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For the early history of this god see Rudra

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Shiva
Devanagariशिव
Tamil scriptசிவன்

Shiva (also spelled Siva; Sanskrit Śiva) is one of the deities worshipped in Hinduism. The worship of Shiva is a pan-Hindu tradition, practiced widely across all of India.[1][2]

Hindus are free to accept various manifestations of the divine as their chosen deity for worship, and those who prefer Shiva are called Shaivas (Sanskrit Śaiva).[3] Shaivism, along with Vaiṣṇava traditions that focus on Vishnu, and Śākta traditions that focus on the Goddess (Devī) are three of the most influential denominations in Hinduism.[4]

Another way of thinking about the divinities in Hinduism identifies Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva as each representing one of the three primary aspects of the Divine in Hinduism, known collectively as the Trimurti. In the Trimurti system, Brahma is the creator, Vishnu is the maintainer or preserver, and Shiva is the transformer or destroyer. All three forces together interact to create the phenomenal universe.[citation needed] There is also an important tradition called Smartism that includes Shiva as one of five deities worshipped, the other four being Vishnu, Devi, Ganesha, and Surya.[5] In Vaishnava traditions Shiva is respected as the most powerful being after Vishnu.[citation needed] While most Hindus regard these deities as distinct, many Hindus say they are aspects or manifestations of a single, transcendent divinity.[6]

Etymology

The Sanskrit word śiva (Devanagari शिव) is an adjective meaning kind, friendly, gracious, or auspicious.[7][8] As a proper name it means "The Auspicious One", used as a euphimistic name for Rudra.[9] In simple English transliteration it is written either as Shiva or Siva. In English it is pronounced as IPA: [ɕivə].

The Sanskrit word śaiva means "relating to the god Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism, and for a member of one of those sects.[10] It is used as as adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism.

In other languages it is written as follows: Malayalam ശിവന്‍; Kannada: ಶಿವ Tamil:சிவன் Telugu:శివ Nepal Bhasa:महाद्यः (when used to distinguish lordly status).

Introduction

Bronze Chola Statue depicting Shiva dancing as Nataraja. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.

Shaivites, the worshippers of Shiva consider Shiva as the Ultimate Reality (see Ishta-Deva for fuller discussion).

The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names. Shiva as Rudra is considered to be the destroyer of evil and sorrow. Shiva as Shankara is the doer of good.

Throughout Hinduism Shiva is viewed as being beyond and unaffected by the three gunas (characteristics) of Prakrti (matter/nature) namely Satva, Rajas, and Tamas.

The five mantras that constitute Shiva's body are Sadyojaata, Vaamadeva, Aghora, Tatpurusha and Eesaana. Sadyojaata is Shiva realized in his basic reality (as in the element earth, in the sense of smell, in the power of procreation and in the mind). "Eesaana" is Shiva invisible to the human eye. The Vishnudharmottara Purana of the 6th century BC assigns a face and an element to each of the above mantras (Sadyojaata - earth, Vaamadeva - water, Aghora - fire, Tatpurusha - air and Eesaana - space).

The names of the deified faces with their elements are Mahadeva (earth), Uma (water), Bhairava (fire), Nandi (air) and Sadasiva (space).

A statue of Shiva near Indira Gandhi International Airport, Delhi

In Shiva temples, images of Parvati, Navagraha (9 planets), Ganesh, Skanda, Saraswati, Lakshmi, Vishnu, Brahma, Ashtathig balar, Durga, Bhairava, and other Hindu Gods are often included.

In most of the South Indian temples, we can see all the five forms in a Shiva temple. All the five characteristics in a single face is said to be Sadashiva.

He is said to eradicate Kama (sexual desire), Moha (material desire) and Maya (mundane thoughts) from his devotees' minds.

He is often represented as immersed in deep meditation.

Mount Kailash is his traditional abode.

Historical development

Over the course of time, many regional cults were almalgamated into the figure of Shiva as we know him today.[11] Axel Michaels explains the composite nature of Shaivism as follows:

Like Vişņu, Śiva is also a high god, who gives his name to a collection of theistic trends and sects: Śaivism. Like Vaişņavism, the term also implies a unity which cannot be clearly found either in religious practice or in philosophical and esoteric doctrine. Furthermore, practice and doctrine must be kept separate.[12]

Pashupati seal

File:Pashupati.gif
An Indus Valley seal with the seated figure termed pashupati

A seal discovered during excavation of the Mohenjo-daro archaeological site in the Indus Valley has drawn attention as a possible representation of a "proto-Shiva" figure.[13] This "Pashupati" (Lord of Animals, Sanskrit paśupati)[14] seal shows a seated figure, possibly ithyphallic, surrounded by animals.[15] Sir John Marshall and others have claimed that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, and have described the figure as having three faces, seated in a "yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined. Gavin Flood characterizes these views as "speculative", saying that while it is not clear from the seal that the figure has three faces, is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure, it is nevertheless possible that there are echoes of Shaiva iconographic themes, such as half-moon shapes resembling the horns of a bull.[16][17]

gays?

Consort and sons

Shiva and Parvati, a painting from Smithsonian Institute

Shiva is inseparable from his consort Parvati, who is identifed with Devi and with Shakti in some literature.

Shiva's consort is Devi, God's energy or the Divine Mother who comes in many different forms, one of whom is Kali, Adi Shakti. Parvati, a more pacific form of Devi is also popular.

Shiva and Parvati are the parents of Karthikeya and Ganesha. Karthikeya is also known as Murugan in Tamil Nadu,South India and many worship Murugan in the form without an elephant head like Ganesha. He is also known as Murali.

Shiva also had a son, Ayyappan or Manikanta with Mahavishnu (Mohini).[citation needed]

Attributes of Shiva

  • The Third Eye: The third eye of Shiva, which is located on his forehead and is the eye of wisdom. It is the eye that looks beyond the obvious. Thus he is known as Trinetreshwara or Triambakeshwara (The Lord with Three Eyes). The third eye of Shiva is also popularly associated with his untamed energy which destroys evil doers and sins.



  • Matted hair (Jata): The flow of his matted hair represents him as the lord of wind or Vayu, who is the subtle form of breath present in all living beings.[citation needed]


  • Crescent: Shiva bears on his head the crescent of the fifth day (panchami) moon. This is placed near the fiery third eye and this shows the power of Soma, the sacrificial offering, which is the representative of moon. It means that Shiva possesses the power of procreation along with the power of destruction.[citation needed] The moon is also a measure of time; thus the Crescent also represents his control over time.[citation needed] Thus Shiva is known by the names of Somasundara and Chandrashekara.
File:MahadevShiva.jpg
Shiva
  • Sacred Ganga: Ganga, the holiest of the holy rivers, flows from the matted hair of Shiva. Shiva allowed an outlet to the great river to traverse the earth and bring purifying water to human beings (See: Origin of Ganga). The flowing water is one of the five elements which compose the whole Universe and from which earth arises. Ganga also denotes fertility one of the creative aspect of Shiva.


  • The Drum: The drum in the hand of Shiva is the originator of the universal word ॐ which is the source of all the languages and expression.[citation needed] The drum is known as "Damaru".


  • The Vibhuti: Vibhuti is three lines of ashes drawn on the forehead that represents the essence of our Being, which remains after all the malas (impurities of ignorance, ego and action) and vasanas (likes and dislikes, attachments to one's body, world, worldly fame, worldly enjoyments, etc.) have been burnt in the fire of knowledge. Hence vibhuti is revered as the very form of Shiva and signifies the Immortality of the soul and manifested glory of the Lord.


  • The Ashes: Shiva smears his body with cemetery ashes (Bhasma) points to the philosophy of life and death and the fact that death is the ultimate reality of life.


  • Tiger skin: The tiger is the vehicle of Shakti, the goddess of power and force. The tiger skin that he wears symbolises victory over every force.[citation needed] Tigers also represent lust. Thus sitting on Tiger skin, the Good Lord indicates that he is beyond the temptations of lust.[citation needed]


  • The Elephant & Deer Skin: Shiva also wears elephant skins. Elephants represent pride.[citation needed] Wearing elephant skin, the Good Lord indicates that he has conquered pride.[citation needed] Similarly deer represent the jumping of minds (flickering mind). Shiva wears deer skin which indicates that he has controlled the mind perfectly.


  • Rudraksha: Shiva wears wrist bands of Rudraksha. These beads are supposed to have medicinal properties.[citation needed]


  • The Trident: The three points of the Shiva’s Trishul symbolizes three functions of the triad – the creation, the sustenance and the destruction.[citation needed] The Trident, in the hand of Shiva indicates that all the three aspects are in his control. It is said that the ancient city of Kashi or modern Varanasi sits atop Shiva's Trishul.[citation needed]



Forms of Shiva

Ardhanarishvara

An iconographic representation of Shiva called Ardhanarishvara shows him with one half of the body as male, and the other half as female.[21] According to Ellen Goldberg, the traditional Sanskrit name for this form, (Ardhanārīśvara) is best tranlated as "the lord who is half woman", and not as "half-man, half-woman".[22]

Bhairava

Bhairava is another form of Lord Shiva similar to Durga's Kali. It is a fierce form associated with annihilation.

Eklingji

Eklingji is a form of Shiva worshipped mostly in the town of Eklingji near Udaipur, Rajasthan. He is regarded as the savior of the Maharajas of Mewar.[citation needed]

Relationships in the pantheon

Agni

Lord Shiva is further known as Lohita meaning 'red' and Lord Agni is too depicted red.[1] Lord Agni is said to be a bull[2] and Lord Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle, Nandi.

He, like Lord Shiva (and Kali/Durga) is symbolized with the symbol of a torch.[3]

In one legend, the sage Agastya, who is known to Hindus to be a Shaiva is an avatar of Agni.[23]

The Agni Purana is a Shaivite text. Lord Agni is also important in Tantric Yoga like Lord Shiva.[4]

Furthermore, Lord Shiva's son Murugan is also associated with Agni and Agni's vehicle. Murugan is said in sometime to be a child of Agni and of Swaha, a daughter of Daksha.[5]

Indra

David Frawley[24] write that the King of Gods, Lord Indra is a manifestation of Lord Shiva.[6] In the Rig veda, Lord Indra calls Himself Shiva many times (2:20:3, 6:45:17, 8:93:3.) Both gods are associated with the soma plant.

Like Lord Agni, Lord Indra is said to be a bull and Lord Shiva of course possesses a bull (Nandi) as his vehicle. Lord Shiva and Lord Indra share many names such as Puruhut meaning "Lord of the Purus."

Lord Indra is also connected with tiger skin (e.g. in RV 5:4:1:11), which is what Lord Shiva meditates sitting on.[7]

Avatars

Shiva, like some other Hindu deities, is said to have several incarnations (See: Avatars).

Adi Shankara

Adi Shankara, the 8th-century philosopher of non-dualist Vedanta was named "Shankara" after Lord Shiva and is considered by some to have been an incarnation of Shiva.[citation needed]

Agastya

The Vedic Rishi Agastya is proposed by some to be an incarnation of Lord Shiva. The Rishi is said to have initiated Shiva-worship by the South Indians. He was also the teacher of Vindhyanchal.

Appayya Dikshitar

Born in South India and was a Vedantic philosopher like Adi Shankara.[citation needed]

Hanuman

It is said in the Hanuman Chalisa and Shiva Mahapurana that Shri Hanuman is an incarnation of Shiva, and he is eleventh avatar of Rudra.

Shuka

Shuka (or Shukdevji) is the son of the great guru and avatar of Sri Vishnu, Veda Vyasa. He stayed inside mother's womb for sixteen years. He was the first one to say Bhagavata Purana to the great Raja Parikshita in last seven remaining days of king's life. Thus the king attained self-realization.[citation needed]

Mythological anecdotes

Sati is another form of Devi who is the daughter of Daksha, who forbade the union with Lord Shiva. Sati disobeyed her father. Daksha once held a Yajna, but did not invite the Lord. In disgust, Sati self-immolated through yogic meditation (or, in another version, in the same fire Daksha used in his sacrifice) which awoke Lord Shiva from deep meditation.

Different versions of what happened afterwards follow. It is reported that Lord Shiva in his anger, began the cosmic dance of death, Rudra tandav which threatened to destroy the world. Worried, the Gods and priests attending the Yajna decided to scatter Sati's ashes over Lord Shiva which calmed him and in deep anguish over the loss of his wife, he went back into meditation.

Another version of the story says that upon learning of Sati's death, the Lord tore off a lock of his hair and lashed it against the ground. The stalk split in two, one half transforming into the terrifying gana Virabhadra, while the other caused Mahakali to manifest on the scene. The Supreme Lord ordered the pair immediately to annihilate Daksha's Yajna. They destroyed the Yajna as commanded by the Lord. Daksha was decapitated by Virabhadra.

Then, Shiva is said to have carried the body of Sati with him and wandered around aimlessly forgetting all the cosmic duties. When the devas pleaded Lord Vishnu, he used his discus(Chakra) to cut the body into 18 pieces which fell to the earth.The places are now known as the Shakthipeeths and form very sacred places of worship.

Sati was later reborn in the house of Himavat (Himalaya mountain-range personified) and performed great penance (Skt: Tapasya) to win over Shiva's attention. Her penance brought Kamadeva and his consort Rati to the scene, whereupon they attempted to interrupt Shiva's meditation with Kamadeva's arrow of passion. It caused Shiva to break his Samadhi, but he was so infuriated by Kamadeva's assault that he burned the deva of passion to ashes on the spot with his glare. It was only after Rati's pleading that Shiva agreed to reincarnate Kamadeva.

Parvati would try again without Kamadeva's aid to win over Shiva, and this time, through her devotion and the persuasion of other rishis, yogis, and devas, he eventually accepted her.

Names of Shiva

In Hinduism, deities are called by many names, which describe them in different ways. These names often refer to specific stories about the deities, functions they perform, or ways of thinking about them. Study of these names is helpful to understanding deities from multiple points of view. Some names are used by more than one deity, so looking for names that uniquely describe a deity is one way to pinpoint their functions.

Sahasranamas

There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva sahasranama, devotional hymns (stotras) listing many names of Shiva.[25] The version appearing in Book 13 (Anuśāsanaparvan) of the Mahabharata is considered the kernel of this tradion.[26]

The eight versions analyzed by Ram Karan Sharma are:[27]

1. Mahabharata 13.17.30-150 (Anuśāsanaparvan Version)
2. Linga Purana (version 1, LP 1.65.54-168) is close to the Mahabharata Anushasanaparvan version.
3. Linga Purana (version 2, LP 1.98.27-159) has some passages in common with LP version 1, but also with other sources
4. Shivapurana 4.35.1-131.
5. Mahabharata (Śāntiparvan version). The critical edition of the Mahabharata does not include this version, relegating it to Appendix 28 to Śāntiparvan. It does appear in the text of the Gita Press edition as 12.284.68-180.
6. Vayu Purana (1.30.179-284) is almost the same as the Mahabharata Śāntiparvan version.
7. Brahmanda Purana (38.1.1-100) is almost the same as the Vayu Purana version.
8. Mahābhāgavata Upapurana (67.1-125) appears to be of comparatively recent origin.

Selected sahasranama names

The following names appear in the Anushasanaparvan version of the Shiva sahasranama:

  • Hara (Sanskrit हर) - This important name occurs three times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the Shiva sahasranama, where it is translated in different ways each time it occurs, following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation. Sharma translates the three as "One who captivates", "One who consolidates", and "One who destroys."[28] Kramrisch translates it as "The Ravisher".[29]
  • Kailāsagirivāsī (Sanskrit कैलासगिरिवासी)- "With his abode on Mount Kailāsa"[30]
  • Mahādeva (Sanskrit महादेव) - Literally, "Great God"[31] (Sanskrit: mahā = great + deva = God), or as Sharma translates it, "God par excellance".[32]
  • Maheśvara (Sanskrit महेश्वर) - Literally, "Great Lord"[33] (Sanskrit: mahā = great + īśvara = lord), or as Sharma translates it, "Lord par excellance".[34]
  • Nartaka (Sanskrit नर्तक) - (Supreme) Dancer.[35] The name Nityanarta (Sanskrit नित्यनर्त) - "Eternal Dancer" also appears in the sahasranama.[36] This association with dance is well-known in the more popular name Nataraja "King of Dance", which does not appear in the Anushasanaparvan version of the Shiva sahasranama.
  • Nīlakaṇtha (Sanskrit नीलकण्ठ) - "(Endowed with a) blue throat." (nīla = blue, kaṇtha = throat).[37][38] Shiva drank the poison churned up from the world ocean.[39][40] (see: Halāhala)
  • Paśupati (Sanskrit पशुपति) or Pashupati - Translated by Sharma as "Lord of cattle"[41] and by Kramrisch as "Lord of Animals", who notes that it is particularly used as an epithet of Rudra.[42]
  • Rudra (Sanskrit रुद्र) - "Terrible".[43] According to traditional etymologies, the Sanskrit name Rudra is derived from the root rud- which means "to cry, howl."[44] Stella Kramrisch notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form raudra, which means wild, of rudra nature, and translates the name Rudra as "the Wild One" or "the Fierce God".[45] R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as "Terrible".[46]
  • Śaṇkara (Sanskrit शङ्कर) - "Benificent"[47] or "Conferring Happiness".[48] This name was adopted by the philosopher Shankaracarya.[49]
  • Umāpati (Sanskrit उमापति) - "The husband of Umā". Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing also appear in the sahasranama, Umākānta and Umādhava.[50]

Other names

  • Aghora - fierce
  • Anaadi - Without beginning/birth
  • Ananta - without end/death
  • Ashutosh (Sanskrit आशूतोष)
  • Bhairava (Sanskrit भैरव) - The Frightful One
  • Bholenath -- the innocent God.
  • Chandrashekhara (Sanskrit चन्द्रशेखर) - The master of the Moon: Chandra = Moon, Shekhara = master
  • Dakhshiṇāmurthi (Sanskrit दक्षिणामूर्ति) - The Cosmic Tutor
  • Devadideva - God of Gods
  • Digambara (Sanskrit दिगम्बर) - One who has the skies as his clothes, i.e. The Naked One: Dik = Clothes, Ambara = Sky
  • Ekambaranatha (Sanskrit एकम्बरनाथ) - The destroyer of evil (name used scarcely, mostly in temples)
  • Gangādhara (Sanskrit गङ्गाधर) - He who holds the river Ganga. Some of the puranas also refer to him as the "Lord of Ganga", one of the major rivers of the country, who is said to have made her abode in Shiva's hair.
  • Mahākala (Sanskrit महाकाल) - Great Time, i.e. Conqueror of Time: Maha = three, Kala = Time
  • Mahābaleshwara (Sanskrit महाबलेश्वर) - God of Great Strength : Maha = great, Bal = strength, Eshwar = God
  • Mahāyogi (Sanskrit महायोगी)- The Supreme Yogi: Maha = great, Yogi = one who practices Yoga
  • Mallikarjuna
  • Malleswara
  • Nāgaraja (Sanskrit नागराज) - King of snakes (Lord/Ruler/Controller of snakes)
  • Naresh (Sanskrit नरेश)- One who purifies everyone by the utterance of His name(Lord of Man/King)
  • Parameshvara - Supreme Lord
  • Rameshwara (Sanskrit रमेश्वर) - The one whom Ram worships: Ram, Eshwar = worships, God; Ram's God
  • Sabesan (Sanskrit सबेसन्) - Lord who dances in the dais
  • Sarveshvara - Lord of Everything
  • Shambhu (Sanskrit शम्भु) - Abode of Joy
  • Siddheshwara (Sanskrit सिद्धेश्वर) - The Perfect Lord
  • Tanunpati, meaning Lord of Fire
  • Trinetra (Sanskrit त्रिनेत्र) - Three-Eyed One, i.e. All-Knowing: Tri = three, Netra = Eye
  • Triaksha (Sanskrit त्रिअक्ष) - Three-Eyed One, i.e. All-Knowing: Tri = three, Aksha = Eye
  • Trinayana (Sanskrit त्रिनयन) - Three-Eyed One, i.e. All-Knowing: Tri = three, Nayana = Eye
  • Tripurāntaka (Sanskrit त्रिपुरान्तक) - The destroyer of the triplet fortresses, Tripura, of the Asuras.
  • Tryambakam (Sanskrit त्र्यम्बकम्) - Three-Eyed One, i.e. All-Knowing: Tri = three, Ambakam = Eye
  • Tri-netra (three-eyed)
  • Trishuldhari (Sanskrit त्रिशूलधारी) - He who holds the divine Trishul or Trident: Trishul = Trident, Dhari = He who holds
  • Vishveshvara - Lord of the Universe
  • Vyomkesha (Sanskrit व्योमकेश) - The One who has the sky as his hair: Vyom = sky, Kesha =hair

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Shiva.

Notes

  1. ^ Flood (1996), p. 17
  2. ^ Keay, p.xxvii.
  3. ^ Tattwananda, p. 45.
  4. ^ Flood (1996), p. 17.
  5. ^ Flood (1996), p. 17.
  6. ^ Flood (1996), p. 14.
  7. ^ Apte, p. 919.
  8. ^ Macdonell, p. 314.
  9. ^ Macdonell, p. 314.
  10. ^ Apte, p. 927
  11. ^ Keay, p. xxvii.
  12. ^ Michaels, p. 215.
  13. ^ Flood (1996), pp. 28-29.
  14. ^ For translation of paśupati as "Lord of Animals" see: Michaels, p. 312.
  15. ^ For a drawing of the seal see Figure 1 in: Flood (1996), p. 29.
  16. ^ Flood (1996), pp. 28-29.
  17. ^ Flood (2003), pp. 204-205.
  18. ^ Michaels, p. 216.
  19. ^ Flood (1996), p. 29.
  20. ^ Tattwananda, pp. 49-52.
  21. ^ Goldberg, p. 1.
  22. ^ Goldberg specifically rejects the translation by Frederique Marglin (1989) as "half-man, half-woman", and instead adopts the translation by Marglin as "the lord who is half woman" as given in Marglin (1989, 216). Goldberg, p. 1.
  23. ^ The God Agni Becomes Agasthya
  24. ^ Elst, Koenraad (1999). Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate. Aditya Prakashan. ISBN 81-86471-77-4.; Frawley, David: Gods, Sages and Kings, 1991. Lotus Press, Twin Lakes, Wisconsin, p.224-225 and Frawley, David: Arise Arjuna, p.170-181
  25. ^ Sharma, pp. viii-ix.
  26. ^ This is the source for the version presented in Chidbhavananda, who refers to it being from the Mahabharata but does not explicitly clairify which of the two Mahabharata versions he is using. See Chidbhavananda, p.5.
  27. ^ Sharma, pp. viii-xxviii.
  28. ^ Sharma, p. 314.
  29. ^ Kramrisch, p. 473.
  30. ^ Sharma, p. 281.
  31. ^ Kramrisch, p. 476.
  32. ^ Sharma, p. 297.
  33. ^ Kramrisch, p. 477.
  34. ^ Sharma, p. 299.
  35. ^ Sharma, p. 289.
  36. ^ Sharma, p. 289.
  37. ^ Sharma, p. 290.
  38. ^ See: name #93 in Chidbhavananda, p. 31.
  39. ^ For Shiva drinking the poison churned from the world ocean see: Flood (1996), p. 78.
  40. ^ Kramrisch, p. 473.
  41. ^ Sharma, p. 291.
  42. ^ Kramrisch, p. 479.
  43. ^ Sharma, p. 301.
  44. ^ For rud- meaning "cry, howl" as a traditional etymology see: Kramrisch, p. 5.
  45. ^ Citation to M. Mayrhofer, Concise Etymological Sanskrit Dictionary, s.v. "rudra", is provided in: Kramrisch, p. 5.
  46. ^ Sharma, p. 301.
  47. ^ Sharma, p. 306.
  48. ^ Kramrisch, p. 481.
  49. ^ Kramrisch, p. 481.
  50. ^ Sharma, p. 278.

References

  • Apte, Vaman Shivram (1965). The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 81-208-0567-4. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) (Fourth revised and enlarged edition).
  • Chidbhavananda, Swami (1997). Siva Sahasranama Stotram: With Navavali, Introduction, and English Rendering. Sri Ramakrishna Tapovanam. ISBN 81-208-0567-4. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) (Third editon). The version provided by Chidbhavananda is from chapter 17 of the Anuśāsana Parva of the Mahābharata.
  • Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43878-0. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Flood, Gavin (Editor) (2003). The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1-4051-3251-5. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Goldberg, Ellen (2002). The Lord Who is Half Woman: Ardhanārīśvara in Indian and Feminist Perspective. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-5326-X. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Keay, John (2000). India: A History. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3797-0. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Kramrisch, Stella (1981). The Presence of Śiva. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01930-4. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Macdonell, Arthur Anthony (1996). A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. ISBN 81-215-0715-4. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Michaels, Axel (2004). Hinduism: Past and Present. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08953-1. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Sharma, Ram Karan (1996). Śivasahasranāmāṣṭakam: Eight Collections of Hymns Containing One Thousand and Eight Names of Śiva. With Introduction and Śivasahasranāmākoṣa (A Dictionary of Names). Delhi: Nag Publishers. ISBN 81-7081-350-6. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) This work compares eight versions of the Śivasahasranāmāstotra. The Preface and Introduction (in English) by Ram Karan Sharma provide an analysis of how the eight versions compare with one another. The text of the eight versions is given in Sanskrit.
  • Tattwananda, Swami (1984). Vaisnava Sects, Saiva Sects, Mother Worship. Calcutta: Firma KLM Private Ltd. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) First revised edition.

Further reading

  • Shiva Puja Beginner, Swami Satyananda Saraswati, Devi Mandir, 2001. (ISBN 1-877-79527-5)
  • Shiva Puja and Advanced Yajna, Swami Satyananda Saraswati, Devi Mandir, 1998. (ISBN 1-887472-62-2)
  • "Rudrastadhyayi", Swami Satyananda Saraswati, Devi Mandir (ISBN 1877795-53-4 )
  • Poems for Siva, Illustrated with masterpieces of Hindu art. (ISBN 978-90-811564-2-4), by Peter de Bruijn, Rotterdam 2007


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