Daniel (7 April 2009). "Noah Webster Gives His Blessing: Dictionaries recognize same-sex marriage—who knew?". Slate. Archived from the original on 17 September 2011. Retrieved 28 September 2012.
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  27. ^ Rabbi Joel Roth. Homosexuality Archived 24 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine rabbinicalassembly.org 1992.
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  30. ^ Frier, Bruce. "Roman Same-Sex Weddings from the Legal Perspective". University of Michigan. Archived from the original on 30 December 2011. Retrieved 25 September 2012.
  31. ^ Bunson, M., Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, Infobase Publishing, 2009, p. 259.
  32. ^ "Cassius Dio — Epitome of Book 80". Penelope.uchicago.edu. Archived from the original on 26 August 2021. Retrieved 7 July 2017.
  33. ^ Herodian. "Herodian of Antioch, History of the Roman Empire (1961) pp.135-152. Book 5". Tertullian.org. Archived from the original on 29 April 2019. Retrieved 7 July 2017.
  34. ^ Scarre, Chris (1995). Chronicles of the Roman Emperors. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd. p. 151. ISBN 978-0-500-05077-4. Archived from the original on 4 February 2021. Retrieved 28 October 2020.
  35. ^ Williams, CA., Roman Homosexuality: Second Edition, Oxford University Press, 2009, p. 284.
  36. ^ a b Nero missed her so greatly that, on learning of a woman who resembled her, he sent for her and kept her; but later he caused a boy of the freedmen, whom he used to call Sporus, ... "he formally "married" Sporus, and assigned the boy a regular dowry according to contract;" q.v., Suetonius Nero 28; Dio Cassius Epitome 62.28
  37. ^ "Bill Thayer's Web Site". Penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 7 July 2017.
  38. ^ "Cassius Dio — Epitome of Book 62". Penelope.uchicago.edu. Archived from the original on 11 October 2013. Retrieved 7 July 2017.
  39. ^ Corbett, The Roman Law of Marriage (Oxford, 1969), pp. 24–28; Treggiari, Roman Marriage (Oxford, 1991), pp. 43–49.; "Marriages where the partners had conubium were marriages valid in Roman law (iusta matrimonia)" [Treggiari, p. 49]. Compare Ulpian (Tituli Ulpiani) 5.3–5: "Conubium is the capacity to marry a wife in Roman law. Roman citizens have conubium with Roman citizens, but with Latins and foreigners only if the privilege was granted. There is no conubium with slaves"; compare also Gaius (Institutionum 1:55–56, 67, 76–80).
  40. ^ Treggiari, Roman Marriage (Oxford, 1991), p. 5.
  41. ^ Kuefler, Mathew (2007). "The Marriage Revolution in Late Antiquity: The Theodosian Code and Later Roman Marriage Law". Journal of Family History. 32 (4): 343–370. doi:10.1177/0363199007304424. S2CID 143807895.
  42. ^ Eidolon, 2015, Michael Fontaine, Associate Professor of Classics and Assistant Dean, Cornell University "nubit…feminam" for "cubit...infamen," and the Law does not provide for it."
  43. ^ George Bryan Souza. The Boxer Codex: Transcription and Translation of an Illustrated Late Sixteenth-Century Spanish Manuscript Concerning the Geography, History and ... (European Expansion and Indigenous Response) Annotated Edition. Brill; Annotated edition (November 20, 2015). 148 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine
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  51. ^ Reuters (17 November 2021). "Swiss to allow same-sex weddings from July 2022". Reuters. Retrieved 10 March 2022. {{cite news}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  52. ^ "Factbox: Andorra set to become latest nation to legalize gay marriage". Reuters. Archived from the original on 24 July 2020. Retrieved 24 July 2020.
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