Sinicization, sinofication, sinification, or sinonization (from the prefix sino-, 'Chinese, relating to China') is the process by which non-Chinese societies or groups are acculturated or assimilated into Chinese culture, particularly the language, societal norms, culture, and ethnic identity of the Han Chinese—the largest ethnic group of China.

Areas of influence include diet, writing, industry, education, language/lexicon, law, architectural style, politics, philosophy, religion, science and technology, value systems, and lifestyle.

The term sinicization is also often used to refer to processes or policies of acculturation or assimilation of norms from China on neighboring East Asian societies, or on minority ethnic groups within China. Evidence of this process is reflected in the histories of Korea, Japan, and Vietnam in the adoption of the Chinese writing system, which has long been a unifying feature in the Sinosphere as the vehicle for exporting Chinese culture to other Asian countries.

Assimilation

The assimilation policy is a type of Chinese nationalism aimed at strengthening the Chinese national identity (Zhonghua minzu) among the population. Proponents believe it will help to develop shared values, pride in being the country's citizen, respect and acceptance towards cultural differences among citizens of China.^{[citation needed]} Critics argue that assimilation destroys ethnic diversity, language diversity, and cultural diversity. Historian James A. Millward claimed the PRC has used the concept of Sinicization as a means to obscure Han settler colonialism.^[1]

In China there are 292 non-Mandarin languages spoken by native peoples of the region.^[2] There are also a number of immigrant languages, such as Khmer, Portuguese, English, etc.

Sinicizations

Historical

Baiyue

Before sinicization, non-Chinese indigenous peoples of Southern China, collectively termed by the Chinese as Baiyue (Chinese: 百越; lit. 'Hundreds of Yue Peoples'), inhabited the coastline of China from as far north as the Yangtze River to as far south as the Gulf of Tonkin.

As early as the 11th century BC, some of the Baiyue peoples in the Yangtze River Delta started to sinicize, marked by their establishment of the Wu State. These Yue peoples, together with their southerner neighbours who formed the Yue State centuries later, are collectively termed as Yuyue peoples. Over time, the mutual contact between Baiyue peoples and Han Chinese, as well as southward spread of Han Chinese mostly as war refugees, led to the sinicization of most of the Baiyue populations that remained in Southern China, be they in the Yangtze Valley or in coastal areas from the mouth of the Yangtze to the Gulf of Tonkin.^[3] The remnants of these peoples who were not fully sinicized are now recognized officially as the ethnic minorities of the People's Republic of China.

Turkic peoples

Tuoba Wei of Northern China was Sinicized Empire of Turkic-Xianbei origin. Historical Shatuo Turks also founded 5 Sinicized dynasties in Northern China.

Descendants of Uyghurs who migrated to Taoyuan County, Hunan have largely assimilated into the Han Chinese and Hui population and practice Chinese customs, speaking varieties of Chinese as their language.

Han, Jin, and Sixteen Kingdoms period

From the late Han Dynasty to the early Jin dynasty (266–420), large numbers of non-Chinese peoples living along China's northern periphery settled in northern China. Some of these migrants such as the Xiongnu and Xianbei had been pastoralist nomads from the northern steppes. Others such as the Di and Qiang were farmers and herders from the mountains of western Sichuan of southwest China. As migrants, they lived among ethnic Chinese and were sinicized to varying degrees. Many worked as farm laborers. Some attained official positions in the court and military. The numerous tribal groups in the north and northwest who had been heavily drafted into the military then exploited the chaos to seize power by local Chinese warlords.^[4]

During Three Kingdoms period, Cao Cao initiated the policy of settling Xiongnu nomads away from the frontier near Taiyuan in modern Shanxi province, where they would be less likely to rebel. The Xiongnu abandoned nomadism and the elite were educated in Chinese-Confucian literate culture.^[5] The migrant of Northern Chinese people to the south further settled China as a multi-ethnic empire.

Northern and Southern dynasties

The Northern and Southern dynasties was a period in the history of China that lasted from 386 to 589, following the tumultuous era of the Sixteen Kingdoms period. Though an age of civil war and political chaos, it was also a time of flourishing arts and culture, advancement in technology, and the spread of Mahayana Buddhism and Daoism. The period saw large-scale migration of Han Chinese to the lands south of the Yangtze. The period came to an end with the unification of all of China proper by Emperor Wen of the Sui dynasty. During this period, the process of Sinicization accelerated among the non-Han arrivals in the north and among the indigenous people in the south. This process was also accompanied by the increasing popularity of Buddhism (introduced into China in the first century) and Daoism in both northern and southern China.^[6]

Tang dynasty

During the eighth and ninth centuries in the Tang dynasty, Chinese male soldiers moved into Guizhou (formerly romanized as Kweichow) and married native non-Chinese women, their descendants being known as Lao-han-jen (original Chinese), in contrast to new Chinese people who colonized Guizhou at later times. They still spoke an archaic dialect as of 1929.^[7] Many immigrants to Guizhou were descended from these soldiers in garrisons who married non-Chinese women.^[8]

Yuan dynasty

The Mongol-led Yuan dynasty appointed a Muslim from Bukhara, Sayyid Ajall Shams al-Din Omar, as governor of Yunnan after conquering the Bai-led Dali Kingdom. Sayyid Ajall is best known among Chinese for helping sinicize the Yunnan province;^[9] the promotion of Islam, Confucianism, and Buddhism would be part of his 'civilizing mission' upon the non-Han Chinese peoples in Yunnan, who he viewed as "backward and barbarian."^[10]^[11]

He founded a "Chinese style" city called Zhongjing Cheng, where modern Kunming is today, and ordered that a Buddhist temple, two mosques, and a Confucian temple be built in the city.^[12]^[13] The latter temple, built in 1274 and doubled as a school, was the first Confucian temple ever to be built in Yunnan.^[14] By incorporating Chinese and consequently Confucian thought in the dynasty, scholars now deem Kublai Khan as an adopted Chinese citizen of Mongol ethnicity, rather than simply being mutually excluded from the definition of fellow Chinese he governed.^[15] As such, Sayyid Ajall would be the one to introduce Confucian education, rituals, and traditions into Yunnan, including Chinese social structures, funeral rituals, and marriage customs.^[10]^[16] He would go on to construct numerous Confucian temples throughout his reign.^[17]^[18]^[19]

Confucian rituals were taught to students in newly founded schools by Sichuanese scholars.^[20]^[21] The natives of Yunnan were instructed by Sayyid Ajall in such Confucian ceremonies as weddings, matchmaking, funerals, ancestor worship, and kowtow. The native leaders had their "barbarian" clothing replaced by clothing given to them by Sayyid Ajall as well.^[21]^[22] The governor was praised and described as making "the orangutans and butcherbirds become unicorns and phoenixes and their felts and furs were exchanged for gowns and caps" by He Hongzuo, the Regional Superintendent of Confucian studies.^[23]

Sayyid Ajall would also be the first to bring Islam to the area, and thus the widespread presence of Islam in Yunnan is credited to his work.^[24] Both Marco Polo and Rashid al-Din Vatvat recorded that Yunnan was heavily populated by Muslims during the Yuan Dynasty, with Rashid naming a city with all Muslim inhabitants as the "great city of Yachi."^[25] It has been suggested that Yachi was Dali City (Ta-li), which had many Hui people.^[26]

Sayyid Ajall's son Nasir al-Din became Governor of Yunnan in 1279 after his death.^[27]^[28]

Historian Jacqueline Armijo-Hussein has written on Sayyid Ajall's confucianization and sinicization policies in various papers, including in her dissertation "Sayyid 'Ajall Shams al-Din: A Muslim from Central Asia, serving the Mongols in China, and bringing 'civilization' to Yunnan" (1997);^[29] and in "The Origins of Confucian and Islamic Education in Southwest China: Yunnan in the Yuan Period" (n.d.)^[30] and "The Sinicization and Confucianization in Chinese and Western Historiography of a Muslim from Bukhara Serving Under the Mongols in China" (1989).^[31]

Ming dynasty

During the Ming conquest of Yunnan Chinese military soldiers were settled in Yunnan, and many married the native women.

Qing dynasty

The rulers of the Qing dynasty were ethnic Manchus who adopted the norms of the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule. The "orthodox" historical view emphasized the power of Han Chinese to "sinicize" their conquerors, although more recent research such as the New Qing History school revealed Manchu rulers were savvy in their manipulation of their subjects and from the 1630s through at least the 18th century, the emperors developed a sense of Manchu identity and used Central Asian models of rule as much as Confucian ones. There is also evidence of sinicization, however. For example, Manchus originally had their own separate style of naming from the Han Chinese, but eventually adopted Han Chinese naming practices.

Manchu names consisted of more than the two or one syllable Chinese names, and when phonetically transcribed into Chinese, they made no sense at all.^[32] The meaning of the names that Manchus used were also very different from the meanings of Chinese names.^[33] The Manchus also gave numbers as personal names.^[34]

Historical records report that as early as 1776, the Qianlong Emperor was shocked to see a high Manchu official, Guo'ermin, not understand what the emperor was telling him in Manchu, despite coming from the Manchu stronghold of Shengjing (now Shenyang).^[35] By the 19th century even the imperial court had lost fluency in the language. The Jiaqing Emperor (reigned 1796–1820) complained that his officials were not proficient at understanding or writing Manchu.^[36]

Eventually, the Qing royal family (the Aisin Gioro) gave their children Chinese names, which were separate from the Manchu names, and even adopted the Chinese practice of generation names, although its usage was inconsistent and error-ridden. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Manchu royal family stopped using Manchu names.^[37]

The Niohuru family of the Manchu changed their family name to Lang, which sounded like "wolf" in Chinese, since wolf in Manchu was Niohuru; thus forming a translation.^[38]

Although the Manchus replaced their Manchu names with Chinese personal names, the Manchu bannermen followed their traditional practice in typically used their first/personal name to address themselves and not their last name, while Han Chinese bannermen used their last name and first in normal Chinese style.^[39]^[40]

Usage of surnames was not traditional to the Manchu while it was to the Han Chinese.^[41]

Nguyễn dynasty (Vietnam)

The Vietnamese Nguyễn Emperor Minh Mạng sinicized ethnic minorities such as Khmers, Chams and Montagnards, claimed the legacy of Confucianism and China's Han dynasty for Vietnam.^[42] Directing his policies at the Khmers and hill tribes,^[43] Minh Mang declared that "We must hope that their barbarian habits will be subconsciously dissipated, and that they will daily become more infected by Han [Sino-Vietnamese] customs."^[44] Moreover, he would use the term Han (漢人) to refer to the Vietnamese people,^[42] and the name Template:Lang-vi (中國, the same Chinese characters as for 'China') to refer to Vietnam.^[45] Likewise, the lord Nguyễn Phúc Chu had referred to Vietnamese as Han people in 1712 when differentiating between Vietnamese and Chams.^[46]

Chinese clothing was also adopted by the Vietnamese people. Variations of them are still being used today.^[47]^[48]^[49]^[50]

===Modern <!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-zebra-design-disabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-disabled vector-feature-client-preferences-disabled vector-feature-typography-survey-disabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Contemporary history - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-zebra-design-disabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-disabled vector-feature-client-preferences-disabled vector-feature-typography-survey-disabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,)+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""], "wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy","wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"ae28bca0-8681-448f-8db7-31a48048d357","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Contemporary_history","wgTitle":"Contemporary history","wgCurRevisionId":1176312785,"wgRevisionId":1176312785,"wgArticleId":10689543,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Pages using the EasyTimeline extension","Webarchive template wayback links","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Articles needing additional references from August 2023","All articles needing additional references","Use dmy dates from September 2019","Use American English from January 2023","All Wikipedia articles written in American English","Commons category link is on Wikidata", "Articles which contain graphical timelines","Articles containing video clips","Contemporary history","Historiography","Historical eras"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Contemporary_history","wgRelevantArticleId":10689543,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":10,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":70000,"wgULSCurrentAutonym":"English","wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage", "wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q186075","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["architecture","bitness","brands","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"skins.vector.user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","skins.vector.user":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.timeline.styles":"ready","codex-search-styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=[ "ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.charinsert","ext.gadget.extra-toolbar-buttons","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.head","mmv.bootstrap.autostart","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.compactlinks","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/enwiki/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=codex-search-styles%7Cext.cite.styles%7Cext.timeline.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/enwiki/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/enwiki/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.41.0-wmf.30"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1000"> <meta property="og:title" content="Contemporary history - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="/enwiki//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 720px)" href="/enwiki//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemporary_history"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/enwiki/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/enwiki/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/enwiki/w/opensearch_desc.php" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="/enwiki//en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemporary_history"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="/enwiki//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="/enwiki//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Contemporary_history rootpage-Contemporary_history skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a>

Main menu </label>

</nav>

</nav>

</header>

<button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button>

<a href="#" class="vector-toc-link">
(Top)

</a>
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_history">
1Political history

</a>
<button aria-controls="toc-Political_history-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Political history subsection </button>
- <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1945–1991">
  1.11945–1991
  
  </a>
- <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1991–2001">
  1.21991–2001
  
  </a>
- <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2001–present">
  1.32001–present
  
  </a>
  - <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_on_Terror,_Afghanistan_War,_and_Iraq_War">
    1.3.1War on Terror, Afghanistan War, and Iraq War
    
    </a>
  - <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arab_Spring_and_Syria">
    1.3.2Arab Spring and Syria
    
    </a>
  - <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia">
    1.3.3Russia
    
    </a>
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_history">
2Economic history

</a>
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_history">
3Social history

</a>
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_science_and_technology">
4Contemporary science and technology

</a>
<button aria-controls="toc-Contemporary_science_and_technology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Contemporary science and technology subsection </button>
- <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy">
  4.1Energy
  
  </a>
- <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computing_and_the_Internet">
  4.2Computing and the Internet
  
  </a>
- <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Space_exploration">
  4.3Space exploration
  
  </a>
- <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emerging_technologies">
  4.4Emerging technologies
  
  </a>
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Challenges_and_problems">
5Challenges and problems

</a>
<button aria-controls="toc-Challenges_and_problems-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Challenges and problems subsection </button>
- <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_change">
  5.1Climate change
  
  </a>
- <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_and_pandemics">
  5.2Health and pandemics
  
  </a>
  - <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#COVID-19_pandemic">
    5.2.1COVID-19 pandemic
    
    </a>
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forecasting_the_future">
6Forecasting the future

</a>
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Charts">
7Charts

</a>
<button aria-controls="toc-Charts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Charts subsection </button>
- <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timeline">
  7.1Timeline
  
  </a>
- <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_world_map">
  7.2Contemporary world map
  
  </a>
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also">
8See also

</a>
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References">
9References

</a>
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading">
10Further reading

</a>
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links">
11External links

</a>

</nav>

<main id="content" class="mw-body" role="main"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <label id="vector-toc-collapsed-button" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet vector-button-flush-left cdx-button--icon-only" for="vector-toc-collapsed-checkbox" role="button" aria-controls="vector-toc" tabindex="0" title="Table of Contents"> Toggle the table of contents </label> <nav role="navigation" aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark">

</nav>

Contemporary history

Sinicization
Sinicization
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese	漢化
Simplified Chinese	汉化
Hanyu Pinyin	hànhuà
Literal meaning	Han-ization
Hanyu Pinyin
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin	hànhuà
Bopomofo	ㄏㄢˋㄏㄨㄚˋ
IPA	[xân xwâ]
other Mandarin
Xiao'erjing	[هًا خُوَ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 68) (help)
Hakka
Pha̍k-fa-sṳ	Hon-fa
Yue: Cantonese
Jyutping	Hon3 Faa3
Southern Min
Hokkien POJ	Hàn-hoa
Tâi-lô	Hàn-hua
Alternative Chinese name
Traditional Chinese	中國化
Simplified Chinese	中国化
Hanyu Pinyin	zhōngguóhuà
Literal meaning	China-ization
Hanyu Pinyin
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin	zhōngguóhuà
Bopomofo	ㄓㄨㄥㄍㄨㄛˊㄏㄨㄚˋ
IPA	[ʈʂʊ́ŋ.kwǒ xwâ]
other Mandarin
Xiao'erjing	[جوْ قُوَع خُوَ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 68) (help)
Hakka
Pha̍k-fa-sṳ	Chûng-ket-fa
Yue: Cantonese
Jyutping	Zung1 Gwok3 Faa3
Southern Min
Hokkien POJ	Tiong-kok-hoa
Tâi-lô	Tiong-kok-hua
Vietnamese name
Vietnamese alphabet	Hán hóa; Trung Quốc hóa
Chữ Hán	漢化; 中國化
Literal meaning	Han-ization; Chinese-ization
Korean name
Hangul	중국화
Hanja	中國化
Literal meaning	Chinese-ization
Revised Romanization
Transcriptions
Revised Romanization	junggukhwa
Japanese name
Hiragana	ちゅうごくか
Kyūjitai	中國化
Shinjitai	中国化
Romanization
Transcriptions
Romanization	Chūgokuka

21 languages </label>

<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B5%D8%B1" title="التاريخ المعاصر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a>
<a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%9E%D1%88%D1%8B_%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Найноўшы час – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a>
<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeitgeschichte" title="Zeitgeschichte – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a>
<a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%8D%CE%B3%CF%87%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B7_%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Σύγχρονη ιστορία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a>
<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_era_contempor%C3%A1nea" title="Historia de la era contemporánea – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a>
<a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B5%D8%B1" title="تاریخ معاصر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a>
<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_contemporaine" title="Histoire contemporaine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a>
<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%98%84%EB%8C%80%EC%82%AC" title="현대사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a>
<a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samt%C3%ADmasaga" title="Samtímasaga – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a>
<a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A4itgeschicht" title="Zäitgeschicht – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a>
<a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_sezaman" title="Sejarah sezaman – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a>
<a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3_(%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%BA%E5%88%86)" title="現代 (時代区分) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a>
<a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="معاصر تاریخ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a>
<a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nykyaika" title="Nykyaika – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a>
<a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samtidshistoria" title="Samtidshistoria – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a>
<a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99" title="สมัยปัจจุบัน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a>
<a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%8A%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B8_%D2%B7%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B4" title="Таърихи ҷадид – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a>
<a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_tarih" title="Modern tarih – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a>
<a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%8Bch_s%E1%BB%AD_%C4%91%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_%C4%91%E1%BA%A1i" title="Lịch sử đương đại – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a>
<a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigntydsn_tyd" title="Eigntydsn tyd – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" class="interlanguage-link-target">West-Vlams</a>
<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BD%93%E4%BB%A3%E5%8F%B2" title="当代史 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a>

<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q186075#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a>

</header>

</nav>

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Contemporary history, in English-language <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a>, is a subset of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Modern_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern history">modern history</a> that describes the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Historical_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical period">historical period</a> from approximately 1945 to the present.^{<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a>} Contemporary history is either a subset of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Late_modern_period" title="Late modern period">late modern period</a>, or it is one of the three major subsets of modern history, alongside the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a> and the late modern period. In the social sciences, contemporary history is also continuous with, and related to, the rise of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Postmodernity" title="Postmodernity">postmodernity</a>.

Contemporary history is <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">politically</a> dominated by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> (1947–1991) between the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a>, led by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a>, led by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. The confrontation spurred fears of a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear war">nuclear war</a>. An all-out "hot" war was avoided, but both sides intervened in the internal politics of smaller nations in their bid for global influence and via <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Proxy_war" title="Proxy war">proxy wars</a>. The Cold War ultimately ended with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> in 1991. The latter stages and aftermath of the Cold War enabled the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">democratization</a> of much of Europe, Africa, and Latin America. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">Decolonization</a> was another important trend in Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and Africa as new states gained independence from European <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">colonial empires</a> during the period from 1945–1975. The Middle East also saw a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict">conflict involving the new state of Israel</a>, the rise of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Petroleum_politics" title="Petroleum politics">petroleum politics</a>, the continuing prominence but later decline of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a>, and the growth of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a>. The first supranational organizations of government, such as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>, emerged during the period after 1945.

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Countercultures</a> rose and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sexual_revolution" title="Sexual revolution">sexual revolution</a> transformed <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_history" title="Social history">social</a> relations in western countries between the 1960s and 1980s, as seen in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Protests_of_1968" title="Protests of 1968">protests of 1968</a>. Living standards rose sharply across the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Developed_country" title="Developed country">developed world</a> because of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Post-World_War_II_economic_boom" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-World War II economic boom">post-war economic boom</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a> both emerged as exceptionally strong economies. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_States" title="Culture of the United States">culture of the United States</a> spread widely, with American television and movies spreading across the world. Some Western countries began a slow process of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deindustrialization" title="Deindustrialization">deindustrializing</a> in the 1970s; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a> led to the emergence of new financial and industrial centers in Asia. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Japanese_economic_miracle" title="Japanese economic miracle">Japanese economic miracle</a> was later followed by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Four_Asian_Tigers" title="Four Asian Tigers">Four Asian Tigers</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">China launched major economic reforms</a> from 1979 onward, becoming a major exporter of consumer goods around the world.

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">Science</a> made new advances after 1945: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_spaceflight" title="History of spaceflight">spaceflight</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_technology" title="Nuclear technology">nuclear technology</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">lasers</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductors</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>, and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_quantum_field_theory" title="History of quantum field theory">quantum field theory</a>. The first commercial computers were created, followed by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>, beginning the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a>.

Political history[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Political history">edit</a>]

1945–1991[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: 1945–1991">edit</a>]

<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Europe-blocs-49-89x4.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Europe-blocs-49-89x4.svg/460px-Europe-blocs-49-89x4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="460" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Europe-blocs-49-89x4.svg/690px-Europe-blocs-49-89x4.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Europe-blocs-49-89x4.svg/920px-Europe-blocs-49-89x4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="812" data-file-height="509" /></a><figcaption>The division of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> during the Cold War</figcaption></figure>

In 1945, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies of World War II</a> had defeated all significant opposition to them. They established the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> to govern international relations and disputes. A looming question was how to handle the defeated Axis nations and the shattered nations that the Axis had conquered. Following the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a>, territory was divided into zones for which Allied country would have responsibility and manage rebuilding. While these zones were theoretically temporary (such as the eventual fate of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Allied-occupied_Austria" title="Allied-occupied Austria">occupied Austria</a>, which was released to independence as a neutral country), growing tensions between the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a>, led by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a>, led by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, meant that many calcified into place. Countries in Soviet zones of Eastern Europe had communist regimes installed as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Satellite_state" title="Satellite state">satellite states</a>. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a> of 1948 led to a Western Airlift to preserve <a href="/enwiki/wiki/West_Berlin" title="West Berlin">West Berlin</a> and signified a cooling of East-West relations. Germany split into two countries in 1949, liberal-democratic <a href="/enwiki/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a> and communist <a href="/enwiki/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a>. The conflict as a whole would become known as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>. The Western Bloc formed <a href="/enwiki/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> in 1949 while the Eastern Bloc formed the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a> in 1955. Direct combat between the new Great Powers was generally avoided, although <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Proxy_war" title="Proxy war">proxy wars</a> fought in other countries by factions equipped by one side against the other side's faction occurred. An <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arms_race" title="Arms race">arms race</a> to develop and build <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a> happened as policymakers wanted to ensure their side had more if it came to a war.^{<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a>}

In East Asia, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a>'s <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> was overthrown in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a> from 1945–1949. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Retreat_of_the_government_of_the_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan">His government retreated to Taiwan</a>, but both the nationalist <a href="/enwiki/wiki/KMT" class="mw-redirect" title="KMT">KMT</a> government and the new communist mainland government under <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> continued to claim authority over all of China. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Korea was divided</a> similarly to Germany, with the Soviet Union occupying the North and the United States occupying the South (future <a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a>). Unlike Germany, the conflict there turned hot, as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a> erupted from 1950–1953. Korea was not reunified under either government, however, due to strong support from both the US and China for their favored side; it became a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Frozen_conflict" title="Frozen conflict">frozen conflict</a> instead. Japan was given a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constitution_of_Japan" title="Constitution of Japan">new constitution foreswearing aggressive war</a> in 1947, and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan" title="Occupation of Japan">American occupation ended in 1952</a>, although a treaty of mutual aid with the US was soon signed. The US also granted the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> their independence in 1946 while keeping close relations.

The Middle East became a hotbed of instability. The new Jewish state of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> declared its independence, recognized by both the United States and the Soviet Union, after which followed the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1948_Arab-Israeli_War" class="mw-redirect" title="1948 Arab-Israeli War">1948 Arab-Israeli War</a>. Egypt's weak and ineffective king <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Farouk_of_Egypt" title="Farouk of Egypt">Farouk</a> was overthrown in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Egyptian_revolution_of_1952" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian revolution of 1952">Egyptian revolution of 1952</a>, and replaced by General <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nasser" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasser">Nasser</a>; the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953 Iranian coup d'état</a> saw the American-friendly shah <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mohammad_Reza_Pahlavi" title="Mohammad Reza Pahlavi">Mohammad Reza Pahlavi</a> remove the democratic constraints on his government and take power directly; and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1958_Iraq_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="1958 Iraq Revolution">Iraq's Western-friendly monarchy was overthrown in 1958</a>. Nasser's Egypt would go on to face the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a> in 1956, briefly unify with Syria as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a> (UAR) from 1958 to 1961, and expensively intervene in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_Yemen_Civil_War" title="North Yemen Civil War">North Yemen Civil War</a> from 1962 to 1970.

<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:British_Decolonisation_in_Africa.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/British_Decolonisation_in_Africa.png/370px-British_Decolonisation_in_Africa.png" decoding="async" width="370" height="370" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/British_Decolonisation_in_Africa.png/555px-British_Decolonisation_in_Africa.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/British_Decolonisation_in_Africa.png/740px-British_Decolonisation_in_Africa.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Decolonization of the British Empire in Africa.</figcaption></figure>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">Decolonization</a> was the most important development across Southeast Asia and Africa from 1946–1975, as the old British, French, Dutch, and Portuguese colonial empires were dismantled. Many new <a href="/enwiki/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">states</a> were given their independence, but soon found themselves having to choose between allying with the Western Bloc, Eastern Bloc, or attempting to stay neutral as a member of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="British India">British India</a> was granted independence in 1947 without an outright war of independence being required. It was <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">partitioned</a> into Hindu-majority <a href="/enwiki/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and Muslim-majority Pakistan (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/West_Pakistan" title="West Pakistan">West Pakistan</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/East_Pakistan" title="East Pakistan">East Pakistan</a>, future <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>); <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_wars_and_conflicts" title="Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts">Indo-Pakistani wars</a> were fought in 1947, 1965, and 1971. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sukarno" title="Sukarno">Sukarno</a> took control of an independent <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> in 1950, as attempts to reinstate Dutch rule in 1945–1949 had largely failed, and took an independent-to-Eastern leaning stance. He would later be overthrown by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Suharto" title="Suharto">Suharto</a> in 1968, who took a pro-Western stance. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Federation_of_Malaya" title="Federation of Malaya">Federation of Malaya</a> was granted independence in 1957, with the concurrent fighting of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">Malayan Emergency</a> against communist forces from 1948–1960. The French unsuccessfully fought the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a> in an attempt to hold on to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">French Indochina</a>; at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1954_Geneva_Conference" title="1954 Geneva Conference">1954 Geneva Conference</a>, the new states of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cambodia_(1953%E2%80%931970)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambodia (1953–1970)">Cambodia</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Laos" title="Kingdom of Laos">Laos</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Republic of Vietnam">Democratic Republic of Vietnam</a>, and the eventual <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Vietnam">Republic of Vietnam</a> were created. The division of Indochina eventually led to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> in the 1960s and 70s (as well as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Laotian_Civil_War" title="Laotian Civil War">Laotian Civil War</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cambodian_Civil_War" title="Cambodian Civil War">Cambodian Civil War</a>), which ended in communist North Vietnam unifying the country in 1975 and a stinging defeat for the United States.

In Africa, France fought the grinding <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a> from 1954–1962 that saw the end of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">French Algeria</a> and the rise of a new independent <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>. The British and French both slowly released their vast holdings, leading to the creation of states such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Nigerian_Republic" title="First Nigerian Republic">First Nigerian Republic</a> in 1963. Portugal, on the other hand, fiercely held onto their Empire, leading to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portuguese_Colonial_War" title="Portuguese Colonial War">Portuguese Colonial War</a> from 1961–1974 in Angola, Guinea-Bissau, and Mozambique until the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Estado_Novo_(Portugal)" title="Estado Novo (Portugal)">Estado Novo</a> government fell. Meanwhile, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">apartheid-era</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> remained fiercely anti-communist, but withdrew from the British Commonwealth in 1961, and supported various pro-colonial factions across Africa that had lost support from their "home" governments in Europe. Many of the newly independent African governments struggled with the balance between being too weak and overthrown by ambitious coup-plotters, and too strong and becoming dictatorships.

Latin America saw gradual economic growth but also instability in many countries, as the threat of coups and military regimes (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Military_junta" title="Military junta">juntas</a>) were a major threat. The most famous was the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cuban_Revolution" title="Cuban Revolution">Cuban Revolution</a> that overthrew <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fulgencio_Batista" title="Fulgencio Batista">Fulgencio Batista</a>'s American-friendly government for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fidel_Castro" title="Fidel Castro">Fidel Castro</a>'s Soviet-aligned government. This led to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a> in 1963, generally considered one of the incidents most dangerously close to turning the Cold War into a direct military conflict. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1968_Peruvian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1968 Peruvian coup d'état">1968 Peruvian coup d'état</a> and also installed a Soviet-friendly government. Despite this, the region ultimately leaned toward the US in this period, with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a> supporting American-friendly factions in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Guatemalan coup d'état">1954 Guatemalan coup d'état</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1964_Brazilian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1964 Brazilian coup d'état">1964 Brazilian coup d'état</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1973_Chilean_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Chilean coup d'état">1973 Chilean coup d'état</a>, and others. Nicaragua suffered the most, with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nicaraguan_Revolution" title="Nicaraguan Revolution">Nicaraguan Revolution</a> seeing major military aid from both great powers to their favored factions that extended a civil war in the country for decades. Mexico escaped this unrest, although functioned largely as a one-party state dominated by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Institutional_Revolutionary_Party" title="Institutional Revolutionary Party">PRI</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> had a succession of idiosyncratic governments that courted both the US and USSR, but generally mismanaged the economy.

The Middle East saw events that presaged later conflicts in the 70s and 80s. A few years after the end of the UAR's union between Egypt and Syria, Syria's government was overthrown in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 Syrian coup d'état</a> and replaced with the Neo-Baathist Party, eventually leading to the leadership of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Assad_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Assad family">Assad family</a>. Israel and its neighbors fought the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a> in 1967 and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a> of 1973. Under <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anwar_Sadat" title="Anwar Sadat">Anwar Sadat</a> and later <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hosni_Mubarak" title="Hosni Mubarak">Hosni Mubarak</a>, Egypt switched from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserism</a> to favoring the Western Bloc, and signed a peace treaty with Israel. Lebanon, once among the most prosperous countries in the region and a cultural center, collapsed into the decade-long <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a> from 1975–1990. Iran's unpopular pro-American government was overthrown in the 1979 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a> and was replaced by a new Islamic Republic headed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ayatollah_Khomeini" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayatollah Khomeini">Ayatollah Khomeini</a>. Iran and Baathist Iraq under <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a> then fought each other in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iran-Iraq_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Iran-Iraq War">Iran-Iraq War</a> from 1980–1988, which ended inconclusively.

In East Asia, China underwent the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a> from 1966 to 1976, a major internal struggle that saw an intense program of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a> and persecution of perceived internal enemies. China's relations with the Soviets deteriorated in the 1960s and 70s, resulting in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a>, although the two were able to cooperate on some matters. "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ping-pong_diplomacy" title="Ping-pong diplomacy">Ping-pong diplomacy</a>" led to a rapprochement between the US and China and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/China%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="China–United States relations">American recognition of the Chinese communist government</a> in the 1970s. China's pro-democracy movement was suppressed after the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">1989 Tiananmen Square protests</a>, and China's government survived the tensions that would roil the Soviet-aligned bloc during the 1980s. South Korea (in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/June_Democratic_Struggle" title="June Democratic Struggle">June Democratic Struggle</a>) and Taiwan (with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Martial_law_in_Taiwan" title="Martial law in Taiwan">lifting of martial law</a>) would take major steps toward liberalization in 1987–1988, shifting from Western-aligned one-party states to more fully participatory democracies.

The 1980s saw a general retreat for the communist bloc. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a> (1979–1989) is often called the "Soviet Union's Vietnam War" in comparison to the American defeat, being an expensive and ultimately unsuccessful war and occupation. More importantly, the intervening decades had seen that Eastern Europe was unable to compete economically with Western Europe, which undermined the promise of communist abundance compared to capitalist poverty. The Western capitalist economies had proven wealthier and stronger, which made matching the Soviet defense budget to the American one strain limited resources. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pan-European_Picnic" title="Pan-European Picnic">Pan-European Picnic</a> in 1989 then set in motion a peaceful chain reaction with the subsequent <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">fall of the Berlin Wall</a>. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a> saw many countries of Eastern Europe throw off their communist governments, and the USSR declined to invade to re-establish them. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">East and West Germany were reunified</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Client_state" title="Client state">Client state</a> status for many states ended, as there was no conflict left to fund. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Malta_Summit" title="Malta Summit">Malta Summit</a> on 3 December 1989, the failure of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt">August Coup</a> by Soviet hardliners, and the formal <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> on 26 December 1991 sealed the end of the Cold War.^{<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a>}

1991–2001[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 1991–2001">edit</a>]

The end of the Cold War left the United States the world's sole superpower. Communism seemed discredited; while China remained an officially communist state, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">Deng Xiaoping's economic reforms</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">socialism with Chinese characteristics</a> allowed for the growth of a capitalist private sector in China. In Russia, President <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a> pursued a policy of privatization, spinning off former government agencies into private corporations, attempting to handle budget problems inherited from the USSR. The end of Soviet foreign aid caused a variety of changes in countries previously part of the Eastern Bloc; many officially became democratic republics, though some were more accurately described as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">authoritarian</a> or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">oligarchic</a> republics and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party states</a>.^{<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a>} Many Western commentators treated the development optimistically; it was thought the world was steadily progressing toward free, liberal democracies. South Africa, no longer able to attract Western support by claiming to be anti-communist, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Negotiations_to_end_apartheid_in_South_Africa" title="Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa">ended apartheid</a> in the early 1990s, and many Eastern European countries switched to stable democracies. While some Americans had anticipated a "peace dividend" from budget cuts to the Defense Department, these cuts were not as large as some had hoped. The European Economic Community evolved into the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> with the signing of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maastricht_Treaty" title="Maastricht Treaty">Maastricht Treaty</a> in 1993, which integrated Europe across borders to a new degree. International coalitions continued to have a role; the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> saw a large international coalition undo Baathist Iraq's annexation of Kuwait, but other "police" style actions were less successful. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> descended into long, bloody civil wars for almost the entirety of the decade (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_Civil_War" title="Somali Civil War">Somali Civil War</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1992%E2%80%931996)" title="Afghan Civil War (1992–1996)">Afghan Civil War (1992–1996)</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1996%E2%80%932001)" title="Afghan Civil War (1996–2001)">Afghan Civil War (1996–2001)</a>). Russia fought a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Chechen_War" title="First Chechen War">brutal war in Chechnya</a> that failed to suppress the insurgency there from 1994–1996; war would resume during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Chechen_War" title="Second Chechen War">Second Chechen War</a> in 1999–2000 that saw a resumption of Russian control after Russia successfully convinced enough rebels to join their cause with promises of autonomy. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">breakup of Yugoslavia</a> also led to a series of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars" title="Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslav Wars</a>; NATO eventually intervened in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kosovo_War" title="Kosovo War">Kosovo War</a>. In the Middle East, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_peace_process" title="Israeli–Palestinian peace process">Israeli–Palestinian peace process</a> offered the prospect of a long-term peace deal to many; the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oslo_Accords" title="Oslo Accords">Oslo Accords</a> signed in 1993 seemed to offer a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Road_map_for_peace" title="Road map for peace">"roadmap" to resolving the conflict</a>. Despite these high hopes, they would be largely dashed in 2000–2001 after a breakdown of negotiations and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Intifada" title="Second Intifada">Second Intifada</a>.

2001–present[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 2001–present">edit</a>]

War on Terror, Afghanistan War, and Iraq War[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: War on Terror, Afghanistan War, and Iraq War">edit</a>]

<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:National_Park_Service_9-11_Statue_of_Liberty_and_WTC_fire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/National_Park_Service_9-11_Statue_of_Liberty_and_WTC_fire.jpg/220px-National_Park_Service_9-11_Statue_of_Liberty_and_WTC_fire.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/National_Park_Service_9-11_Statue_of_Liberty_and_WTC_fire.jpg/330px-National_Park_Service_9-11_Statue_of_Liberty_and_WTC_fire.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/National_Park_Service_9-11_Statue_of_Liberty_and_WTC_fire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="265" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_Trade_Center_(1973%E2%80%932001)" title="World Trade Center (1973–2001)">World Trade Center</a> on fire and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statue_of_Liberty" title="Statue of Liberty">Statue of Liberty</a>.</figcaption></figure>

The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a> were a series of coordinated <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Suicide_attack" title="Suicide attack">suicide attacks</a> by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Al-Qaeda" title="Al-Qaeda">Al-Qaeda</a> upon the United States on 11 September 2001. On that morning, nineteen Al-Qaeda terrorists <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aircraft_hijacking" title="Aircraft hijacking">hijacked</a> four commercial passenger <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jet_airliner" title="Jet airliner">jet airliners</a>.^{<a href="#cite_note-SecCounc-5">[5]</a>}^{<a href="#cite_note-cbc-2004-6">[6]</a>} The hijackers intentionally crashed two of the airliners into the Twin Towers of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_Trade_Center_(1973%E2%80%932001)" title="World Trade Center (1973–2001)">World Trade Center</a> in New York City, killing everyone on board and many others working in the buildings. Both buildings collapsed within two hours, destroying nearby buildings and damaging others. The hijackers crashed a third airliner into <a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Pentagon" title="The Pentagon">the Pentagon</a> in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arlington,_Virginia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arlington, Virginia">Arlington, Virginia</a>. The fourth plane crashed into a field near <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shanksville,_Pennsylvania" title="Shanksville, Pennsylvania">Shanksville</a> in rural <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somerset_County,_Pennsylvania" title="Somerset County, Pennsylvania">Somerset County, Pennsylvania</a>, after some of its passengers and flight crew attempted to retake control of the plane.

In response, the United States under President <a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> enacted the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Patriot_Act" title="Patriot Act">Patriot Act</a>. Many other countries also strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation and expanded law enforcement powers. Major terrorist events after the September 11 attacks include the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moscow_theater_hostage_crisis" title="Moscow theater hostage crisis">Moscow theater hostage crisis</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/2003_Istanbul_bombings" title="2003 Istanbul bombings">2003 Istanbul bombings</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/2004_Madrid_train_bombings" title="2004 Madrid train bombings">2004 Madrid train bombings</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beslan_school_siege" title="Beslan school siege">Beslan school siege</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_the_2005_London_bombings" title="Timeline of the 2005 London bombings">2005 London bombings</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/2005_Delhi_bombings" title="2005 Delhi bombings">2005 Delhi bombings</a>, and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/2008_Mumbai_attacks" title="2008 Mumbai attacks">2008 Mumbai attacks</a>, generally from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islamic_terrorism" title="Islamic terrorism">Islamic terrorism</a>.

<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:US_Army_Afghanistan_2006.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/US_Army_Afghanistan_2006.jpg/220px-US_Army_Afghanistan_2006.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/US_Army_Afghanistan_2006.jpg/330px-US_Army_Afghanistan_2006.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/US_Army_Afghanistan_2006.jpg/440px-US_Army_Afghanistan_2006.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2299" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">U.S. Army</a> troops in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kunar_Province" title="Kunar Province">Kunar Province</a></figcaption></figure>

The United States responded to the 11 September 2001 attacks by launching a "Global War on Terrorism", invading the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islamic_Emirate_of_Afghanistan_(1996%E2%80%932001)" title="Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)">Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan</a> to depose the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taliban" title="Taliban">Taliban</a>, who had harbored al-Qaeda terrorists. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a> began in late 2001 and was launched by the UN-authorized <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Security_Assistance_Force" title="International Security Assistance Force">ISAF</a>, with the United States and United Kingdom providing most of the troops. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_George_W._Bush_administration" title="Foreign policy of the George W. Bush administration">Bush administration policy</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bush_Doctrine" title="Bush Doctrine">Bush Doctrine</a> stated forces would not distinguish between terrorist organizations and nations or governments that harbor them. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Operation_Enduring_Freedom" title="Operation Enduring Freedom">Operation Enduring Freedom</a> (OEF) was the United States combat operation involving some coalition partners and operating primarily in the eastern and southern parts of the country along the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> border; the ISAF established by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a> was in charge of securing the capital of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kabul" title="Kabul">Kabul</a> and its surrounding areas. NATO assumed control of ISAF in 2003.

Despite initial coalition successes, the Taliban were never entirely defeated, and continued to hold territory in mountainous regions as well as threaten the new government, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Islamic Republic of Afghanistan">Islamic Republic of Afghanistan</a>, whose grasp on power outside the major cities was shaky at best.^{<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a>}^{<a href="#cite_note-unfailed-8">[8]</a>} The war was also less successful in restricting al-Qaeda than anticipated.^{<a href="#cite_note-rothstein-9">[9]</a>}

The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Second Gulf War</a> began in March 2003 with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">invasion of Iraq</a> by a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Multinational_force_in_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Multinational force in Iraq">multinational force</a>.^{<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a>} The invasion of Iraq led to an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Post-invasion_Iraq,_2003%E2%80%93present" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-invasion Iraq, 2003–present">occupation</a> and the eventual capture of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a>, who was later <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Execution_of_Saddam_Hussein" title="Execution of Saddam Hussein">executed</a> by the Iraqi Government. Despite government assumptions that the war in Iraq would be over with the fall of Hussein, it continued and intensified. Sectarian groups both fought each other and the occupying coalition forces via <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Asymmetric_warfare" title="Asymmetric warfare">asymmetric warfare</a> during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iraqi_insurgency_(Iraq_War)" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi insurgency (Iraq War)">Iraqi insurgency</a>, as Iraq was starkly divided between Sunni, Shia, and Kurdish groups that now competed with each other for power. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Al-Qaeda_in_Iraq" title="Al-Qaeda in Iraq">Al-Qaeda operations in Iraq</a> continued as well.^{<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a>}^{<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a>} In late 2008, the U.S. and Iraqi governments approved a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/U.S.-Iraq_Status_of_Forces_Agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S.-Iraq Status of Forces Agreement">Status of Forces Agreement</a> effective through to the end of 2011.^{<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a>}

The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Presidency_of_Barack_Obama" title="Presidency of Barack Obama">Obama administration</a> re-focused US involvement in the conflict on the withdrawal of its troops from Iraq and a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%93present)#Increase_in_US_troops" class="mw-redirect" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–present)">surge of troops and government support in Afghanistan</a>. In May 2011, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Killing_of_Osama_bin_Laden" title="Killing of Osama bin Laden">bin Laden raid</a> occurred after bin Laden was tracked to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Osama_bin_Laden%27s_compound_in_Abbottabad" title="Osama bin Laden's compound in Abbottabad">his compound in Abbottabad</a>, Pakistan.^{<a href="#cite_note-NYT-clues-14">[14]</a>}

In 2011, the United States declared a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Withdrawal_of_U.S._troops_from_Iraq_(2007%E2%80%932011)" class="mw-redirect" title="Withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq (2007–2011)">formal end to the Iraq War</a>.^{<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a>}^{<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a>}^{<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a>} In February 2020, President <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> agreed with the Taliban to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Withdrawal_of_United_States_troops_from_Afghanistan_(2020%E2%80%932021)" class="mw-redirect" title="Withdrawal of United States troops from Afghanistan (2020–2021)">withdraw all American troops from Afghanistan</a> over the next year. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Presidency_of_Joe_Biden" title="Presidency of Joe Biden">Biden administration</a> delayed the withdrawal by a few months, but still largely kept to the deal; the coalition-supported Afghan government soon collapsed, and the Taliban took undisputed control of the country in August 2021 after the successful <a href="/enwiki/wiki/2021_Taliban_offensive" title="2021 Taliban offensive">2021 Taliban offensive</a>.

Arab Spring and Syria[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Arab Spring and Syria">edit</a>]

The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arab_Spring" title="Arab Spring">Arab Spring</a> began in earnest in 2010 with anti-government protests in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a>, but quickly escalated to full-scale military conflicts in countries like <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a> and also gave the opportunity for the emergence of various militant groups including the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant">Islamic State</a> (IS). The IS was able to take advantage of social media platforms including Twitter to recruit foreign fighters from around the world and seized significant portions of territory in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai Peninsula</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> from 2013 and ongoing. On the other hand, some violent militant organizations were able to negotiate peace with governments including the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moro_Islamic_Liberation_Front" title="Moro Islamic Liberation Front">Moro Islamic Liberation Front</a> in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> in 2014. The presence of IS and the stalemate in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Civil War">Syrian Civil War</a> created a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Refugees_of_the_Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Refugees of the Syrian Civil War">migration of refugees to Europe</a> and also galvanized and encouraged high-profile terrorism attacks and armed conflicts around the world, such as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/November_2015_Paris_attacks" title="November 2015 Paris attacks">November 2015 Paris attacks</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Marawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Marawi">Battle of Marawi</a> in the Philippines in 2017. In 2014, the United States decided to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/American-led_intervention_in_Iraq_(2014%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="American-led intervention in Iraq (2014–present)">intervene</a> against the Islamic State in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, with most IS fighters being driven out by the end of 2018. Russia and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> also jointly launched a campaign against IS and in support of Syrian President <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a>. As of 2022, Assad has largely regained authority in the southern half of the country, while the northern reaches are controlled by a mixture of Arab Sunni rebels, Kurds, and Turkey.

Russia[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Russia">edit</a>]

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a>, Yeltsin's successor, was very popular in Russia after his victory in the Second Chechen War. He portrayed himself as a corruption fighter initially, checking <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_oligarchs" title="Russian oligarchs">Russian oligarchs</a> who had acquired vast wealth during Russia's liberalization period. With a combination of genuine popularity and legal rollbacks, Russia gradually moved toward being a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party state</a>, a democracy but one where Putin's party always won. Russia has since intervened in a variety of military conflicts in its neighboring countries including the 2008 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Georgian_War" title="Russo-Georgian War">Russo-Georgian War</a>; the 2014 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="Russo-Ukrainian War">Russo-Ukrainian War</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation">Annexation of Crimea</a>; a 2015 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_military_intervention_in_the_Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War">intervention in the Syrian Civil War</a>; and the expansion of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="Russo-Ukrainian War">Russo-Ukrainian War</a> to the full-fledged <a href="/enwiki/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine</a> where Russia declared their intent to depose the Ukrainian government and install a compliant, Russia-friendly government. The Russian government has often cited the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Enlargement_of_NATO" title="Enlargement of NATO">enlargement of NATO</a> as a major complaint.

Economic history[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Economic history">edit</a>]

The end of World War II in 1945 saw an increase in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_trade" title="International trade">international trade</a> and an interconnected system of treaties and agreements to ease its flow. In particular, the United States and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">United States dollar</a> took a pivotal role in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_economy" title="World economy">world economy</a>, displacing the UK. The era is sometimes called "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pax_Americana" title="Pax Americana">Pax Americana</a>" for the relative liberal peace in the Western world, resulting from the preponderance of power enjoyed by the US, as a comparison to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a> established at the height of the Roman Empire. New York's financial sector ("<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wall_Street" title="Wall Street">Wall Street</a>") was the center of the financial world from 1945–1970 in a dominant way unlikely to be seen again. Unlike the aftermath of World War I, the US strongly aided in the rebuilding of Europe, including aid to the defeated Axis nations, rather than punishment. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a> sent billions of dollars of aid to Western Europe to ensure its stability and ward off a potential economic downturn. The 1944 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bretton_Woods_Conference" title="Bretton Woods Conference">Bretton Woods Conference</a> established the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bretton_Woods_system" title="Bretton Woods system">Bretton Woods system</a>, a set of practices that governed world trade and currencies from 1945–1971, as well as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a> (IMF). Western Europe also established the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">European Economic Community</a> in 1957 to ease customs and aid international trade. In general, vast quality of life improvements affected most every corner of the globe during this period, in both the Western and Eastern spheres. France called them <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Les_Trente_Glorieuses" class="mw-redirect" title="Les Trente Glorieuses">Les Trente Glorieuses</a> ("The Glorious Thirty [Years]"). Despite being largely destroyed in the war, West Germany soon bounced back to being an economic powerhouse by the 1950s with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wirtschaftswunder" title="Wirtschaftswunder">wirtschaftswunder</a>. Surprisingly, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Japan" title="Economy of Japan">Japan</a> followed Germany, achieving incredible economic growth and becoming the second largest economy in the world in 1968, a phenomenon called the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Japanese_economic_miracle" title="Japanese economic miracle">Japanese economic miracle</a>. Many explanations are proffered for the enviable results of these years: relative peace (at least outside the "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Third_World" title="Third World">Third World</a>"); a reduction in average family size; technological improvements; and others. The Eastern Bloc, meanwhile, established <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a> as their equivalent to the Marshall Plan and to establish internal trading rules between communist states.

The 1970s saw economic headwinds. Notably, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Price_of_oil" title="Price of oil">price of oil</a> started to go up in the 1970s, as the easiest and most accessible wells had already been pumped dry in the preceding century, and oil is a non-renewable resource. Attention was drawn to the abundant oil in the Middle East, where countries in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OPEC" title="OPEC">OPEC</a> controlled substantial untapped oil reserves. Political tensions over the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a> led to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1979_oil_crisis" title="1979 oil crisis">1979 oil crisis</a>. The Soviet Union called it the "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Era of Stagnation</a>". The 1970s and 80s also saw the rise of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Four_Asian_Tigers" title="Four Asian Tigers">Four Asian Tigers</a>, as South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, and Hong Kong emulated the Japanese route to prosperity with varying degree of success. In China, the leftist <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gang_of_Four" title="Gang of Four">Gang of Four</a> were overthrown in 1976, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a> pursued a policy of tentatively opening the Chinese economy to capitalist innovations throughout the 1980s, which would be continued by his successors in the 1990s. China's economy, tiny in 1976, would see tremendous growth, and eventually take the spot as second largest economy from Japan in 2010. Among Western economies, the collapse of the Bretton Woods system was replaced by a more flexible era of floating exchange rates. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Group_of_Seven" class="mw-redirect" title="Group of Seven">Group of Seven</a> (G7) first met in 1975 and become one of the main international forums that regulated international trade among <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Industrialized_nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrialized nations">industrialized nations</a>. The Soviet Union implemented a policy of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">perestroika</a> in the 1980s which allowed tentative market reforms. The fall of the USSR saw differing approaches in the 1990s in the East: some newly independent states went in a capitalist direction such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Estonia" title="Economy of Estonia">Estonia</a>, some maintained a strong governmental presence in their economy, and some opted for a mix. The privatization of government firms and resources drew accusations of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crony_capitalism" title="Crony capitalism">crony capitalism</a> in many states, however, including the Russian Federation, the largest and most important state of the USSR; the beneficiaries of the turbulent period were often called the "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_oligarchs" title="Russian oligarchs">Russian oligarchs</a>".

In the beginning of the 2000s, there was a global rise in prices in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Commodities" class="mw-redirect" title="Commodities">commodities</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Housing" title="Housing">housing</a>, marking an end to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Late-twentieth_century_commodities_recession" class="mw-redirect" title="Late-twentieth century commodities recession">commodities recession of 1980–2000</a>. The US mortgage-backed securities, which had risks that were hard to assess, were marketed around the world and a broad based credit boom fed a global speculative bubble in real estate and equities. The financial situation was also affected by a sharp increase in oil and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Food_prices" title="Food prices">food prices</a>. The collapse of the American <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Housing_bubble" title="Housing bubble">housing bubble</a> caused the values of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Security_(finance)" title="Security (finance)">securities</a> tied to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Real_estate_pricing" class="mw-redirect" title="Real estate pricing">real estate pricing</a> to plummet thereafter, damaging financial institutions.^{<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a>} The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Late-2000s_recession" class="mw-redirect" title="Late-2000s recession">late-2000s recession</a>, a severe economic <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Recession" title="Recession">recession</a> which began in the United States in 2007,^{<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a>} was sparked by the outbreak of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932010" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial crisis of 2007–2010">financial crisis of 2007–2010</a>.^{<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a>} The modern financial crisis was linked to earlier lending practices by financial institutions and the trend of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Securitization" title="Securitization">securitization</a> of American real estate mortgages.^{<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a>}

The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">Great Recession</a>^{<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a>} spread to much of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Developed_country" title="Developed country">industrialized world</a>, and has caused a pronounced deceleration of economic activity. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Global_recession" title="Global recession">global recession</a> occurred in an economic environment characterized by various imbalances. This global recession has resulted in a sharp drop in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_trade" title="International trade">international trade</a>, rising unemployment and slumping commodity prices. The recession <a href="/enwiki/wiki/2008%E2%80%932009_Keynesian_resurgence" title="2008–2009 Keynesian resurgence">renewed interest in Keynesian economic ideas</a> on how to combat recessionary conditions. However, various industrial countries continued to undertake <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Austerity" title="Austerity">austerity</a> policies to cut <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Government_budget_deficit" class="mw-redirect" title="Government budget deficit">deficits</a>, reduced <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Government_spending" title="Government spending">spending</a>, as opposed to following Keynesian theories.

<figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Countries_by_Real_GDP_Growth_Rate_(2014).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Countries_by_Real_GDP_Growth_Rate_%282014%29.svg/300px-Countries_by_Real_GDP_Growth_Rate_%282014%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Countries_by_Real_GDP_Growth_Rate_%282014%29.svg/450px-Countries_by_Real_GDP_Growth_Rate_%282014%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Countries_by_Real_GDP_Growth_Rate_%282014%29.svg/600px-Countries_by_Real_GDP_Growth_Rate_%282014%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="863" data-file-height="396" /></a><figcaption>Countries by real GDP growth rate in 2014. (Countries in brown were in recession.)</figcaption></figure>

From late 2009 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/European_sovereign-debt_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="European sovereign-debt crisis">European sovereign-debt crisis</a>, fears of a sovereign debt crisis developed among investors concerning rising government debt levels across the globe together with a wave of downgrading of government debt of certain European states. Concerns intensified early 2010 and thereafter making it difficult or impossible for sovereigns to re-finance their debts. On 9 May 2010, Europe's Finance Ministers approved a rescue package worth €750 billion aimed at ensuring financial stability across Europe. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/European_Financial_Stability_Facility" title="European Financial Stability Facility">European Financial Stability Facility</a> (EFSF) was a special purpose vehicle financed by members of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eurozone" title="Eurozone">eurozone</a> to combat the European sovereign debt crisis. In October 2011 eurozone leaders agreed on another package of measures designed to prevent the collapse of member economies. The three most affected countries, Greece, Ireland and Portugal, collectively account for six percent of eurozone's gross domestic product (GDP). In 2012, eurozone finance ministers reached an agreement on a second €130-billion Greek bailout. In 2013, the European Union <a href="/enwiki/wiki/2012%E2%80%932013_Cypriot_financial_crisis" title="2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis">agreed to a €10 billion economic bailout</a> for Cyprus. The 2020 coronavirus pandemic caused economic disruption, with wide-ranging <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic">economic impacts of COVID-19</a> such as supply chain changes and an increase in working-from-home, along with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/COVID-19_recession" title="COVID-19 recession">COVID-19 recession</a>.

Social history[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Social history">edit</a>]

Social changes since 1945 have been vast and disparate, affecting countries and subgroups within those countries in ways specific to each population, meaning there is not one single global story of social change. Despite this, one of the major trends has been an increasing interchange between cultures and a wider spread of the most successful works, enabled by new technology and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>. In earlier periods, a successful musician or theater troupe might be confined to playing in a single city at a time, limiting their reach. The spread of better recording technology, such as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Magnetophon" title="Magnetophon">magnetophon</a>, meant that a musical act could have their song be played over the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a> everywhere without loss of sound quality, creating international superstars such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Elvis_Presley" title="Elvis Presley">Elvis Presley</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Beatles" title="The Beatles">The Beatles</a>. The spread of home <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Television_set" title="Television set">television sets</a> allowed people across the globe to easily watch the same show, rather than requiring viewers to attend a local theater. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_States" title="Cinema of the United States">Hollywood</a> in California produced films that dominated cinema; while intended for the lucrative American market, these films spread across the globe, backed by their large budgets and the cinematic expertise gathered there. The rise of the Internet in the 1990s allowed both for an ever further spread of the most popular and dominant works, but the comparatively cheap cost of publishing there, whether as a personal website, blog, or YouTube video, also allowed specific niche subcultures to connect and thrive in a way that was less true in the 20th century. For example, diaspora groups of immigrants can more easily stay in contact with their family and friends in their origin region, compared to earlier eras where travel and communication was far more expensive, making a narrative of strictly increasing global homogenization incomplete. International telephone networks, and later Internet telephony, allowed cheaper and easier long-distance communication than previous eras.

Language usage in the contemporary era has seen a rise in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/English_as_a_lingua_franca" title="English as a lingua franca">English as a lingua franca</a>, where people across the world learn the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English language</a> as a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_language" title="Second language">second language</a>. This has been both to facilitate international communication, especially in places tied to international trade or tourism, as well as to better consume widespread English-language media. This is tied to increased <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Americanization" title="Americanization">Americanization</a>, as American culture has grown increasingly influential and widespread. To a lesser extent, during the Cold War, something similar happened with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian language</a> in the Eastern Bloc and among communist-aligned factions; however, this status was mostly reversed after the collapse of the Soviet Union. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German languages</a> saw their prestige as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Global_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Global language">global languages</a> decline after World War II.

Religious trends have been disparate and not consistent across countries, often with sharply varying results even between similar and nearby groups. In industrialized and economically prosperous regions, there has been a loose trend toward <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">secularization</a> that deprioritized the role of religion, even among people who still identified as adherents. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Decline_of_Christianity_in_the_Western_world" title="Decline of Christianity in the Western world">decline of Christianity in the Western world</a> has been perhaps the most notable of these trends, although many non-Western cultures have been affected as well, such as the rise of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Irreligion_in_China" title="Irreligion in China">irreligion in China</a> (buttressed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Antireligious_campaigns_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Antireligious campaigns in China">antireligious campaigns</a>). As an example of how localized this process can be, during the Cold War both the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Polish People's Republic</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic">Czechoslovak Socialist Republic</a> endorsed <a href="/enwiki/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">state atheism</a>. However, after the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989–1990, the people of these bordering states had radically different cultural attitudes toward religion; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religion_in_Poland" title="Religion in Poland">Poland was one of the more religious states</a> in Europe, with 96% of its population espousing a belief in Catholic Christianity in 2011, while the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religion_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Religion in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic was one of the most stridently irreligious</a>, with only 15% of its population espousing any religious beliefs at all by 2011. In the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic world">Islamic world</a>, a notable trend has been the spread of international schools of thought into regions where belief was previously localized, such as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_propagation_of_Salafism_and_Wahhabism" title="International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism">International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism</a> funded by the government of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>. While regional Islamic groups remain strong, they are more contested than in the past.

Another social trend has been the rise of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a> as a larger proportion of the world's population has moved to live in cities and urban areas, and fewer people live in rural areas. In the United States, as the overall population more than doubled from 1930 to 1990, around a third of its counties saw their population decline by around 27%, suggesting that as rural counties empty, the urban counties are where the vast majority of inhabitants are moving to.^{<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a>} In Eastern Africa, the urban population soared from 11 million in 1920 to 77 million in 2010.^{<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a>} Many <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Migration_in_China" title="Migration in China">rural Chinese people moved to large coastal cities</a> such as Shenzhen to work in the 1990s and 2000s, leading to a sharp increase of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Urbanization_in_China" title="Urbanization in China">Urbanization in China</a>. Rural parts of Japan have seen stark population declines, especially among the young, with only the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Greater_Tokyo_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Tokyo area">Greater Tokyo area</a> continuing to grow.^{<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a>} How to deal with this change is a major issue, as many cities and their transportation networks were not designed to serve the larger populations that now occupy them.

A major trend in many industrialized nations was the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sexual_revolution" title="Sexual revolution">sexual revolution</a>, an adoption of publicly more tolerant attitudes toward sex and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pre-marital_sex" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-marital sex">pre-marital sex</a>. "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Combined_oral_contraceptive_pill" title="Combined oral contraceptive pill">The pill</a>" was first approved for use in 1960 in the United States, and spread rapidly around the world. The pill made <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">birth control</a> easier and more reliable than earlier methods. This made sex for pleasure less likely to result in unintended children. It also allowed for easier <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">family planning</a>, where couples could choose more specifically when to have kids compared to earlier eras. Some analysts credit this as one reason behind a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Population_decline" title="Population decline">decline in birth rates</a> in the industrialized world, which had multiple second-order effects. Many regions have also made <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Divorce" title="Divorce">divorce</a> much easier to officially procure. However, the decline in birth rate is not a universal trend; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_and_dependencies_by_total_fertility_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="List of sovereign states and dependencies by total fertility rate">many nations continue to have high birth rates</a>, and the world's overall population is still growing as of 2022.

One of the yet evolving and unknown impacts in the contemporary era has been the social effects of cheap and common Internet access. As users gradually switched from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Personal_web_page" title="Personal web page">personal web pages</a> to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blog" title="Blog">blogs</a> to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a>, many surprising effects have resulted with both positive and negative assessments. Optimistic assessments often praise the decentralized nature that allows anyone to theoretically gain a platform without the need to convince a publisher or media company to back them, as well as the ease in enabling like-minded people to collaborate at long-distance, even if the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cyber-utopianism" title="Cyber-utopianism">digital utopianism</a> of the 1990s is less common. Pessimistic assessments worry about the effects on children such as enabling <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cyberbullying" title="Cyberbullying">cyberbullying</a>; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Filter_bubble" title="Filter bubble">filter bubbles</a> where Internet users are not challenged by outsider views; "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">cancel culture</a>" where people are pilloried online but sometimes disproportionately; and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slacktivism" title="Slacktivism">slacktivism</a> as an appealing but ineffective replacement for older forms of community work.

Contemporary science and technology[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Contemporary science and technology">edit</a>]

Energy[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Energy">edit</a>]

The growing world population and rising standards of living has caused a vast increase in demand for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Energy_development" title="Energy development">energy development</a>, both to power vehicles such as personal cars as well as on public <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Electrical_grid" title="Electrical grid">electrical grids</a>. In particular, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum oil</a> has been in ravenous demand across the world. Many of the cheapest and easiest sources of oil to access were largely drained in the 19th and early 20th centuries, leading to a hunt for new sources of oil. The value of oil has spilled over into politics as well, as "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Petrostate" title="Petrostate">petrostates</a>" with access to oil found a source of vast revenue that did not require traditional government revenue-raising measures, such as tariffs or income taxation. The rising cost of oil led to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1970s_energy_crisis" title="1970s energy crisis">1970s energy crisis</a> and various adaptations in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Energy_conservation" title="Energy conservation">energy conservation</a> to better conserve oil, such as more efficient engines and better insulation. It has also led to concerns of "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peak_oil" title="Peak oil">peak oil</a>," that the rising extraction costs of oil will eventually lead to massive shortages and a large disincentive to burn oil except when absolutely necessary (such as in the case of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aviation_fuel" title="Aviation fuel">aviation fuel</a>), although oil continues to be one of the most popular sources of energy.

Other <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a> have continued a prominent role in the world's energy production. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coal_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal energy">Coal energy</a>, usually credited as helping kickstart the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, has declined somewhat in prominence, but it started from a commanding large slice of the sources of energy. Even if diminished, coal is still a popular and common style of power plant; it made up a huge proportion of South Africa and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coal_in_India" title="Coal in India">India's power grid</a> from 1945 to the present, for example.^{<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a>} That said, increasing price, as well as concerns both over the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollution</a> generated when it is burnt and the landscape destruction when it is mined (such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mountaintop_removal_mining" title="Mountaintop removal mining">mountaintop removal mining</a>), have caused setbacks for the coal industry. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">Natural gas</a> has grown in its proportion of the market, especially as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liquefied_natural_gas" title="Liquefied natural gas">Liquefied natural gas</a> (LNG) has enabled it to be transported over longer distances than was previously feasible.

An entirely new form of energy creation dawned in the 1950s and 1960s: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a> for peaceful purposes and the construction of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">nuclear power plants</a>. Hopes that atomic energy would be "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Too_cheap_to_meter" title="Too cheap to meter">too cheap to meter</a>" in the 1950s proved overly optimistic, however. Atomic energy grew to be a large part of several nations energy generation strategies, especially <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_France" title="Nuclear power in France">nuclear power in France</a>. Nuclear power continues to be controversial. Concerns include its association with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economics_of_nuclear_power_plants" title="Economics of nuclear power plants">financial cost</a>, disposal of radioactive <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear waste">nuclear waste</a>, and fears of safety from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown" title="Nuclear meltdown">reactor meltdowns</a>, especially after the 1986 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a>. An <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">anti-nuclear movement</a> arose that was skeptical of atomic energy and has discouraged many projects. Nuclear proponents counter that nuclear energy produces no air pollution compared to traditional fossil fuel plants, and can provide a steady supply of energy regardless of external conditions unlike solar and wind energy. With the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russia_in_the_European_energy_sector" title="Russia in the European energy sector">supply of Russian natural gas disrupted in 2022</a>, France is looking to reactivate some of its older decommissioned nuclear plants, for example.^{<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a>}

Various forms of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a> have grown in prominence in the contemporary era. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wind_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Wind energy">Wind energy</a>, while used on a small scale for centuries, has seen growth with large distributed groups of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Windmill" title="Windmill">windmills</a> used to produce energy for the grid. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">Solar power</a> has also grown in prominence, with around 4% of the world's overall energy production in 2021 (compared to a much smaller slice before). While these energy sources are considered to be much less environmentally impactful than <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fossil_fuels" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil fuels">fossil fuels</a>, concerns have been raised over the various <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rare_earth_metal" class="mw-redirect" title="Rare earth metal">rare earth metals</a> used in the production of batteries and solar, which can require destructive mining techniques to gather.

Computing and the Internet[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Computing and the Internet">edit</a>]

<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Internet_map_1024.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/220px-Internet_map_1024.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/330px-Internet_map_1024.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/440px-Internet_map_1024.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>A visualization of the various routes through a portion of the Internet. Partial map of the Internet based in 2005.</figcaption></figure>

The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a> or Information Era, also commonly known as the Age of the Computer, is an idea that the current age will be characterized by the ability of individuals to transfer information freely, and to have instant access to knowledge that would have been difficult or impossible to find previously. The idea is heavily linked to the concept of a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Digital_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Age">Digital Age</a> or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Digital_Revolution" title="Digital Revolution">Digital Revolution</a>, and carries the ramifications of a shift from traditional industry that the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> brought through <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">industrialization</a>, to an economy based around the manipulation of information. The period is generally said to have begun in the latter half of the 20th century, though the particular date varies. The term began its use around the late 1980s and early 1990s, and has been used up to the present with the availability of the Internet.

During the late 1990s, both <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Internet_directory" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet directory">Internet directories</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Search_engine" title="Search engine">search engines</a> were popular—<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yahoo!" title="Yahoo!">Yahoo!</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Altavista" class="mw-redirect" title="Altavista">Altavista</a> (both founded 1995) were the respective industry leaders. By late 2001, the directory model had begun to give way to search engines, tracking the rise of Google (founded 1998), which had developed new approaches to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Relevance_(information_retrieval)" title="Relevance (information retrieval)">relevancy ranking</a>. Directory features, while still commonly available, became after-thoughts to search engines. Database size, which had been a significant marketing feature through the early 2000s (decade), was similarly displaced by emphasis on relevancy ranking, the methods by which search engines attempt to sort the best results first.

"<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Web_2.0" title="Web 2.0">Web 2.0</a>" is characterized as facilitating communication, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Information_sharing" class="mw-redirect" title="Information sharing">information sharing</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Interoperability" title="Interoperability">interoperability</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/User-centered_design" title="User-centered design">User-centered design</a>^{<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a>} and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Collaboration" title="Collaboration">collaboration</a> on the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a>. It has led to the development and evolution of web-based communities, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Web_service" title="Web service">hosted services</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Web_application" title="Web application">web applications</a>. Examples include <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_network_service" class="mw-redirect" title="Social network service">social-networking sites</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Video_sharing" class="mw-redirect" title="Video sharing">video-sharing sites</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wiki" title="Wiki">wikis</a>, blogs, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mashup_(digital)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mashup (digital)">mashups</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Folksonomy" title="Folksonomy">folksonomies</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_networking" class="mw-redirect" title="Social networking">Social networking</a> emerged in the early 21st century as a popular social communication, largely replacing much of the function of email, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Message_board" class="mw-redirect" title="Message board">message boards</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Instant_messaging" title="Instant messaging">instant messaging</a> services. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twitter" title="Twitter">Twitter</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a> are all major examples of social websites that gained widespread popularity. The information distribution continued into the early 21st century with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mobile_interaction" title="Mobile interaction">mobile interaction</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Internet_access" title="Internet access">Internet access</a> growing massively in the early 21st century. By the 2010s, a majority of people in the developed world had Internet access and a majority of people worldwide had a mobile phone.^{<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a>} Marking the rise of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mobile_computing" title="Mobile computing">mobile computing</a>, worldwide sales of personal computers fall 14% during the first quarter of 2013. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Semantic_Web" title="Semantic Web">Semantic Web</a> (dubbed, "Web 3.0") begins the inclusion of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantic</a> content in web pages, converting the current web dominated by unstructured and semi-structured documents into a "web of data".

With the rise of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">information technology</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Computer_security" title="Computer security">computer security</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Information_security" title="Information security">information security</a> in general, is a concern for computers and networks. Concerns include information and services which are protected from unintended or unauthorized access, change or destruction. This has also raised questions of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Internet_privacy" title="Internet privacy">Internet privacy</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Personal_privacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal privacy">personal privacy</a> globally.

Space exploration[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Space exploration">edit</a>]

The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a> was one of the rivalries of the Cold War, with both the United States space program (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>) and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet space program</a> launching <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellites</a>, probes, and planning missions. While the Soviets put the first human into space with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a>, the Americans soon caught up, and the US was the first to launch a successful moon landing mission with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Apollo_11" title="Apollo 11">Apollo 11</a>.

In the 1970s and 80s, the US took a new approach with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle program</a>, hoping to reduce the cost of launches by creating a re-usable Space Shuttle. The first fully functional <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Space_Shuttle_orbiter" title="Space Shuttle orbiter">Space Shuttle orbiter</a> was <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Columbia" title="Space Shuttle Columbia">Columbia</a> (designated OV-102), launched into <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">low Earth orbit</a> in April 1981. In 1996, Shuttle mission <a href="/enwiki/wiki/STS-75" title="STS-75">STS-75</a> conducted research in space with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Electrodynamic_tether" title="Electrodynamic tether">electrodynamic tether</a> generator and other tether configurations. The program suffered from two incidents that destroyed a shuttle: the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster" title="Space Shuttle Challenger disaster">Challenger disaster</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Columbia_disaster" title="Space Shuttle Columbia disaster">Columbia disaster</a>). The program ultimately had 135 missions. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Space_Shuttle_retirement" title="Space Shuttle retirement">retirement of NASA's Space Shuttle fleet</a> took place from March to July 2011.

The end of the Cold War saw a new era of international cooperation with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> (ISS). <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Commercial_spaceflight" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial spaceflight">Commercial spaceflight</a> also became possible as governments loosened what had previously been their firm control over satellites, opening new possibilities, but also new risks such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Satellite_flare" title="Satellite flare">light pollution from satellites</a>. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Commercial_Orbital_Transportation_Services" title="Commercial Orbital Transportation Services">Commercial Orbital Transportation Services</a> (COTS) program began in 2006.

There are <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_spaceports" class="mw-redirect" title="List of spaceports">various spaceports</a>, including <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spaceport" title="Spaceport">spaceports</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_spaceflight" title="Human spaceflight">human spaceflight</a> and other <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Launch_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Launch system">launch systems</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Space_logistics" title="Space logistics">space logistics</a>). <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Private_spaceflight" title="Private spaceflight">Private spaceflight</a> is flight beyond the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n_line" title="Kármán line">Kármán line</a>^{<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a>} that is conducted and paid for by an entity other than a government agency. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Commercialization_of_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercialization of space">Commercialization of space</a> is the use of equipment sent into or through outer space to provide goods or services of commercial value, either by a corporation or state. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Space_trade" title="Space trade">Space trade</a> plans and predictions began in the 1960s. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spacecraft_propulsion" title="Spacecraft propulsion">Spacecraft propulsion</a>^{<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a>} is any <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Propulsion" title="Propulsion">method used to accelerate</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">spacecraft</a> and artificial <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellites</a>.

NASA announced in 2011 that its <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter" title="Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter</a> captured photographic evidence of possible liquid <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Water_on_Mars" title="Water on Mars">water on Mars</a> during warm seasons. On 6 August 2012, the Mars Science Laboratory <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Curiosity_(rover)" title="Curiosity (rover)">Curiosity</a>, the most elaborate Martian exploration vehicle to date, landed on Mars. After the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/WMAP" class="mw-redirect" title="WMAP">WMAP</a> observations of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Cosmic microwave background">cosmic microwave background</a>, information was released in 2011 of the work done by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Planck_Surveyor" class="mw-redirect" title="Planck Surveyor">Planck Surveyor</a>, estimating the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Age_of_the_universe" title="Age of the universe">age of the Universe</a> to 13.8 billion years old (a 100 million years older than previously thought). Another technological advancement came in 2012 with European physicists statistically demonstrating the existence of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a>.^{<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a>}

Emerging technologies[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Emerging technologies">edit</a>]

Various emerging technologies, the recent developments and convergences in various fields of technology, hold possible future impacts. Emerging technologies cover various cutting-edge developments in the emergence and convergence of technology, including transportation, information technology, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robotics" title="Robotics">robotics</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Applied_mechanics" title="Applied mechanics">applied mechanics</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Material_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Material science">material science</a>. Their status and possible effects involve controversy over the degree of social impact or the viability of the technologies. Though, these represent new and significant developments within a field; converging technologies represent previously distinct fields which are in some way moving towards stronger inter-connection and similar goals.

Challenges and problems[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Challenges and problems">edit</a>]

Climate change[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Climate change">edit</a>]

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a> reflects the notion of the modern <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a>. The changes of climate over the past century, have been <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Attribution_of_recent_climate_change" title="Attribution of recent climate change">attributed to various factors</a> which have resulted in a global warming. This warming is the increase in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Instrumental_temperature_record" title="Instrumental temperature record">average temperature</a> of the Earth's near-surface air and oceans since the mid-20th century and its projected continuation. Some effects on both the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">natural environment</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">human life</a> are, at least in part, already being attributed to global warming. A 2001 report by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> suggests that <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">glacier retreat</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ice_shelf#Ice_shelf_disruption" title="Ice shelf">ice shelf disruption</a> such as that of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Larsen_Ice_Shelf" title="Larsen Ice Shelf">Larsen Ice Shelf</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a>, changes in rainfall patterns, and increased intensity and frequency of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">extreme weather</a> events are attributable in part to global warming.^{<a href="#cite_note-tar_wg2-33">[33]</a>} Other expected effects include <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">water scarcity</a> in some regions and increased precipitation in others, changes in mountain snowpack, and adverse health effects from warmer temperatures.^{<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a>}

It usually is impossible to connect specific weather events to human impact on the world. Instead, such impact is expected to cause changes in the overall distribution and intensity of weather events, such as changes to the frequency and intensity of heavy precipitation. Broader effects are expected to include <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Glacier_mass_balance" title="Glacier mass balance">glacial retreat</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arctic_shrinkage" class="mw-redirect" title="Arctic shrinkage">Arctic shrinkage</a>, and worldwide <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a>. Other effects may include changes in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crop_yields" class="mw-redirect" title="Crop yields">crop yields</a>, addition of new trade routes,^{<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a>} species <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">extinctions</a>,^{<a href="#cite_note-ar4syn-36">[36]</a>} and changes in the range of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">disease vectors</a>. Until 2009, the Arctic <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northwest_Passage" title="Northwest Passage">Northwest Passage</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arctic_ice_pack" title="Arctic ice pack">pack ice</a> prevented regular <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ship_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Ship transport">marine shipping</a> throughout most of the year in this area, but climate change has reduced the pack ice, and this <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arctic_shrinkage" class="mw-redirect" title="Arctic shrinkage">Arctic shrinkage</a> made the waterways more navigable.^{<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a>}^{<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a>}^{<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a>}^{<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a>}

Health and pandemics[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Health and pandemics">edit</a>]

Several <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Disease_outbreak" title="Disease outbreak">disease outbreaks</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">epidemics</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">pandemics</a> have occurred during contemporary history. Some of these include the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1957%E2%80%931958_influenza_pandemic" title="1957–1958 influenza pandemic">1957–1958 influenza pandemic</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hong_Kong_flu" title="Hong Kong flu">Hong Kong flu</a> of 1968–1969, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1977_Russian_flu" title="1977 Russian flu">1977–1979 Russian flu</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Epidemiology_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Epidemiology of HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS epidemic</a> (1981–present), the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/2002%E2%80%932004_SARS_outbreak" title="2002–2004 SARS outbreak">SARS outbreak of 2002–2004</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/2009_swine_flu_pandemic" title="2009 swine flu pandemic">swine flu pandemic</a> of 2009–2010, and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a> (2019–present).

COVID-19 pandemic[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: COVID-19 pandemic">edit</a>]

In 2020, an outbreak of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/COVID-19" title="COVID-19">COVID-19</a> disease, first documented in late 2019 in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wuhan" title="Wuhan">Wuhan</a>, China, spread to other countries becoming a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">global pandemic</a>, which caused a major socio-economic disruption all over the world. Many countries ordered mandatory <a href="/enwiki/wiki/COVID-19_lockdowns" title="COVID-19 lockdowns">lockdowns</a> on movement and closures of non-essential businesses.^{<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a>} The threat of the disease caused the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/COVID-19_recession" title="COVID-19 recession">COVID-19 recession</a>, although the distribution of vaccines has since eased the economic impact in many countries.

More generally, COVID-19 has been held up as an example of a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" title="Global catastrophic risk">global catastrophic risk</a> unique to the modern era's ease of travel. New diseases can spread far faster and further in the contemporary era than any previous era of human history; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pandemic_prevention" title="Pandemic prevention">pandemic prevention</a> is one resulting field to ensure that if this happens with a sufficiently deadly virus, humanity can take measures to stop its spread.

Forecasting the future[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Forecasting the future">edit</a>]

Contemporary history is fertile ground for creating and testing models of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Future" title="Future">future</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Third_millennium" class="mw-redirect" title="Third millennium">third millennium</a>, as being the most relevant and recent domain to compare predictions with. The field is called <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Futures_studies" title="Futures studies">futures studies</a> and it uses various models and methods to make <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Forecasting" title="Forecasting">forecasts</a>, as well as testing these models against recent contemporary history in an attempt to verify the models' validity. Forecasters can use recent events in contemporary history to plot out their future scenarios and risks to better aid in planning.

Charts[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Charts">edit</a>]

Timeline[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Timeline">edit</a>]

Contemporary world map[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Contemporary world map">edit</a>]

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North
America</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South
America</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific
Ocean</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic
Ocean</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian
Ocean</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central
Asia</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_Asia" title="North Asia">North Asia</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South
Asia</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast
Asia</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Australasia" title="Australasia">Australasia</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Melanesia" title="Melanesia">Melanesia</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Micronesia" title="Micronesia">Micronesia</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polynesia" title="Polynesia">Polynesia</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central
America</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin
America</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northern_America" title="Northern America">Northern
America</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">C.
Africa</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">E.
Africa</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">H.
Africa</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">N.
Africa</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Southern_Africa" title="Southern Africa">Southern
Africa</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">W.
Africa</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">C.
Europe</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">E.
Europe</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northern_Europe" title="Northern Europe">N.
Europe</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Southern_Europe" title="Southern Europe">S.
Europe</a>

<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">W.
Europe</a>

Political map of country and territory boundaries

References[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]

<a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1133582631">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brian_Brivati" title="Brian Brivati">Brivati, Brian</a> (1996). "Introduction". In Brivati, Brian; Buxton, Julia; Seldon, Anthony (eds.). The contemporary history handbook (1st ed.). Manchester: Manchester University Press. p. xvi. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780719048364" title="Special:BookSources/9780719048364">9780719048364</a>.
<a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Gaddis 2005, p. 33-60
<a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Gaddis 2005, p. 237-257
<a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Steven Levitsky, Lucan A. Way. Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes After the Cold War. 2010. Pg 3.
<a href="#cite_ref-SecCounc_5-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2001/SC7143.doc.htm">"Security Council Condemns, 'In Strongest Terms', Terrorist Attacks on the United States"</a>. United Nations. 12 September 2001. Retrieved 11 September 2006.
<a href="#cite_ref-cbc-2004_6-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/bin-laden-claims-responsibility-for-9-11-1.513654">"Bin Laden claims responsibility for 9/11"</a>. CBC News. 29 October 2004. Retrieved 11 January 2009.
<a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060927101915/http://www.cfr.org/publication/10551/">"The Taliban Resurgence in Afghanistan"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cfr.org/publication/10551/">the original</a> on 27 September 2006. Retrieved 9 July 2009.
<a href="#cite_ref-unfailed_8-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=20702&Cr=afghan&Cr1=">"Afghanistan could return to being a 'failed State,' warns Security Council mission chief"</a>. 22 November 2006.
<a href="#cite_ref-rothstein_9-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631">Rothstein, Hy S (15 August 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w7fmg1cCjskC&q=Al+Qaeda">Afghanistan: and the troubled future of unconventional warfare By Hy S. Rothstein</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7049-306-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7049-306-8">978-81-7049-306-8</a>.
<a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/2862343.stm">"US Names Coalition of the Willing"</a>. BBC News. 18 March 2003. Retrieved 3 November 2007.
<a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.defenselink.mil/Transcripts/Transcript.aspx?TranscriptID=3879">U.S. Defense Secretary Robert Gates, 2 Feb 2007</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091130124028/http://www.defenselink.mil/Transcripts/Transcript.aspx?TranscriptID=3879">Archived</a> 30 November 2009 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, see "four wars" remark
<a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/09/26/eveningnews/main886305.shtml">"CBS on civil war"</a>. CBS News. 26 September 2006.
<a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090325011746/http://www.acq.osd.mil/log/PS/p_vault/SE_SOFA.pdf">"Agreement Between the United States of America and the Republic of Iraq On the Withdrawal of United States Forces from Iraq and the Organization of Their Activities during Their Temporary Presence in Iraq"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acq.osd.mil/log/PS/p_vault/SE_SOFA.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 25 March 2009. Retrieved 9 July 2009.
<a href="#cite_ref-NYT-clues_14-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631">Mazzetti, Mark; Cooper, Helene; Baker, Peter (3 May 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/03/world/asia/03intel.html?pagewanted=all">"Clues Gradually Led to the Location of Osama bin Laden"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved 4 May 2011.
<a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-16192105">"US flag ceremony ends Iraq operation"</a>. BBC News. 15 December 2011. Retrieved 15 December 2011.
<a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/us-lowers-flag-to-end-iraq-war-6277340.html">"US lowers flag to end Iraq war"</a>. Associated Press. 15 December 2011. Retrieved 15 December 2011.
<a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631">Mak, Tim (15 December 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.politico.com/news/stories/1211/70480.html">"Leon Panetta marks end of Iraq war"</a>. Politico. Retrieved 15 December 2011.
<a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631">This American Life. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100415153017/http://www.pri.org/business/giant-pool-of-money.html">"NPR-The Giant Pool of Money-April 2009"</a>. Pri.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pri.org/business/giant-pool-of-money.html">the original</a> on 15 April 2010. Retrieved 1 May 2010.
<a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> In December 2008, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Economic_Research" title="National Bureau of Economic Research">National Bureau of Economic Research</a> (NBER) declared that the United States had been in recession since December 2007. See <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631">Isidore, Chris (1 December 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://money.cnn.com/2008/12/01/news/economy/recession/index.htm?postversion=2008120112">"It's official: Recession since December '07"</a>. CNN. Retrieved 10 April 2009. for more information.
<a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631">Hulbert, Mark (15 July 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://online.barrons.com/article/SB50001424052970203983104575367471896032724.html?mod=googlenews_barrons">"It's Dippy to Fret About a Double-Dip Recession"</a>.
<a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631">Mishkin, Fredric S. (15 May 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/speech/mishkin20080515a.htm">How Should We Respond to Asset Price Bubbles?</a> (Speech). Retrieved 18 April 2009.
<a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631">Wessel, David (8 April 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303591204575169693166352882">"Did 'Great Recession' Live Up to the Name?"</a>. The Wall Street Journal.
<a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lant_Pritchett" title="Lant Pritchett">Pritchett, Lant</a> (2006). "Boom Towns and Ghost Countries: Geography, Agglomeration, and Population Mobility". Brookings Trade Forum. Brookings Institution Press. pp. 1–56. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25063204">25063204</a>.
<a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631">Hope, Kempe Ronald (2012). "Urbanisation in Kenya". African Journal of Economic and Sustainable Development. 1 (1): 4–26. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1504%2FAJESD.2012.045751">10.1504/AJESD.2012.045751</a>.
<a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631">Soble, Jonathan (23 August 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/24/world/a-sprawl-of-abandoned-homes-in-tokyo-suburbs.html">"A Sprawl of Ghost Homes in Aging Tokyo Suburbs"</a>. New York Times. Retrieved 27 February 2016.
<a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-63513278">"COP27: Why South Africa will struggle to wean itself off coal"</a>. BBC News. 8 November 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221214084112/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-63513278">Archived</a> from the original on 14 December 2022. Retrieved 14 December 2022.
<a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631">Alderman, Liz (15 November 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/11/15/business/nuclear-power-france.html">"As Europe Quits Russian Gas, Half of France's Nuclear Plants Are Off-Line"</a>. The New York Times.
<a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.techpluto.com/web-20-services/">"Core Characteristics of Web 2.0 Services"</a>. 28 November 2008.
<a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080119070741/http://www.mobiletracker.net/archives/2005/05/18/mobile-subcribers-worldwide">"Total mobile subscribers top 1.8 billion"</a>. <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=MobileTracker_Cell_Phone_News_and_Reviews&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MobileTracker Cell Phone News and Reviews (page does not exist)">MobileTracker Cell Phone News and Reviews</a>. 18 May 2005. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mobiletracker.net/archives/2005/05/18/mobile-subcribers-worldwide">the original</a> on 19 January 2008. Retrieved 31 December 2008.
<a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> This is above the nominal <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Edge_of_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Edge of space">edge of space</a> at 100 km (62 mi) Earth's altitude. See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turbopause" title="Turbopause">Turbopause</a>; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">Low</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medium_Earth_orbit" title="Medium Earth orbit">Medium</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/High_Earth_orbit" title="High Earth orbit">High Earth orbit</a>.
<a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> There are many different methods, in conventional and unconventional propulsion systems. Each method has drawbacks and advantages, and spacecraft propulsion is an active area of research. However, most spacecraft today are propelled by forcing a gas from the back/rear of the vehicle at very high speed through a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rocket_engine_nozzle" title="Rocket engine nozzle">supersonic de Laval nozzle</a>. This sort of engine is called a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rocket_engine" title="Rocket engine">rocket engine</a>.
<a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-18702455">"Higgs boson-like particle discovery claimed at LHC"</a>. BBC News. 4 July 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180731153930/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-18702455">Archived</a> from the original on 31 July 2018. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
<a href="#cite_ref-tar_wg2_33-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070303133040/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/index.htm">"Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change"</a>. IPCC. 16 February 2001. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/index.htm">the original</a> on 3 March 2007. Retrieved 14 March 2007.
<a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631">McMichael AJ, Woodruff RE, Hales S (2006). "Climate change and human health: present and future risks". Lancet. 367 (9513): 859–69. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2806%2968079-3">10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68079-3</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16530580">16530580</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11220212">11220212</a>.
<a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631">Macey, Jennifer (19 September 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2007/09/19/2037198.htm?section=business">"Global warming opens up Northwest Passage"</a>. ABC News. Retrieved 11 December 2007.
<a href="#cite_ref-ar4syn_36-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr.pdf">"Climate Change 2007: Synthesis report"</a> (PDF). IPCC. 5 February 2007. Retrieved 3 February 2009.
<a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> European Space Agency, "News: Satellites Witness Lowest Arctic Ice Coverage in History," 14 September 2007.
<a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> "Warming 'opens Northwest Passage'". BBC News. 14 September 2007.
<a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> BBC News "Plain Sailing on the Northwest Passage"
<a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631">Keating, Joshua E. (December 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://foreignpolicy.com/articles/2009/11/30/the_top_10_stories_you_missed_in_2009">"The Top 10 Stories You Missed in 2009: A few ways the world changed while you weren't looking"</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Foreign_Policy" title="Foreign Policy">Foreign Policy</a>.
<a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk/the-global-crisis-of-our-time-the-long-term-impacts-of-covid-19">The Global Crisis of Our Time: The Long-Term Impacts of COVID-19</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210127230853/https://www.oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk/the-global-crisis-of-our-time-the-long-term-impacts-of-covid-19">Archived</a> 27 January 2021 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Oxford Research Group

External links[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]

General

<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/mod/modsbook.asp">Internet Modern History Sourcebook</a> at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fordham_University" title="Fordham University">Fordham University</a>
<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jch.sagepub.com/">Journal of Contemporary History</a>. SAGE Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1461-7250">1461-7250</a> (Print <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0022-0094">0022-0094</a>)
<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090321072022/http://www.ohiou.edu/conhist/">Contemporary History Institute (CHI)</a>. ohiou.edu (ed., Analyzes the contemporary period in world affairs—the period from World War II to the present—from an interdisciplinary historical perspective.)
<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17858981">Soviet Union Timeline</a> on <a href="/enwiki/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>

</main>

This page was last edited on 20 September 2023, at 22:15 (UTC).
Text is available under the <a rel="license" href="/enwiki//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 4.0</a><a rel="license" href="/enwiki//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" style="display:none;"></a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="/enwiki//foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Terms_of_Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="/enwiki//foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Privacy_policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a href="/enwiki//www.wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.

<a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a>
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a>
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a>
<a href="/enwiki//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a>
<a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a>
<a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a>
<a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a>
<a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a>
<a href="/enwiki//en.m.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a>

<a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/"><img src="/enwiki/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.png" srcset="/enwiki/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /enwiki/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x" width="88" height="31" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy" /></a>
<a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/enwiki/static/images/footer/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" srcset="/enwiki/static/images/footer/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /enwiki/static/images/footer/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a>

</footer>

<button class="cdx-button cdx-button--icon-only vector-limited-width-toggle" id=""> Toggle limited content width </button>

Ma Clique

Hui Muslim General Ma Fuxiang created an assimilationist group and encouraged the integration of Muslims into Chinese society.^[51] Ma Fuxiang was a hardcore assimilationist and said that Hui should assimilate into Han.^[52]

Hong Kong and Macau

Xinjiang

The Hui Muslim 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army) governed the southern region of Xinjiang in 1934–1937. The administration that was set up was colonial in nature, importing Han cooks and baths,^[53] changing the Uyghur language-only street names and signs to Chinese, as well as switching carpet patterns in state-owned carpet factories from Uyghur to Han.^[54]

Strict surveillance and mass detentions of Uyghurs in the Xinjiang re-education camps is a part of the ongoing sinicization policy by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).^[55] Since 2015, it has been estimated that over a million Uyghurs have been detained in these camps.^[56]^[57]^[58]^[59] The camps were established under CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping's administration with the main goal of ensuring adherence to national ideology.^[60] Critics of China's treatment of Uyghurs have accused the Chinese government of propagating a policy of sinicization in Xinjiang in the 21st century, calling this policy a cultural genocide, or ethnocide, of Uyghurs.^[61]^[62]^[63]^[64]

Taiwan

After the Republic of China took control of Taiwan from the Empire of Japan in 1945 and relocated its capital to Taipei in 1949, the intention of Chiang Kai-shek was to eventually go back to mainland China and retake control of it. Chiang believed that to retake mainland China, it would be necessary to re-Sinicize Taiwan's inhabitants who had undergone assimilation under Japanese rule. Examples of this policy included the renaming of Japanese-named streets with mainland geographical names, the use of Mandarin Chinese in schools and punishments for using other regional Chinese languages (such as the fāngyán^{[further explanation needed]} of Hakka and Hokkien), and teaching students to revere traditional ethics, develop pan-Chinese nationalism, and view Taiwan from the perspective of China.^[65]^[66] Other reasons for the policy were to combat the Japanese influences on the culture that had occurred in the previous 50 years, and to help unite the recent immigrants from mainland China that had come to Taiwan with the KMT and among whom there was a tendency to be more loyal to one's city, country or province than to China as a nation.^[67]

The process of re-asserting non-Chinese identity, as in the case of ethnic groups in Taiwan, is sometimes known as desinicization. This is an issue in, for example, the Taiwan independence movement and Taiwan localization movements.

Tibet

The sinicization of Tibet is the change of Tibetan society to Han Chinese standards by means of state propaganda, police presence, cultural assimilation, religious persecution, immigration, population transfer, land development, land transfer, and political reform.^[68]^[69]^[70]^[71] According to the U.S. branch of the Offices of Tibet, it has been underway since the Chinese regained control of Tibet in 1951.^[72] Sources quoted by Radio Free Asia have stated that in present-day Tibet, traditional Tibetan festivals have "been turned into a platform for propaganda and political theater" where "government workers and retirees are barred from engaging in religious activities, and government workers and students in Tibetan schools are forbidden from visiting local monasteries."^[73]

Religion

In April 2016, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping declared that in order to "actively guide the adaptation of religions to socialist society, an important task is supporting China's religions' persistence in the direction of sinicization."^[74]^[75] He later reiterated this plan to the 19th Communist Party Congress saying "We will fully implement the Party's basic policy on religious affairs, insist on the sinicization of Chinese religions, and provide active guidance for religion and socialism to coexist."^[74]^[76]

Protestantism

The Three-Self Patriotic Movement (TSPM) of Protestant churches in China has described the Boxer Rebellion and the anti-Christian movement of 1922-27 as early efforts to sinicize Christianity.^[77]

The TSPM and China Christian Council arranged a conference in Shanghai on August 4–6, 2014, commemorating the anniversary of the TSPM. This conference included a seminar on the sinicizaton of Christianity, with Fu Xianwei, chairman of the TSPM, saying "churches in China will continue to explore the sinicization of Christianity [and] ensure Christianity takes root in the soil of Chinese culture, ethnicity, and society... To advance the sinicization of Christianity, churches will need guidance and support from government agencies in charge of religious affairs."^[78]^[79]

In 2019, TSPM chairman Xu Xiaohong made a pledge to eliminate any Western "imprint" from Chinese faith saying "[We] must recognise that Chinese churches are surnamed 'China', not 'the West'" and "No matter how much effort or time it takes, our resolution in upholding the Sinicisation of Protestantism will never change, and our determination to walk a path that is adapted to a socialist society will never waver."^[77]

Catholicism

In December 2016, the Ninth National Congress of the Chinese Catholic Representatives reaffirmed their plan for the United Front Work Department's Catholic Patriotic Association to uphold the principle of independence and self-governance, along with the promotion of sinicization.^[80]

In March 2018, Archbishop Paul Gallagher, Secretary for Relations with States within the Holy See's Secretariat of State, said that "two expressions or, more precisely, two principles stand out, which should interact with each other, namely "sinicization" and "inculturation." I am convinced that an important intellectual and pastoral challenge arises in an almost natural way from the bringing together of these two terms, which indicate two real visions of the world."^[81]^[82]

In June 2018, the Bishops' Conference of the Catholic Church in China and the Catholic Patriotic Association issued a "Five-Year Plan on Carrying Forward the Catholic Church's Adherence to the Direction of Sinicization in Our Country".^[83]^[84] This document calls for Catholics to accept Communist party leadership, love the motherland and obey the state, as well as to embrace the state's directive to implement Chinese cultural integration within Catholicism. Churches in Hebei province and the Yibin Diocese of Sichuan province began holding training seminars immediately.^[85]^[86]

Cardinal Parolin, the Vatican Secretary of State, in a 2019 interview with the CCP-owned Global Times newspaper, claimed that sinicization was a form of 'inculturation', which is a Catholic missionary term that refers to adopting local culture to proclaim the gospel. He cited Matteo Ricci as an example and pointed out that the Chinese leadership had promised not to undermine the doctrine and nature of each religion. He stated in the interview: "These two terms, "inculturation" and "sinicization," refer to each other without confusion and without opposition: in some ways, they can be complementary and can open avenues for dialogue on the religious and cultural level."^[87]^[88]^[89]^[90]

Islam

In 2015, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping first raised the issue of "Sinicization of Islam". In 2018, a confidential directive was issued ordering local officials to "prevent Islam from interfering with secular life and the state's functions".^[91]

Yang Faming, leader of the Islamic Association of China, said in a 2018 speech that "We must allow traditional Chinese culture to permeate Islam and jointly guard the spiritual homeland of the Chinese people."^[92] He encouraged Chinese characteristics to be present in religious ceremony, culture, and architecture.^[74]

In 2018, over one million Chinese government workers began forcibly living in the homes of Uyghur Muslim families to monitor and assess resistance to assimilation, and to watch for frowned-upon religious or cultural practices.^[93]^[94] These government workers were trained to call themselves "relatives" and have been described in Chinese state media as being a key part of enhancing "ethnic unity".^[93]

As of 2019^[update], it was estimated that Chinese authorities may have detained one and a half million people in secretive re-education camps. The vast majority of those forcibly interned are Muslim Uyghurs but Kazakhs and other minority groups have also been included.^[95]

In September 2020, sinicization policies targeted Muslim Utsuls in the Hainan province. Restrictions included limiting the size of mosques, requiring a Communist Party member on mosque management committees, forbidding the use of Arabic words on food stalls (such as "halal"), and banning the hijab in schools and government offices.^[96]^[97]

In June 2023, CNN reported that Chinese authorities had forcibly rebuilt a number of mosques in order to eliminate traditional Islamic architecture (e.g. minarets, domes) and replace them with Chinese architecture.^[98] In July 2023, the United Front Work Department's Central Institute of Socialism developed a plan to "meld Islam with Confucianism" using the Han Kitab texts as a guide.^[99]

References

^ Millward, James A. (2023-07-25). "Sinicisation, the Tribute System and Dynasties". IAI Istituto Affari Internazionali. Archived from the original on 2023-07-25. Retrieved 2023-07-25.
^ "China". Ethnologue. Archived from the original on 2018-11-19. Retrieved 2018-12-05.
^ Goodenough, Ward Hunt (1996). Prehistoric Settlement of the Pacific, Volume 86, Part 5. American Philosophical Society. ISBN 9780871698650. Archived from the original on 2023-09-27. Retrieved 2020-10-14.
^ Jacques Gernet (1996). A History of Chinese Civilization (illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 180. ISBN 0521497817.
^ David Graff (2003). Medieval Chinese Warfare 300-900. Routledge. p. 48. ISBN 1134553536.
^ Jacques Gernet (1996). A History of Chinese Civilization (illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 192–193. ISBN 0521497817.
^ (in English) Scottish Geographical Society (1929). Scottish geographical magazine, Volumes 45–46. Royal Scottish Geographical Society. p. 70. Archived from the original on 2018-05-17. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
^ (in English) Margaret Portia Mickey (1947). The Cowrie Shell Miao of Kweichow, Volume 32, Issue 1. The Museum. p. 6. Archived from the original on 2023-09-27. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
^ Michael Dillon (1999). China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects. Richmond: Curzon Press. p. 23. ISBN 0-7007-1026-4. Archived from the original on 2023-09-27. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
^ ^a ^b Lane, George (June 29, 2011). "Sayyed ajall". Encyclopædia Iranica. Archived from the original on 17 November 2012. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
^ Atwood, Christopher P. 2004. "Sayyid Ajall 'Umar Shams-ud-Din." Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. New York: Facts On File, Inc. Archived from the original on 2014-08-13.
^ Gaubatz, Piper Rae (1996). Beyond the Great Wall: Urban Form and Transformation on the Chinese Frontiers (illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 78. ISBN 0804723990. Archived from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
^ (Original from the University of Virginia) Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Jāmi'at al-Malik 'Abd al-'Azīz. Ma'had Shu'ūn al Aqallīyat al-Muslimah (1986). Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volumes 7–8. The Institute. p. 385. Archived from the original on September 27, 2023. Retrieved December 20, 2011. certain that Muslims of Central Asian originally played a major role in the Yuan (Mongol) conquest and subsequent rule of south-west China, as a result of which a distinct Muslim community was established in Yunnan by the late 13th century AD. Foremost among these soldier-administrators was Sayyid al-Ajall Shams al-Din Umar al-Bukhari (Ch. Sai-tien-ch'ih shan-ssu-ting). a court official and general of Turkic origin who participated in the Mongol invasion of Szechwan ... And Yunnan in c. 1252, and who became Yuan Governor of the latter province in 1274–79. Shams al-Din—who is widely believed by the Muslims of Yunnan to have introduced Islam to the region—is represented as a wise and benevolent ruler, who successfully "pacified and comforted" the people of Yunnan, and who is credited with building Confucian temples, as well as mosques and schools
^ Tan Ta Sen (2009). Cheng Ho and Islam in Southeast Asia (illustrated, reprint ed.). Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 92. ISBN 978-9812308375. Archived from the original on 13 May 2016. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
^ Carter, James (16 December 2020). "How Kublai Khan's Yuan complicates the notion of 'China'". Archived from the original on 2 June 2021. Retrieved 31 May 2021.
^ Rachewiltz, Igor de, ed. (1993). In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200–1300). Vol. 121 of Asiatische Forschungen. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 477. ISBN 3447033398. ISSN 0571-320X. Archived from the original on 14 May 2016. Retrieved 24 April 2014. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
^ Liu, Xinru (2001). The Silk Road in World History. Oxford University Press. p. 116. ISBN 019979880X. Archived from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
^ Rachewiltz, Igor de, ed. (1993). In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200–1300). Vol. 121 of Asiatische Forschungen. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 476. ISBN 3447033398. ISSN 0571-320X. Archived from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 24 April 2014. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
^ "Ethnic Groups - china.org.cn". www.china.org.cn. Archived from the original on 2014-12-02. Retrieved 2014-08-16.
^ Yang, Bin (2009). Between winds and clouds: the making of Yunnan (second century BCE to twentieth century CE). Columbia University Press. p. 154. ISBN 978-0231142540. Archived from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
^ ^a ^b Yang, Bin (2008). "Chapter 5 Sinicization and Indigenization: The Emergence of the Yunnanese" (PDF). Between winds and clouds: the making of Yunnan (second century BCE to twentieth century CE). Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0231142540. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 March 2014. Retrieved 24 April 2014.^{[page needed]}
^ Yang, Bin (2009). Between winds and clouds: the making of Yunnan (second century BCE to twentieth century CE). Columbia University Press. p. 157. ISBN 978-0231142540. Archived from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
^ Thant Myint-U (2011). Where China Meets India: Burma and the New Crossroads of Asia. Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4668-0127-1. Archived from the original on September 27, 2023. Retrieved December 20, 2011. claimed descent from the emir of Bokhara ... and was appointed as the top administrator in Yunnan in the 1270s. Today the Muslims of Yunnan regard him as the founder of their community, a wise and benevolent ruler who 'pacified and comforted' the peoples of Yunnan. Sayyid Ajall was officially the Director of Political Affairs of the Regional Secretariat of Yunnan ... According to Chinese records, he introduced new agricultural technologies, constructed irrigation systems, and tried to raise living standards. Though a Muslims, he built or rebuilt Confucian temples and created a Confucian education system. His contemporary, He Hongzuo, the Regional Superintendent of Confucian studies, wrote that through his efforts 'the orangutans and butcherbirds became unicorns and phonixes and their felts and furs were exchanged for gowns and caps' ...^{[page needed]}
^ M. Th Houtsma (1993). First encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913–1936. BRILL. p. 847. ISBN 90-04-09796-1. Archived from the original on September 27, 2023. Retrieved December 20, 2011. Although Saiyid-i Adjall certainly did much for the propagation of Islam in Yunnan, it is his son Nasir al-Din to whom is ascribed the main credit for its dissemination. He was a minister and at first governed the province of Shansi: he later became governor of Yunnan where he died in 1292 and was succeeded by his brother Husain. It cannot be too strongly emphasised that the direction of this movement was from the interior, from the north. The Muhammadan colonies on the coast were hardly affected by it. On the other hand it may safely be assumed that the Muslims of Yunnan remained in constant communication with those of the northern provinces of Shensi and Kansu.
^ (Original from the University of Virginia) Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Jāmi'at al-Malik 'Abd al-'Azīz. Ma'had Shu'ūn al Aqallīyat al-Muslimah (1986). Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volumes 7–8. The Institute. p. 174. Archived from the original on September 27, 2023. Retrieved December 20, 2011. from the Yuan Dynasty, and indicated further Muslim settlement in northeastern and especially southwestern Yunnan. Marco Polo, who travelled through Yunnan "Carajan" at the beginning of the Yuan period, noted the presence of "Saracens" among the population. Similarly, the Persian historian Rashid al-Din (died 1318 AD) recorded in his Jami' ut-Tawarikh that the 'great city of Yachi' in Yunnan was exclusively inhabited by Muslims.
^ (Original from the University of Virginia) Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Jāmi'at al-Malik 'Abd al-'Azīz. Ma'had Shu'ūn al Aqallīyat al-Muslimah (1986). Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volumes 7–8. The Institute. p. 387. Archived from the original on September 27, 2023. Retrieved December 20, 2011. when Maroco Polo visited Yunnan in the early Yuan period he noted the presence of "Saracens" among the population while the Persian historian Rashid al-Din (died 1318 AD) recorded in his Jami' ut-Tawarikh that 'the great city of Yachi' in Yunnan was exclusively inhabited by Muslims. Rashid al-Din may have been referring to the region around Ta-li in western Yunnan, which was to emerge as the earliest centre of Hui Muslim settlement in the province.
^ ( )Thant Myint-U (2011). Where China Meets India: Burma and the New Crossroads of Asia. Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4668-0127-1. Archived from the original on September 27, 2023. Retrieved December 20, 2011. In this way, Yunnan became known to the Islamic world. When Sayyid Ajall died in 1279 he was succeeded by his son Nasir al-Din who governed for give years and led the invasion of Burma. His younger brother became the Transport Commissioner and the entire family entrenched their influence.^{[page needed]}
^ (Original from the University of Virginia) Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Jāmi'at al-Malik 'Abd al-'Azīz. Ma'had Shu'ūn al Aqallīyat al-Muslimah (1986). Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volumes 7–8. The Institute. p. 385. Archived from the original on September 27, 2023. Retrieved December 20, 2011. On his death he was succeeded by his eldest son, Nasir al-Din (Ch. Na-su-la-ting, the "Nescradin" of Marco Polo), who governed Yunnan between 1279 and I284. While Arab and South Asian Muslims, pioneers of the maritime expansion of Islam in the Bay of Bengal, must have visited the
^ ""CESWW" - Dissertations in Central Eurasian Studies - History". cesww.fas.harvard.edu. Archived from the original on 2014-08-25. Retrieved 2014-08-16.
^ "Session 8: Individual Papers: New Work on Confucianism, Buddhism, and Islam from Han to Yuan". Archived from the original on 2015-07-15. Retrieved 2014-08-16.
^ Gladney, Dru C. (1996) [1991]. Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People's Republic. Harvard East Asian Monographs 149. Harvard University Asia Center. p. 424. ISBN 0674594975. ISSN 0073-0483. Archived from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
^ Mark C. Elliott (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China (illustrated, reprint ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 242. ISBN 0-8047-4684-2. Retrieved March 2, 2012. famous Manchu figure of the early Qing who belonged to the Niohuru clan) would have been the unwieldy "Niu-gu-lu E-bi-long" in Chinese. Moreover, the characters used in names were typically chosen to represent the sounds of Manchu, and not to carry any particular meaning in Chinese. For educated Han Chinese accustomed to names composed of a familiar surname and one or two elegang characters drawn from a poem or a passage from the classics, Manchu names looked not just different, but absurd. What was oneo to make of a name like E-bi-long, written in Chinese characters meaning "repress-must flourish," or Duo-er-gun, meaning "numerous-thou-roll"? S.... To them they looked like nonsense.... But they are not nonsense in Manchu: "E-bi-long" is the transcription of ebilun, meaning "a delicate or sickly child," and "Duo-er-gun" is the Chinese transcription of dorgon, the Manchu word for badger.
^ Mark C. Elliott (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China (illustrated, reprint ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 242. ISBN 0-8047-4684-2. Retrieved March 2, 2012. Thus we find names like Nikan (Chinese), Ajige (little), Asiha (young), Haha (nale), Mampi (knot—a reference to the hair?), Kara (black), Fulata (red-eyed), Necin (peaceful), Kirsa (steppe fox), Unahan (colt), Jumara (squirrel), Nimašan (sea eagle), Nomin (lapis lazuli), and Gacuha (toy made out of an animal's anklebone).44 Names such as Jalfungga (long-lived), Fulingga (lucky one), Fulungga (majestic), and Hūturingga (fortunate), were not unknown, either, particularly after the seventeenth century. Although mightily foreign when written as Zha-la-feng-a, Fu-ling-a, Fu-long-a, or Hu-tu-ling-ga
^ Mark C. Elliott (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China (illustrated, reprint ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 243. ISBN 0-8047-4684-2. Archived from the original on January 5, 2014. Retrieved March 2, 2012. While Chinese names, too, sometimes ended in characters with the sounds "zhu," "bao," and "tai," more often than not, such names in the Qing belonged to Manchus and other bannermen (Chinese bannermen and Mongols sometimes took Manchu-sounding names), even if the attached meaning is not clear (it is not certain that all names in fact had a specific meaning). Giving "numeral names" was another unique Manchu habit. These were names that actually referred to numbers. Sometimes they were given using Manchu numbers—for example, Nadanju (seventy) or Susai (fifty). Other times number names used the Manchu transcriptions of Chinese numbers, as in the name Loišici (= Liushi qi, "sixty-seven"), Bašinu (= bashi wu, "eight-five").45 Such names, unheard of among the Han, were quite common among the Manchus, an appeared from time to time among Chinese bannermen. Popular curiosity about this odd custom in Qing was partly satisfied by the nineteenth-century bannerman-writer Fu-ge, who explained in his book of "jottings" that naming children for their grandparents' ages was a way of wishing longevity to the newly born.46
^ Yu Hsiao-jung, Manchu Rule over China and the Attrition of the Manchu Language Archived 19 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine
^ Edward J. M. Rhoads, Manchus & Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928. University of Washington Press, 2000. Pages 52–54. ISBN 0-295-98040-0. Partially available on Google Books Archived 2023-09-27 at the Wayback Machine
^ Edward J. M. Rhoads (2001). Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928 (reprint, illustrated ed.). University of Washington Press. p. 56. ISBN 9780295804125. Archived from the original on January 5, 2014. Retrieved March 2, 2012. At Xiuyan, in eastern Fengtian, the Manchus in the seventh or eighth generation continued as before to give their sons polysyllabic Manchu personal names that were meaningless when transliterated into Chinese, but at the same time they began to also give them Chinese names that were disyllabic and meaningful and that conformed to the generational principle. Thus, in the seventh generation of the Gūwalgiya lineage were sons with two names, one Manchu and one Chinese, such as Duolunbu/Shiman, Delinbu/Shizhu, and Tehengbu/Shizhen. Within the family and the banner, these boys used their Manchu name, but outside they used their Han-style name. Then, from the eighth or ninth generation one, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Gūwalgiya at Xiuyan stopped giving polysyllabic Manchu names to their sons, who thereafter used Chinese names exclusively.
^ Edward J. M. Rhoads (2001). Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928 (reprint, illustrated ed.). University of Washington Press. p. 56. ISBN 9780295804125. Archived from the original on January 5, 2014. Retrieved March 2, 2012. and when the ancient and politically prominent Manchu lineage of Niohuru adopted the Han-style surname Lang, he ridiculed them for having "forgotten their roots." (The Niohuru, whose name was derived from niohe, Manchu for wolf," had chosen Lang as their surname because it was a homophone for the Chinese word for "wolf.")
^ Edward J. M. Rhoads (2001). Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928 (reprint, illustrated ed.). University of Washington Press. p. 56. ISBN 9780295804125. Archived from the original on January 5, 2014. Retrieved March 2, 2012. Manchu men had abandoned their original polysyllabic personal names infavor of Han-style disyllabic names; they had adopted the Han practice of choosing characters with auspicious meanings for the names; and they had assigned names on a generational basis.... Except among some Hanjun such as the two Zhao brothers, bannermen still did not, by and large, use their
^ Edward J. M. Rhoads (2001). Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928 (reprint, illustrated ed.). University of Washington Press. p. 57. ISBN 9780295804125. Archived from the original on January 5, 2014. Retrieved March 2, 2012. family name but called themselves only by their personal name—for example, Yikuang, Ronglu, Gangyi, Duanfang, Xiliang, and Tieliang. In this respect, most Manchus remained conspicuously different from Han.
^ Mark C. Elliott (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China (illustrated, reprint ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 241. ISBN 0-8047-4684-2. Archived from the original on December 31, 2013. Retrieved March 2, 2012. Chinese names consist typically of a single-character surname and a given name of one or two characters, the latter usually chosen for their auspicious meaning. Manchu names were different. For one thing, Manchus did not commonly employ surnames, identifying themselves usually by their banner affiliation rather than by their lineage. Even if they had customarily used both surname and given name, this would not have eliminated the difference with Han names, since Manchu names of any kind were very often longer than two characters—that is, two syllables— in length. Where a Han name (to pick at random two names from the eighteenth century) might read Zhang Tingyu or Dai Zhen, the full name of, say, Ebilun (a
^ ^a ^b Norman G. Owen (2005). The Emergence Of Modern Southeast Asia: A New History. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 115–. ISBN 978-0-8248-2890-5. Archived from the original on 2023-09-27. Retrieved 2020-10-14.
^ Randall Peerenboom; Carole J. Petersen; Albert H.Y. Chen (27 September 2006). Human Rights in Asia: A Comparative Legal Study of Twelve Asian Jurisdictions, France and the USA. Routledge. pp. 474–. ISBN 978-1-134-23881-1. Archived from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 14 October 2020.
^ A. Dirk Moses (1 January 2008). Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History. Berghahn Books. pp. 209–. ISBN 978-1-84545-452-4. Archived from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 14 October 2020.
^ "H-Net Discussion Networks - FW: H-ASIA: Vietnam as "Zhongguo" (2 REPLIES)". Archived from the original on 2018-10-31. Retrieved 2020-05-25.
^ "Vietnam-Champa Relations and the Malay-Islam Regional Network in the 17th–19th Centuries". Archived from the original on 2004-06-17.
^ "Angelasancartier.net". Archived from the original on 2016-01-21. Retrieved 2016-02-22.
^ "#18 Transcultural Tradition of the Vietnamese Ao Dai". 2010-03-14. Archived from the original on 2010-03-23. Retrieved 2016-02-22.
^ "Ao Dai". Archived from the original on 2016-02-04. Retrieved 2016-02-22.
^ "The Ao Dai and I: A Personal Essay on Cultural Identity and Steampunk". 2010-10-20. Archived from the original on 2016-03-07. Retrieved 2016-02-22.
^ Joseph Mitsuo Kitagawa (2002). The religious traditions of Asia: religion, history, and culture. Routledge. p. 368. ISBN 0-7007-1762-5. Archived from the original on 2023-09-27. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
^ Lipman, Jonathan N. (Jul 1984). "Ethnicity and Politics in Republican China: The Ma Family Warlords of Gansu". Modern China. 10 (3). Sage Publications, Inc.: 296. doi:10.1177/009770048401000302. JSTOR 189017. S2CID 143843569.
^ Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 130. ISBN 0-521-25514-7. Archived from the original on 2023-09-27. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
^ Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 131. ISBN 0-521-25514-7. Archived from the original on 2023-09-27. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
^ "Chinese official says 'sinicization' of religion in Xinjiang must go on". South China Morning Post, Reuters. Archived from the original on 2020-01-10.
^ Lipes, Joshua (November 24, 2019). "Expert Says 1.8 Million Uyghurs, Muslim Minorities Held in Xinjiang's Internment Camps". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on November 28, 2019. Retrieved November 28, 2019.
^ "U.N. says it has credible reports China holds million Uighurs in secret camps". Reuters. 10 August 2018. Archived from the original on 12 January 2020. Retrieved 10 August 2018.
^ "Data leak details China's 'brainwashing system'". BBC News. 2019-11-24. Archived from the original on 2019-11-26. Retrieved 2020-07-21.
^ "Former inmates of China's Muslim 're-education' camps tell of brainwashing, torture". www.washingtonpost.com. Archived from the original on 16 May 2018. Retrieved 17 May 2018.
^ Ramzy, Austin; Buckley, Chris (2019-11-16). "'Absolutely No Mercy': Leaked Files Expose How China Organized Mass Detentions of Muslims". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2020-01-08. Retrieved 2019-11-16.
^ ""'Cultural genocide': China separating thousands of Muslim children from parents for 'thought education'" - The Independent, 5 July 2019". Independent.co.uk. 5 July 2019. Archived from the original on 22 April 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
^ "'Cultural genocide' for repressed minority of Uighurs". The Times. 17 December 2019. Archived from the original on 25 April 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
^ Zand, Bernhard (28 November 2019). "China's Oppression of the Uighurs 'The Equivalent of Cultural Genocide'". Der Spiegel. Archived from the original on 21 January 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
^ Shepherd, Christian (12 September 2019). "Fear and oppression in Xinjiang: China's war on Uighur culture". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 14 April 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
^ Dreyer, June Teufel (July 17, 2003). Taiwan's Evolving Identity. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. Archived from Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars the original on June 5, 2011. Retrieved May 20, 2009. In order to shore up his government's legitimacy, Chiang set about turning Taiwan's inhabitants into Chinese. To use Renan's terminology, Chiang chose to re-define the concept of shared destiny to include the mainland. Streets were re-named; major thoroughfares in Taipei received names associated with the traditional Confucian virtues. The avenue passing in front of the foreign ministry en route to the presidential palace was named chieh-shou (long life), in Chiang's honor. Students were required to learn Mandarin and speak it exclusively; those who disobeyed and spoke Taiwanese Min, Hakka, or aboriginal tongues could be fined, slapped, or subjected to other disciplinary actions. {{cite conference}}: Check |url= value (help)
^ "Starting Anew on Taiwan". Hoover Institution. 2008. Archived from the original on 2009-04-08. Retrieved 2009-06-05. The new KMT concluded that it must "Sinicize" Taiwan if it were ever to unify mainland China. Textbooks were designed to teach young people the dialect of North China as a national language. Pupils also were taught to revere Confucian ethics, to develop Han Chinese nationalism, and to accept Taiwan as a part of China.
^ "Third-Wave Reform". Archived from the original on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2019-01-01. .... The government initiated educational reform in the 1950s to achieve a number of high-priority goals. First, it was done to help root out fifty years of Japanese colonial influence on the island's populace--"resinicizing" them, one might say- -and thereby guarantee their loyalty to the Chinese motherland. Second, the million mainlanders or so who had fled to Taiwan themselves had the age-old tendency of being more loyal to city, county, or province than to China as a nation. They identified themselves as Hunanese, Cantonese, or Sichuanese first, and as Chinese second.
^ Burbu, Dawa (2001) China's Tibet Policy, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-7007-0474-3, pp. 100–124
^ Samdup, Tseten (1993) Chinese population—Threat to Tibetan identity Government of Tibet in exile, Archived 2009-02-05 at the Wayback Machine
^ Warren, James (May 18, 1997). "On Tibet, Senator's Daughter Shows More Spine Than the U.S." Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on 22 October 2018. Retrieved 10 September 2019.
^ ""They Say We Should Be Grateful" Mass Rehousing and Relocation Programs in Tibetan Areas of China". Human Rights Watch. 2013-06-27. Archived from the original on 10 September 2019. Retrieved 10 September 2019.
^ "Invasion & After: Tibet Since the Chinese Invasion". tibetoffice.org. Office of Tibet, Washington, D.C. Archived from the original on 2 May 2014. Retrieved 10 September 2019.
^ Lodoe, Kalden; Demo, Yangdon; Gelek, Lobsang (September 6, 2019). "Tibetan Religious Festival Marred by Police Presence, State Propaganda". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 9 September 2019. Retrieved 10 September 2019.
^ ^a ^b ^c Bowie, Julia; Gitter, David (14 June 2018). "The CCP's Plan to 'Sinicize' Religions". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 18 April 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
^ "习近平：全面提高新形势下宗教工作水平-新华网". www.xinhuanet.com (in Chinese). 23 April 2016. Archived from the original on 29 January 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
^ "习近平：决胜全面建成小康社会夺取新时代中国特色社会主义伟大胜利——在中国共产党第十九次全国代表大会上的报告-新华网". www.xinhuanet.com (in Chinese). 27 October 2017. Archived from the original on 20 April 2018. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
^ ^a ^b Gan, Nectar (12 March 2019). "Chinese Protestant church head wants purge of Western influences". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 19 February 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
^ "2014 Annual Report: Religious and Human Rights Persecution in China". Texas, USA: ChinaAid. April 2015. Archived from the original on 14 April 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2020. The National Committee of the Three-Self Patriotic Movement of Protestant Churches in China marked its 60th anniversary in 2014. Subsequently, China's government-sponsored China Christian Council (CCC) and the TSPM orchestrated a conference in Shanghai on August 4–6 to commemorate the anniversary of the TSPM, which included a seminar on the so-called "sinicization" of Christianity. Fu Xianwei, chairman of the TSPM, was quoted as saying that "churches in China will continue to explore the sinicization of Christianity [and] ensure Christianity takes root in the soil of Chinese culture, ethnicity, and society... To advance the sinicization of Christianity, churches will need guidance and support from government agencies in charge of religious affairs." Gao Feng, chairman of the CCC, stated that the TSPM would "take on a new mission in this age, adhere to the path of sinicization, and deepen and advance the process of sinicizing Christianity." Wang Zuo'an, director of the State Administration for Religious Affairs (SARA), also reinforced the need for the sinicization of Christianity.
^ "'Sinicization' of Christianity China's aim". Baptist Press. 6 May 2015. Archived from the original on 27 November 2018. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
^ Shan Ren Shen Fu. "The Ninth Assembly of Chinese Catholic Representatives: More smog and pollution in 2017". Asianews.it. Archived from the original on 2 June 2017. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
^ H.E. Msgr. Paul Richard Gallagher (26 March 2018). "Intervention of the Secretary for Relations with States at the International Conference on "Christianity in the Chinese Society: Impact, Interaction and Inculturation"". Summary of Bulletin. Holy See Press Office. Archived from the original on 3 December 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
^ Valente, Gianni (22 March 2018). "Gallagher: we are not afraid of China's new global leadership - La Stampa". Vatican Insider (in Italian). Archived from the original on 27 January 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
^ "Sinicization of China Church: the plan in full - UCA News". Union of Catholic Asian News Limited. Hong Kong, China. 31 July 2018. Archived from the original on 16 December 2018. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
^ Zhicheng, Wang (31 May 2018). "Ahead of China-Vatican dialogue, a five-year plan to Sinicize the Church under the Party". AsiaNews. Archived from the original on 25 February 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
^ Jones, Kevin (25 July 2018). "In China, government-aligned bishops release 'Sinicization' plan". Catholic News Agency. Archived from the original on 17 May 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
^ "China's Catholics told to create five-year plan to Sinicise Church". World Watch Monitor. 26 July 2018. Archived from the original on 16 June 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
^ https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/41269/beijing-and-rome-can-work-together-parolin-tells-chinese-media Archived 2023-06-02 at the Wayback Machine, Beijing and Rome can work together, Parolin tells Chinese media, Catholic News Agency, retrieved June 2nd 2023
^ https://www.catholicworldreport.com/2019/05/13/no-opposition-between-sinicization-and-inculturation-parolin-tells-china-media/ Archived 2023-06-02 at the Wayback Machine, 'No opposition between sinicization and inculturation' Parolin tells China media, Catholic World Report, retrieved June 2nd 2023
^ https://www.heraldmalaysia.com/news/beijing-and-rome-can-work-together-parolin-tells-chinese-media/47797/1 Archived 2023-06-03 at the Wayback Machine, Beijing and Rome can work together, Parolin tells Chinese media, Herald Malaysia Online, retrieved June 3rd 2023
^ https://www.vaticannews.va/zh/vatican-city/news/2019-05/cardinal-parolin-interview-chinese-newspaper-china-holy-see.html Archived 2023-06-03 at the Wayback Machine, 帕罗林枢机："我们与中国正在开创一种积极的方法", Vatican News
^ Myers, Steven Lee (21 September 2019). "A Crackdown on Islam Is Spreading Across China". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 24 September 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2020. The restrictions they now face can be traced to 2015, when Mr. Xi first raised the issue of what he called the "Sinicization of Islam," saying all faiths should be subordinate to Chinese culture and the Communist Party. Last year, Mr. Xi's government issued a confidential directive that ordered local officials to prevent Islam from interfering with secular life and the state's functions.
^ "杨发明委员：坚持我国伊斯兰教中国化方向-新华网". www.xinhuanet.com (in Chinese). 10 March 2018. Archived from the original on 24 April 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
^ ^a ^b Byler, Darren (9 November 2018). "Why Chinese civil servants are happy to occupy Uyghur homes in Xinjiang". CNN. Archived from the original on 19 October 2021.
^ Westcott, Ben; Xiong, Yong (22 July 2019). "Xinjiang's Uyghurs didn't choose to be Muslim, new Chinese report says". CNN. Archived from the original on 2019-12-19. Retrieved 2019-12-02.
^ "1.5 million Muslims could be detained in China's Xinjiang: academic". Reuters. 14 March 2019. Archived from the original on 9 January 2021. Retrieved 11 January 2021.
^ Baptista, Eduardo (28 September 2020). "Tiny Muslim community becomes latest target for China's religious crackdown". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 16 October 2020. Retrieved 5 April 2021.
^ Seibt, Sébastian (30 September 2020). "Beijing's crackdown on religious minorities takes aim at 10,000 Muslim Utsuls". France 24. Archived from the original on 31 March 2021. Retrieved 5 April 2021.
^ "Thousands of ethnic minority Muslims defy Chinese authorities in defense of mosque". CNN Philippines. Archived from the original on 2023-06-03. Retrieved 2023-06-03.
^ "Among Uyghurs, China aims to 'meld Islam with Confucianism'". Radio Free Asia. September 14, 2023. Archived from the original on 2023-09-15. Retrieved 2023-09-16.

External links

Library resources about
Sinicization

Sinicization vs. Manchuness (by Xiaowei Zheng).
Sinicization: at the crossing of three China regions, an ethnic minority becoming increasingly more Chinese: the Kam People, officially called Dong People (in French)/ Sinisation: à la limite de trois provinces de Chine, une minorité de plus en plus chinoise: les locuteurs kam, officiellement appelés Dong, Jean Berlie, Guy Trédaniel editor, Paris, France, published in 1998.
Sinicization of the Kam (Dong People), a China minority (in French)/ Sinisation d'une minorité de Chine, les Kam (Dong), Jean Berlie, s.n. editor, published in 1994.
Islam in China, Hui and Uyghurs: between modernization and sinicization, the study of the Hui and Uyghurs of China, Jean A. Berlie, White Lotus Press editor, Bangkok, Thailand, published in 2004. ISBN 974-480-062-3, ISBN 978-974-480-062-6.

[1] <a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1133582631">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brian_Brivati" title="Brian Brivati">Brivati, Brian</a> (1996). "Introduction". In Brivati, Brian; Buxton, Julia; Seldon, Anthony (eds.). The contemporary history handbook (1st ed.). Manchester: Manchester University Press. p. xvi. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780719048364" title="Special:BookSources/9780719048364">9780719048364</a>.

[2] <a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Gaddis 2005, p. 33-60

[3] <a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Gaddis 2005, p. 237-257

[4] <a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Steven Levitsky, Lucan A. Way. Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes After the Cold War. 2010. Pg 3.

[SecCounc-5] <a href="#cite_ref-SecCounc_5-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2001/SC7143.doc.htm">"Security Council Condemns, 'In Strongest Terms', Terrorist Attacks on the United States"</a>. United Nations. 12 September 2001. Retrieved 11 September 2006.

[cbc-2004-6] <a href="#cite_ref-cbc-2004_6-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/bin-laden-claims-responsibility-for-9-11-1.513654">"Bin Laden claims responsibility for 9/11"</a>. CBC News. 29 October 2004. Retrieved 11 January 2009.

[7] <a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060927101915/http://www.cfr.org/publication/10551/">"The Taliban Resurgence in Afghanistan"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cfr.org/publication/10551/">the original</a> on 27 September 2006. Retrieved 9 July 2009.

[unfailed-8] <a href="#cite_ref-unfailed_8-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=20702&Cr=afghan&Cr1=">"Afghanistan could return to being a 'failed State,' warns Security Council mission chief"</a>. 22 November 2006.

[rothstein-9] <a href="#cite_ref-rothstein_9-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631">Rothstein, Hy S (15 August 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w7fmg1cCjskC&q=Al+Qaeda">Afghanistan: and the troubled future of unconventional warfare By Hy S. Rothstein</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7049-306-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7049-306-8">978-81-7049-306-8</a>.

[10] <a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/2862343.stm">"US Names Coalition of the Willing"</a>. BBC News. 18 March 2003. Retrieved 3 November 2007.

[11] <a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.defenselink.mil/Transcripts/Transcript.aspx?TranscriptID=3879">U.S. Defense Secretary Robert Gates, 2 Feb 2007</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091130124028/http://www.defenselink.mil/Transcripts/Transcript.aspx?TranscriptID=3879">Archived</a> 30 November 2009 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, see "four wars" remark

[12] <a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/09/26/eveningnews/main886305.shtml">"CBS on civil war"</a>. CBS News. 26 September 2006.

[13] <a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090325011746/http://www.acq.osd.mil/log/PS/p_vault/SE_SOFA.pdf">"Agreement Between the United States of America and the Republic of Iraq On the Withdrawal of United States Forces from Iraq and the Organization of Their Activities during Their Temporary Presence in Iraq"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acq.osd.mil/log/PS/p_vault/SE_SOFA.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 25 March 2009. Retrieved 9 July 2009.

[NYT-clues-14] <a href="#cite_ref-NYT-clues_14-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631">Mazzetti, Mark; Cooper, Helene; Baker, Peter (3 May 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/03/world/asia/03intel.html?pagewanted=all">"Clues Gradually Led to the Location of Osama bin Laden"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved 4 May 2011.

[15] <a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-16192105">"US flag ceremony ends Iraq operation"</a>. BBC News. 15 December 2011. Retrieved 15 December 2011.

[16] <a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/us-lowers-flag-to-end-iraq-war-6277340.html">"US lowers flag to end Iraq war"</a>. Associated Press. 15 December 2011. Retrieved 15 December 2011.

[17] <a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631">Mak, Tim (15 December 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.politico.com/news/stories/1211/70480.html">"Leon Panetta marks end of Iraq war"</a>. Politico. Retrieved 15 December 2011.

[18] <a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631">This American Life. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100415153017/http://www.pri.org/business/giant-pool-of-money.html">"NPR-The Giant Pool of Money-April 2009"</a>. Pri.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pri.org/business/giant-pool-of-money.html">the original</a> on 15 April 2010. Retrieved 1 May 2010.

[19] <a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> In December 2008, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Economic_Research" title="National Bureau of Economic Research">National Bureau of Economic Research</a> (NBER) declared that the United States had been in recession since December 2007. See <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631">Isidore, Chris (1 December 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://money.cnn.com/2008/12/01/news/economy/recession/index.htm?postversion=2008120112">"It's official: Recession since December '07"</a>. CNN. Retrieved 10 April 2009. for more information.

[20] <a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631">Hulbert, Mark (15 July 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://online.barrons.com/article/SB50001424052970203983104575367471896032724.html?mod=googlenews_barrons">"It's Dippy to Fret About a Double-Dip Recession"</a>.

[21] <a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631">Mishkin, Fredric S. (15 May 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/speech/mishkin20080515a.htm">How Should We Respond to Asset Price Bubbles?</a> (Speech). Retrieved 18 April 2009.

[22] <a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631">Wessel, David (8 April 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303591204575169693166352882">"Did 'Great Recession' Live Up to the Name?"</a>. The Wall Street Journal.

[23] <a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lant_Pritchett" title="Lant Pritchett">Pritchett, Lant</a> (2006). "Boom Towns and Ghost Countries: Geography, Agglomeration, and Population Mobility". Brookings Trade Forum. Brookings Institution Press. pp. 1–56. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25063204">25063204</a>.

[24] <a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631">Hope, Kempe Ronald (2012). "Urbanisation in Kenya". African Journal of Economic and Sustainable Development. 1 (1): 4–26. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1504%2FAJESD.2012.045751">10.1504/AJESD.2012.045751</a>.

[25] <a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631">Soble, Jonathan (23 August 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/24/world/a-sprawl-of-abandoned-homes-in-tokyo-suburbs.html">"A Sprawl of Ghost Homes in Aging Tokyo Suburbs"</a>. New York Times. Retrieved 27 February 2016.

[26] <a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-63513278">"COP27: Why South Africa will struggle to wean itself off coal"</a>. BBC News. 8 November 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221214084112/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-63513278">Archived</a> from the original on 14 December 2022. Retrieved 14 December 2022.

[27] <a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631">Alderman, Liz (15 November 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/11/15/business/nuclear-power-france.html">"As Europe Quits Russian Gas, Half of France's Nuclear Plants Are Off-Line"</a>. The New York Times.

[28] <a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.techpluto.com/web-20-services/">"Core Characteristics of Web 2.0 Services"</a>. 28 November 2008.

[29] <a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080119070741/http://www.mobiletracker.net/archives/2005/05/18/mobile-subcribers-worldwide">"Total mobile subscribers top 1.8 billion"</a>. <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=MobileTracker_Cell_Phone_News_and_Reviews&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MobileTracker Cell Phone News and Reviews (page does not exist)">MobileTracker Cell Phone News and Reviews</a>. 18 May 2005. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mobiletracker.net/archives/2005/05/18/mobile-subcribers-worldwide">the original</a> on 19 January 2008. Retrieved 31 December 2008.

[30] <a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> This is above the nominal <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Edge_of_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Edge of space">edge of space</a> at 100 km (62 mi) Earth's altitude. See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turbopause" title="Turbopause">Turbopause</a>; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">Low</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medium_Earth_orbit" title="Medium Earth orbit">Medium</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/High_Earth_orbit" title="High Earth orbit">High Earth orbit</a>.

[31] <a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> There are many different methods, in conventional and unconventional propulsion systems. Each method has drawbacks and advantages, and spacecraft propulsion is an active area of research. However, most spacecraft today are propelled by forcing a gas from the back/rear of the vehicle at very high speed through a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rocket_engine_nozzle" title="Rocket engine nozzle">supersonic de Laval nozzle</a>. This sort of engine is called a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rocket_engine" title="Rocket engine">rocket engine</a>.

[32] <a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-18702455">"Higgs boson-like particle discovery claimed at LHC"</a>. BBC News. 4 July 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180731153930/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-18702455">Archived</a> from the original on 31 July 2018. Retrieved 21 June 2018.

[tar_wg2-33] <a href="#cite_ref-tar_wg2_33-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070303133040/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/index.htm">"Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change"</a>. IPCC. 16 February 2001. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/index.htm">the original</a> on 3 March 2007. Retrieved 14 March 2007.

[34] <a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631">McMichael AJ, Woodruff RE, Hales S (2006). "Climate change and human health: present and future risks". Lancet. 367 (9513): 859–69. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2806%2968079-3">10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68079-3</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16530580">16530580</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11220212">11220212</a>.

[35] <a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631">Macey, Jennifer (19 September 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2007/09/19/2037198.htm?section=business">"Global warming opens up Northwest Passage"</a>. ABC News. Retrieved 11 December 2007.

[ar4syn-36] <a href="#cite_ref-ar4syn_36-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr.pdf">"Climate Change 2007: Synthesis report"</a> (PDF). IPCC. 5 February 2007. Retrieved 3 February 2009.

[37] <a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> European Space Agency, "News: Satellites Witness Lowest Arctic Ice Coverage in History," 14 September 2007.

[38] <a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> "Warming 'opens Northwest Passage'". BBC News. 14 September 2007.

[39] <a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> BBC News "Plain Sailing on the Northwest Passage"

[40] <a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631">Keating, Joshua E. (December 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://foreignpolicy.com/articles/2009/11/30/the_top_10_stories_you_missed_in_2009">"The Top 10 Stories You Missed in 2009: A few ways the world changed while you weren't looking"</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Foreign_Policy" title="Foreign Policy">Foreign Policy</a>.

[41] <a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk/the-global-crisis-of-our-time-the-long-term-impacts-of-covid-19">The Global Crisis of Our Time: The Long-Term Impacts of COVID-19</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210127230853/https://www.oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk/the-global-crisis-of-our-time-the-long-term-impacts-of-covid-19">Archived</a> 27 January 2021 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Oxford Research Group

[1] Millward, James A. (2023-07-25). "Sinicisation, the Tribute System and Dynasties". IAI Istituto Affari Internazionali. Archived from the original on 2023-07-25. Retrieved 2023-07-25.

[2] "China". Ethnologue. Archived from the original on 2018-11-19. Retrieved 2018-12-05.

[3] Goodenough, Ward Hunt (1996). Prehistoric Settlement of the Pacific, Volume 86, Part 5. American Philosophical Society. ISBN 9780871698650. Archived from the original on 2023-09-27. Retrieved 2020-10-14.

[4] Jacques Gernet (1996). A History of Chinese Civilization (illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 180. ISBN 0521497817.

[5] David Graff (2003). Medieval Chinese Warfare 300-900. Routledge. p. 48. ISBN 1134553536.

[ger-6] Jacques Gernet (1996). A History of Chinese Civilization (illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 192–193. ISBN 0521497817.

[7] (in English) Scottish Geographical Society (1929). Scottish geographical magazine, Volumes 45–46. Royal Scottish Geographical Society. p. 70. Archived from the original on 2018-05-17. Retrieved 2010-06-28.

[8] (in English) Margaret Portia Mickey (1947). The Cowrie Shell Miao of Kweichow, Volume 32, Issue 1. The Museum. p. 6. Archived from the original on 2023-09-27. Retrieved 2010-06-28.

[9] Michael Dillon (1999). China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects. Richmond: Curzon Press. p. 23. ISBN 0-7007-1026-4. Archived from the original on 2023-09-27. Retrieved 2010-06-28.

[SAYYED_AJALL-10] Lane, George (June 29, 2011). "Sayyed ajall". Encyclopædia Iranica. Archived from the original on 17 November 2012. Retrieved 17 November 2012.

[11] Atwood, Christopher P. 2004. "Sayyid Ajall 'Umar Shams-ud-Din." Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. New York: Facts On File, Inc. Archived from the original on 2014-08-13.

[12] Gaubatz, Piper Rae (1996). Beyond the Great Wall: Urban Form and Transformation on the Chinese Frontiers (illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 78. ISBN 0804723990. Archived from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 24 April 2014.

[13] (Original from the University of Virginia) Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Jāmi'at al-Malik 'Abd al-'Azīz. Ma'had Shu'ūn al Aqallīyat al-Muslimah (1986). Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volumes 7–8. The Institute. p. 385. Archived from the original on September 27, 2023. Retrieved December 20, 2011. certain that Muslims of Central Asian originally played a major role in the Yuan (Mongol) conquest and subsequent rule of south-west China, as a result of which a distinct Muslim community was established in Yunnan by the late 13th century AD. Foremost among these soldier-administrators was Sayyid al-Ajall Shams al-Din Umar al-Bukhari (Ch. Sai-tien-ch'ih shan-ssu-ting). a court official and general of Turkic origin who participated in the Mongol invasion of Szechwan ... And Yunnan in c. 1252, and who became Yuan Governor of the latter province in 1274–79. Shams al-Din—who is widely believed by the Muslims of Yunnan to have introduced Islam to the region—is represented as a wise and benevolent ruler, who successfully "pacified and comforted" the people of Yunnan, and who is credited with building Confucian temples, as well as mosques and schools

[14] Tan Ta Sen (2009). Cheng Ho and Islam in Southeast Asia (illustrated, reprint ed.). Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 92. ISBN 978-9812308375. Archived from the original on 13 May 2016. Retrieved 24 April 2014.

[15] Carter, James (16 December 2020). "How Kublai Khan's Yuan complicates the notion of 'China'". Archived from the original on 2 June 2021. Retrieved 31 May 2021.

[16] Rachewiltz, Igor de, ed. (1993). In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200–1300). Vol. 121 of Asiatische Forschungen. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 477. ISBN 3447033398. ISSN 0571-320X. Archived from the original on 14 May 2016. Retrieved 24 April 2014. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)

[Silk_Road_p116-17] Liu, Xinru (2001). The Silk Road in World History. Oxford University Press. p. 116. ISBN 019979880X. Archived from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 24 April 2014.

[18] Rachewiltz, Igor de, ed. (1993). In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200–1300). Vol. 121 of Asiatische Forschungen. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 476. ISBN 3447033398. ISSN 0571-320X. Archived from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 24 April 2014. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)

[19] "Ethnic Groups - china.org.cn". www.china.org.cn. Archived from the original on 2014-12-02. Retrieved 2014-08-16.

[20] Yang, Bin (2009). Between winds and clouds: the making of Yunnan (second century BCE to twentieth century CE). Columbia University Press. p. 154. ISBN 978-0231142540. Archived from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 24 April 2014.

[Yang_2008-21] Yang, Bin (2008). "Chapter 5 Sinicization and Indigenization: The Emergence of the Yunnanese" (PDF). Between winds and clouds: the making of Yunnan (second century BCE to twentieth century CE). Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0231142540. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 March 2014. Retrieved 24 April 2014.^{[page needed]}

[22] Yang, Bin (2009). Between winds and clouds: the making of Yunnan (second century BCE to twentieth century CE). Columbia University Press. p. 157. ISBN 978-0231142540. Archived from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 24 April 2014.

[23] Thant Myint-U (2011). Where China Meets India: Burma and the New Crossroads of Asia. Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4668-0127-1. Archived from the original on September 27, 2023. Retrieved December 20, 2011. claimed descent from the emir of Bokhara ... and was appointed as the top administrator in Yunnan in the 1270s. Today the Muslims of Yunnan regard him as the founder of their community, a wise and benevolent ruler who 'pacified and comforted' the peoples of Yunnan. Sayyid Ajall was officially the Director of Political Affairs of the Regional Secretariat of Yunnan ... According to Chinese records, he introduced new agricultural technologies, constructed irrigation systems, and tried to raise living standards. Though a Muslims, he built or rebuilt Confucian temples and created a Confucian education system. His contemporary, He Hongzuo, the Regional Superintendent of Confucian studies, wrote that through his efforts 'the orangutans and butcherbirds became unicorns and phonixes and their felts and furs were exchanged for gowns and caps' ...^{[page needed]}

[24] M. Th Houtsma (1993). First encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913–1936. BRILL. p. 847. ISBN 90-04-09796-1. Archived from the original on September 27, 2023. Retrieved December 20, 2011. Although Saiyid-i Adjall certainly did much for the propagation of Islam in Yunnan, it is his son Nasir al-Din to whom is ascribed the main credit for its dissemination. He was a minister and at first governed the province of Shansi: he later became governor of Yunnan where he died in 1292 and was succeeded by his brother Husain. It cannot be too strongly emphasised that the direction of this movement was from the interior, from the north. The Muhammadan colonies on the coast were hardly affected by it. On the other hand it may safely be assumed that the Muslims of Yunnan remained in constant communication with those of the northern provinces of Shensi and Kansu.

[25] (Original from the University of Virginia) Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Jāmi'at al-Malik 'Abd al-'Azīz. Ma'had Shu'ūn al Aqallīyat al-Muslimah (1986). Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volumes 7–8. The Institute. p. 174. Archived from the original on September 27, 2023. Retrieved December 20, 2011. from the Yuan Dynasty, and indicated further Muslim settlement in northeastern and especially southwestern Yunnan. Marco Polo, who travelled through Yunnan "Carajan" at the beginning of the Yuan period, noted the presence of "Saracens" among the population. Similarly, the Persian historian Rashid al-Din (died 1318 AD) recorded in his Jami' ut-Tawarikh that the 'great city of Yachi' in Yunnan was exclusively inhabited by Muslims.

[26] (Original from the University of Virginia) Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Jāmi'at al-Malik 'Abd al-'Azīz. Ma'had Shu'ūn al Aqallīyat al-Muslimah (1986). Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volumes 7–8. The Institute. p. 387. Archived from the original on September 27, 2023. Retrieved December 20, 2011. when Maroco Polo visited Yunnan in the early Yuan period he noted the presence of "Saracens" among the population while the Persian historian Rashid al-Din (died 1318 AD) recorded in his Jami' ut-Tawarikh that 'the great city of Yachi' in Yunnan was exclusively inhabited by Muslims. Rashid al-Din may have been referring to the region around Ta-li in western Yunnan, which was to emerge as the earliest centre of Hui Muslim settlement in the province.

[27] ( )Thant Myint-U (2011). Where China Meets India: Burma and the New Crossroads of Asia. Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4668-0127-1. Archived from the original on September 27, 2023. Retrieved December 20, 2011. In this way, Yunnan became known to the Islamic world. When Sayyid Ajall died in 1279 he was succeeded by his son Nasir al-Din who governed for give years and led the invasion of Burma. His younger brother became the Transport Commissioner and the entire family entrenched their influence.^{[page needed]}

[28] (Original from the University of Virginia) Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Jāmi'at al-Malik 'Abd al-'Azīz. Ma'had Shu'ūn al Aqallīyat al-Muslimah (1986). Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volumes 7–8. The Institute. p. 385. Archived from the original on September 27, 2023. Retrieved December 20, 2011. On his death he was succeeded by his eldest son, Nasir al-Din (Ch. Na-su-la-ting, the "Nescradin" of Marco Polo), who governed Yunnan between 1279 and I284. While Arab and South Asian Muslims, pioneers of the maritime expansion of Islam in the Bay of Bengal, must have visited the

[29] ""CESWW" - Dissertations in Central Eurasian Studies - History". cesww.fas.harvard.edu. Archived from the original on 2014-08-25. Retrieved 2014-08-16.

[30] "Session 8: Individual Papers: New Work on Confucianism, Buddhism, and Islam from Han to Yuan". Archived from the original on 2015-07-15. Retrieved 2014-08-16.

[31] Gladney, Dru C. (1996) [1991]. Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People's Republic. Harvard East Asian Monographs 149. Harvard University Asia Center. p. 424. ISBN 0674594975. ISSN 0073-0483. Archived from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 24 April 2014.

[32] Mark C. Elliott (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China (illustrated, reprint ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 242. ISBN 0-8047-4684-2. Retrieved March 2, 2012. famous Manchu figure of the early Qing who belonged to the Niohuru clan) would have been the unwieldy "Niu-gu-lu E-bi-long" in Chinese. Moreover, the characters used in names were typically chosen to represent the sounds of Manchu, and not to carry any particular meaning in Chinese. For educated Han Chinese accustomed to names composed of a familiar surname and one or two elegang characters drawn from a poem or a passage from the classics, Manchu names looked not just different, but absurd. What was oneo to make of a name like E-bi-long, written in Chinese characters meaning "repress-must flourish," or Duo-er-gun, meaning "numerous-thou-roll"? S.... To them they looked like nonsense.... But they are not nonsense in Manchu: "E-bi-long" is the transcription of ebilun, meaning "a delicate or sickly child," and "Duo-er-gun" is the Chinese transcription of dorgon, the Manchu word for badger.

[33] Mark C. Elliott (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China (illustrated, reprint ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 242. ISBN 0-8047-4684-2. Retrieved March 2, 2012. Thus we find names like Nikan (Chinese), Ajige (little), Asiha (young), Haha (nale), Mampi (knot—a reference to the hair?), Kara (black), Fulata (red-eyed), Necin (peaceful), Kirsa (steppe fox), Unahan (colt), Jumara (squirrel), Nimašan (sea eagle), Nomin (lapis lazuli), and Gacuha (toy made out of an animal's anklebone).44 Names such as Jalfungga (long-lived), Fulingga (lucky one), Fulungga (majestic), and Hūturingga (fortunate), were not unknown, either, particularly after the seventeenth century. Although mightily foreign when written as Zha-la-feng-a, Fu-ling-a, Fu-long-a, or Hu-tu-ling-ga

[34] Mark C. Elliott (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China (illustrated, reprint ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 243. ISBN 0-8047-4684-2. Archived from the original on January 5, 2014. Retrieved March 2, 2012. While Chinese names, too, sometimes ended in characters with the sounds "zhu," "bao," and "tai," more often than not, such names in the Qing belonged to Manchus and other bannermen (Chinese bannermen and Mongols sometimes took Manchu-sounding names), even if the attached meaning is not clear (it is not certain that all names in fact had a specific meaning). Giving "numeral names" was another unique Manchu habit. These were names that actually referred to numbers. Sometimes they were given using Manchu numbers—for example, Nadanju (seventy) or Susai (fifty). Other times number names used the Manchu transcriptions of Chinese numbers, as in the name Loišici (= Liushi qi, "sixty-seven"), Bašinu (= bashi wu, "eight-five").45 Such names, unheard of among the Han, were quite common among the Manchus, an appeared from time to time among Chinese bannermen. Popular curiosity about this odd custom in Qing was partly satisfied by the nineteenth-century bannerman-writer Fu-ge, who explained in his book of "jottings" that naming children for their grandparents' ages was a way of wishing longevity to the newly born.46

[35] Yu Hsiao-jung, Manchu Rule over China and the Attrition of the Manchu Language Archived 19 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine

[rhoads-36] Edward J. M. Rhoads, Manchus & Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928. University of Washington Press, 2000. Pages 52–54. ISBN 0-295-98040-0. Partially available on Google Books Archived 2023-09-27 at the Wayback Machine

[37] Edward J. M. Rhoads (2001). Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928 (reprint, illustrated ed.). University of Washington Press. p. 56. ISBN 9780295804125. Archived from the original on January 5, 2014. Retrieved March 2, 2012. At Xiuyan, in eastern Fengtian, the Manchus in the seventh or eighth generation continued as before to give their sons polysyllabic Manchu personal names that were meaningless when transliterated into Chinese, but at the same time they began to also give them Chinese names that were disyllabic and meaningful and that conformed to the generational principle. Thus, in the seventh generation of the Gūwalgiya lineage were sons with two names, one Manchu and one Chinese, such as Duolunbu/Shiman, Delinbu/Shizhu, and Tehengbu/Shizhen. Within the family and the banner, these boys used their Manchu name, but outside they used their Han-style name. Then, from the eighth or ninth generation one, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Gūwalgiya at Xiuyan stopped giving polysyllabic Manchu names to their sons, who thereafter used Chinese names exclusively.

[38] Edward J. M. Rhoads (2001). Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928 (reprint, illustrated ed.). University of Washington Press. p. 56. ISBN 9780295804125. Archived from the original on January 5, 2014. Retrieved March 2, 2012. and when the ancient and politically prominent Manchu lineage of Niohuru adopted the Han-style surname Lang, he ridiculed them for having "forgotten their roots." (The Niohuru, whose name was derived from niohe, Manchu for wolf," had chosen Lang as their surname because it was a homophone for the Chinese word for "wolf.")

[39] Edward J. M. Rhoads (2001). Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928 (reprint, illustrated ed.). University of Washington Press. p. 56. ISBN 9780295804125. Archived from the original on January 5, 2014. Retrieved March 2, 2012. Manchu men had abandoned their original polysyllabic personal names infavor of Han-style disyllabic names; they had adopted the Han practice of choosing characters with auspicious meanings for the names; and they had assigned names on a generational basis.... Except among some Hanjun such as the two Zhao brothers, bannermen still did not, by and large, use their

[40] Edward J. M. Rhoads (2001). Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928 (reprint, illustrated ed.). University of Washington Press. p. 57. ISBN 9780295804125. Archived from the original on January 5, 2014. Retrieved March 2, 2012. family name but called themselves only by their personal name—for example, Yikuang, Ronglu, Gangyi, Duanfang, Xiliang, and Tieliang. In this respect, most Manchus remained conspicuously different from Han.

[41] Mark C. Elliott (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China (illustrated, reprint ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 241. ISBN 0-8047-4684-2. Archived from the original on December 31, 2013. Retrieved March 2, 2012. Chinese names consist typically of a single-character surname and a given name of one or two characters, the latter usually chosen for their auspicious meaning. Manchu names were different. For one thing, Manchus did not commonly employ surnames, identifying themselves usually by their banner affiliation rather than by their lineage. Even if they had customarily used both surname and given name, this would not have eliminated the difference with Han names, since Manchu names of any kind were very often longer than two characters—that is, two syllables— in length. Where a Han name (to pick at random two names from the eighteenth century) might read Zhang Tingyu or Dai Zhen, the full name of, say, Ebilun (a

[Owen2005-42] Norman G. Owen (2005). The Emergence Of Modern Southeast Asia: A New History. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 115–. ISBN 978-0-8248-2890-5. Archived from the original on 2023-09-27. Retrieved 2020-10-14.

[PeerenboomPetersen2006-43] Randall Peerenboom; Carole J. Petersen; Albert H.Y. Chen (27 September 2006). Human Rights in Asia: A Comparative Legal Study of Twelve Asian Jurisdictions, France and the USA. Routledge. pp. 474–. ISBN 978-1-134-23881-1. Archived from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 14 October 2020.

[Moses2008-44] A. Dirk Moses (1 January 2008). Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History. Berghahn Books. pp. 209–. ISBN 978-1-84545-452-4. Archived from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 14 October 2020.

[45] "H-Net Discussion Networks - FW: H-ASIA: Vietnam as "Zhongguo" (2 REPLIES)". Archived from the original on 2018-10-31. Retrieved 2020-05-25.

[46] "Vietnam-Champa Relations and the Malay-Islam Regional Network in the 17th–19th Centuries". Archived from the original on 2004-06-17.

[47] "Angelasancartier.net". Archived from the original on 2016-01-21. Retrieved 2016-02-22.

[48] "#18 Transcultural Tradition of the Vietnamese Ao Dai". 2010-03-14. Archived from the original on 2010-03-23. Retrieved 2016-02-22.

[49] "Ao Dai". Archived from the original on 2016-02-04. Retrieved 2016-02-22.

[50] "The Ao Dai and I: A Personal Essay on Cultural Identity and Steampunk". 2010-10-20. Archived from the original on 2016-03-07. Retrieved 2016-02-22.

[51] Joseph Mitsuo Kitagawa (2002). The religious traditions of Asia: religion, history, and culture. Routledge. p. 368. ISBN 0-7007-1762-5. Archived from the original on 2023-09-27. Retrieved 2010-06-28.

[52] Lipman, Jonathan N. (Jul 1984). "Ethnicity and Politics in Republican China: The Ma Family Warlords of Gansu". Modern China. 10 (3). Sage Publications, Inc.: 296. doi:10.1177/009770048401000302. JSTOR 189017. S2CID 143843569.

[53] Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 130. ISBN 0-521-25514-7. Archived from the original on 2023-09-27. Retrieved 2010-06-28.

[54] Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 131. ISBN 0-521-25514-7. Archived from the original on 2023-09-27. Retrieved 2010-06-28.

[55] "Chinese official says 'sinicization' of religion in Xinjiang must go on". South China Morning Post, Reuters. Archived from the original on 2020-01-10.

[56] Lipes, Joshua (November 24, 2019). "Expert Says 1.8 Million Uyghurs, Muslim Minorities Held in Xinjiang's Internment Camps". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on November 28, 2019. Retrieved November 28, 2019.

[57] "U.N. says it has credible reports China holds million Uighurs in secret camps". Reuters. 10 August 2018. Archived from the original on 12 January 2020. Retrieved 10 August 2018.

[58] "Data leak details China's 'brainwashing system'". BBC News. 2019-11-24. Archived from the original on 2019-11-26. Retrieved 2020-07-21.

[59] "Former inmates of China's Muslim 're-education' camps tell of brainwashing, torture". www.washingtonpost.com. Archived from the original on 16 May 2018. Retrieved 17 May 2018.

[60] Ramzy, Austin; Buckley, Chris (2019-11-16). "'Absolutely No Mercy': Leaked Files Expose How China Organized Mass Detentions of Muslims". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2020-01-08. Retrieved 2019-11-16.

[61] ""'Cultural genocide': China separating thousands of Muslim children from parents for 'thought education'" - The Independent, 5 July 2019". Independent.co.uk. 5 July 2019. Archived from the original on 22 April 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2020.

[62] "'Cultural genocide' for repressed minority of Uighurs". The Times. 17 December 2019. Archived from the original on 25 April 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2020.

[63] Zand, Bernhard (28 November 2019). "China's Oppression of the Uighurs 'The Equivalent of Cultural Genocide'". Der Spiegel. Archived from the original on 21 January 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2020.

[64] Shepherd, Christian (12 September 2019). "Fear and oppression in Xinjiang: China's war on Uighur culture". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 14 April 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2020.

[65] Dreyer, June Teufel (July 17, 2003). Taiwan's Evolving Identity. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. Archived from Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars the original on June 5, 2011. Retrieved May 20, 2009. In order to shore up his government's legitimacy, Chiang set about turning Taiwan's inhabitants into Chinese. To use Renan's terminology, Chiang chose to re-define the concept of shared destiny to include the mainland. Streets were re-named; major thoroughfares in Taipei received names associated with the traditional Confucian virtues. The avenue passing in front of the foreign ministry en route to the presidential palace was named chieh-shou (long life), in Chiang's honor. Students were required to learn Mandarin and speak it exclusively; those who disobeyed and spoke Taiwanese Min, Hakka, or aboriginal tongues could be fined, slapped, or subjected to other disciplinary actions. {{cite conference}}: Check |url= value (help)

[66] "Starting Anew on Taiwan". Hoover Institution. 2008. Archived from the original on 2009-04-08. Retrieved 2009-06-05. The new KMT concluded that it must "Sinicize" Taiwan if it were ever to unify mainland China. Textbooks were designed to teach young people the dialect of North China as a national language. Pupils also were taught to revere Confucian ethics, to develop Han Chinese nationalism, and to accept Taiwan as a part of China.

[67] "Third-Wave Reform". Archived from the original on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2019-01-01. .... The government initiated educational reform in the 1950s to achieve a number of high-priority goals. First, it was done to help root out fifty years of Japanese colonial influence on the island's populace--"resinicizing" them, one might say- -and thereby guarantee their loyalty to the Chinese motherland. Second, the million mainlanders or so who had fled to Taiwan themselves had the age-old tendency of being more loyal to city, county, or province than to China as a nation. They identified themselves as Hunanese, Cantonese, or Sichuanese first, and as Chinese second.

[68] Burbu, Dawa (2001) China's Tibet Policy, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-7007-0474-3, pp. 100–124

[Samdup-69] Samdup, Tseten (1993) Chinese population—Threat to Tibetan identity Government of Tibet in exile, Archived 2009-02-05 at the Wayback Machine

[70] Warren, James (May 18, 1997). "On Tibet, Senator's Daughter Shows More Spine Than the U.S." Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on 22 October 2018. Retrieved 10 September 2019.

[71] ""They Say We Should Be Grateful" Mass Rehousing and Relocation Programs in Tibetan Areas of China". Human Rights Watch. 2013-06-27. Archived from the original on 10 September 2019. Retrieved 10 September 2019.

[72] "Invasion & After: Tibet Since the Chinese Invasion". tibetoffice.org. Office of Tibet, Washington, D.C. Archived from the original on 2 May 2014. Retrieved 10 September 2019.

[73] Lodoe, Kalden; Demo, Yangdon; Gelek, Lobsang (September 6, 2019). "Tibetan Religious Festival Marred by Police Presence, State Propaganda". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 9 September 2019. Retrieved 10 September 2019.

[diplomat-2018-74] Bowie, Julia; Gitter, David (14 June 2018). "The CCP's Plan to 'Sinicize' Religions". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 18 April 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2020.

[75] "习近平：全面提高新形势下宗教工作水平-新华网". www.xinhuanet.com (in Chinese). 23 April 2016. Archived from the original on 29 January 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2020.

[76] "习近平：决胜全面建成小康社会夺取新时代中国特色社会主义伟大胜利——在中国共产党第十九次全国代表大会上的报告-新华网". www.xinhuanet.com (in Chinese). 27 October 2017. Archived from the original on 20 April 2018. Retrieved 9 February 2020.

[scmp-may-2019-77] Gan, Nectar (12 March 2019). "Chinese Protestant church head wants purge of Western influences". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 19 February 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2020.

[78] "2014 Annual Report: Religious and Human Rights Persecution in China". Texas, USA: ChinaAid. April 2015. Archived from the original on 14 April 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2020. The National Committee of the Three-Self Patriotic Movement of Protestant Churches in China marked its 60th anniversary in 2014. Subsequently, China's government-sponsored China Christian Council (CCC) and the TSPM orchestrated a conference in Shanghai on August 4–6 to commemorate the anniversary of the TSPM, which included a seminar on the so-called "sinicization" of Christianity. Fu Xianwei, chairman of the TSPM, was quoted as saying that "churches in China will continue to explore the sinicization of Christianity [and] ensure Christianity takes root in the soil of Chinese culture, ethnicity, and society... To advance the sinicization of Christianity, churches will need guidance and support from government agencies in charge of religious affairs." Gao Feng, chairman of the CCC, stated that the TSPM would "take on a new mission in this age, adhere to the path of sinicization, and deepen and advance the process of sinicizing Christianity." Wang Zuo'an, director of the State Administration for Religious Affairs (SARA), also reinforced the need for the sinicization of Christianity.

[79] "'Sinicization' of Christianity China's aim". Baptist Press. 6 May 2015. Archived from the original on 27 November 2018. Retrieved 9 February 2020.

[80] Shan Ren Shen Fu. "The Ninth Assembly of Chinese Catholic Representatives: More smog and pollution in 2017". Asianews.it. Archived from the original on 2 June 2017. Retrieved 9 February 2020.

[81] H.E. Msgr. Paul Richard Gallagher (26 March 2018). "Intervention of the Secretary for Relations with States at the International Conference on "Christianity in the Chinese Society: Impact, Interaction and Inculturation"". Summary of Bulletin. Holy See Press Office. Archived from the original on 3 December 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2020.

[82] Valente, Gianni (22 March 2018). "Gallagher: we are not afraid of China's new global leadership - La Stampa". Vatican Insider (in Italian). Archived from the original on 27 January 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2020.

[83] "Sinicization of China Church: the plan in full - UCA News". Union of Catholic Asian News Limited. Hong Kong, China. 31 July 2018. Archived from the original on 16 December 2018. Retrieved 9 February 2020.

[84] Zhicheng, Wang (31 May 2018). "Ahead of China-Vatican dialogue, a five-year plan to Sinicize the Church under the Party". AsiaNews. Archived from the original on 25 February 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2020.

[85] Jones, Kevin (25 July 2018). "In China, government-aligned bishops release 'Sinicization' plan". Catholic News Agency. Archived from the original on 17 May 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2020.

[86] "China's Catholics told to create five-year plan to Sinicise Church". World Watch Monitor. 26 July 2018. Archived from the original on 16 June 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2020.

[87] ttps://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/41269/beijing-and-rome-can-work-together-parolin-tells-chinese-media Archived 2023-06-02 at the Wayback Machine, Beijing and Rome can work together, Parolin tells Chinese media, Catholic News Agency, retrieved June 2nd 2023

[88] ttps://www.catholicworldreport.com/2019/05/13/no-opposition-between-sinicization-and-inculturation-parolin-tells-china-media/ Archived 2023-06-02 at the Wayback Machine, 'No opposition between sinicization and inculturation' Parolin tells China media, Catholic World Report, retrieved June 2nd 2023

[89] ttps://www.heraldmalaysia.com/news/beijing-and-rome-can-work-together-parolin-tells-chinese-media/47797/1 Archived 2023-06-03 at the Wayback Machine, Beijing and Rome can work together, Parolin tells Chinese media, Herald Malaysia Online, retrieved June 3rd 2023

[90] ttps://www.vaticannews.va/zh/vatican-city/news/2019-05/cardinal-parolin-interview-chinese-newspaper-china-holy-see.html Archived 2023-06-03 at the Wayback Machine, 帕罗林枢机："我们与中国正在开创一种积极的方法", Vatican News

[91] Myers, Steven Lee (21 September 2019). "A Crackdown on Islam Is Spreading Across China". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 24 September 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2020. The restrictions they now face can be traced to 2015, when Mr. Xi first raised the issue of what he called the "Sinicization of Islam," saying all faiths should be subordinate to Chinese culture and the Communist Party. Last year, Mr. Xi's government issued a confidential directive that ordered local officials to prevent Islam from interfering with secular life and the state's functions.

[92] "杨发明委员：坚持我国伊斯兰教中国化方向-新华网". www.xinhuanet.com (in Chinese). 10 March 2018. Archived from the original on 24 April 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2020.

[:23-93] Byler, Darren (9 November 2018). "Why Chinese civil servants are happy to occupy Uyghur homes in Xinjiang". CNN. Archived from the original on 19 October 2021.

[:8-94] Westcott, Ben; Xiong, Yong (22 July 2019). "Xinjiang's Uyghurs didn't choose to be Muslim, new Chinese report says". CNN. Archived from the original on 2019-12-19. Retrieved 2019-12-02.

[95] "1.5 million Muslims could be detained in China's Xinjiang: academic". Reuters. 14 March 2019. Archived from the original on 9 January 2021. Retrieved 11 January 2021.

[96] Baptista, Eduardo (28 September 2020). "Tiny Muslim community becomes latest target for China's religious crackdown". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 16 October 2020. Retrieved 5 April 2021.

[97] Seibt, Sébastian (30 September 2020). "Beijing's crackdown on religious minorities takes aim at 10,000 Muslim Utsuls". France 24. Archived from the original on 31 March 2021. Retrieved 5 April 2021.

[98] "Thousands of ethnic minority Muslims defy Chinese authorities in defense of mosque". CNN Philippines. Archived from the original on 2023-06-03. Retrieved 2023-06-03.

[99] "Among Uyghurs, China aims to 'meld Islam with Confucianism'". Radio Free Asia. September 14, 2023. Archived from the original on 2023-09-15. Retrieved 2023-09-16.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

[41]

[42]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[46]

[47]

[48]

[49]

[50]

[51]

[52]

[53]

[54]

[55]

[56]

[57]

[58]

[59]

[60]

[61]

[62]

[63]

[64]

[65]

[66]

[67]

[68]

[69]

[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

[76]

[77]

[78]

[79]

[80]

[81]

[82]

[83]

[84]

[85]

[86]

[87]

[88]

[89]

[90]

[91]

[92]

[93]

[94]

[95]

[96]

[97]

[98]

[99]

Assimilation

Sinicizations

Historical

Baiyue

Turkic peoples

Han, Jin, and Sixteen Kingdoms period

Northern and Southern dynasties

Tang dynasty

Yuan dynasty

Ming dynasty

Qing dynasty

Nguyễn dynasty (Vietnam)

Contents

Contemporary history

Political history[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Political history">edit</a>]

1945–1991[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: 1945–1991">edit</a>]

1991–2001[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 1991–2001">edit</a>]

2001–present[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 2001–present">edit</a>]

War on Terror, Afghanistan War, and Iraq War[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: War on Terror, Afghanistan War, and Iraq War">edit</a>]

Arab Spring and Syria[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Arab Spring and Syria">edit</a>]

Russia[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Russia">edit</a>]

Economic history[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Economic history">edit</a>]

Social history[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Social history">edit</a>]

Contemporary science and technology[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Contemporary science and technology">edit</a>]

Energy[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Energy">edit</a>]

Computing and the Internet[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Computing and the Internet">edit</a>]

Space exploration[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Space exploration">edit</a>]

Emerging technologies[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Emerging technologies">edit</a>]

Challenges and problems[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Challenges and problems">edit</a>]

Climate change[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Climate change">edit</a>]

Health and pandemics[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Health and pandemics">edit</a>]

COVID-19 pandemic[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: COVID-19 pandemic">edit</a>]

Forecasting the future[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Forecasting the future">edit</a>]

Charts[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Charts">edit</a>]

Timeline[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Timeline">edit</a>]

Contemporary world map[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Contemporary world map">edit</a>]

See also[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]

References[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]

Further reading[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]

External links[<a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_history&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]

Ma Clique

Hong Kong and Macau

Xinjiang

Taiwan

Tibet

Religion

Protestantism

Catholicism

Islam

See also

References

External links