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Humpback Whale
Size comparison against an average human
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Mammalia
Subclass:
Eutheria
Order:
Cetacea
Suborder:
Mysticeti
Family:
Balaenopteridae
Genus:
Megaptera

Gray, 1846
Species:
M. novaeangliae
Binomial name
Megaptera novaeangliae
Borowski, 1781
File:Cetacea range map Humpback Whale.PNG
Humpback Whale range

The Humpback Whale, Megaptera novaeangliae, is a baleen whale. One of the larger rorqual species, adults range in length from 12–16 metres (40–50 ft) and weigh approximately 36,000 kilograms (79,000 lb). The Humpback has a distinctive body shape, with unusually long pectoral fins and a knobbly head. It is an acrobatic animal, often breaching and slapping the water. Males produce a complex whale song, which lasts for 10 to 20 minutes and is repeated for hours at a time. The purpose of the song is not yet clear, although it appears to have a role in mating.

Found in oceans and seas around the world, Humpback Whales typically migrate up to 25,000 kilometres each year. Humpbacks feed only in summer, in polar waters, and migrate to tropical or sub-tropical waters to breed and give birth in the winter. During the winter, Humpbacks fast and live off their fat reserves. The species' diet consists mostly of krill and small fish. Humpbacks have a diverse repertoire of feeding methods, including the spectacular bubble net fishing technique.

Like other large whales, the Humpback was a target for the whaling industry, and its population fell by an estimated 90% before a whaling moratorium was introduced in 1966. Stocks of the species have since partially recovered, however entanglement in fishing gear, collisions with ships, and noise pollution are ongoing concerns. Current estimates for the abundance of Humpback Whales range from about 30,000 to 60,000, approximately one third of pre-whaling levels. Once hunted to the brink of extinction, Humpbacks are now sought out by whale-watchers, particularly off parts of Australia and the United States.

Taxonomy

File:Humpback dorsal fin.JPG
A diving Humpback shows off its namesake hump.

Humpback Whales are rorquals (family Balaenopteridae), a family that includes the Blue Whale, the Fin Whale, the Bryde's Whale, the Sei Whale and the Minke Whale. The rorquals are believed to have diverged from the other families of the suborder Mysticeti as long ago as the middle Miocene.[2] However, it is not known when the members of these families diverged from each other.

Though clearly related to the giant whales of the genus Balaenoptera, the Humpback has been the sole member of its genus since Gray's work in 1846. More recently though, DNA sequencing analysis has indicated both the Humpback and the Gray Whale are close relatives of the Blue Whale, the world's largest animal. If further research confirms these relationships, it will be necessary to reclassify the rorquals.

The Humpback Whale was first identified as "baleine de la Nouvelle Angleteer" by Mathurin Jacques Brisson in his Regnum Animale of 1756. In 1781, Georg Borowski described the species, converting Brisson's name to its Latin equivalent, Baleana novaeangliae. Early in the 19th century Lacépède shifted the Humpback from the Balaenidae family, renaming it Balaenoptera jubartes. In 1846, John Edward Gray created the genus Megaptera, classifying the Humpback as Megaptera longpinna, but in 1932, Remington Kellogg reverted the species names to use Borowski's novaeangliae.[3] The common name is derived from their humping motion while swimming. The generic name Megaptera from the Greek mega-/μεγα- "giant" and ptera/πτερα "wing",[4] refers to their large front flippers. The specific name means "New Englander" and was probably given by Brisson due the regular sightings of Humpbacks off the coast of New England.[3]

Description and lifecycle

Humpback Whales can easily be identified by their stocky bodies with obvious humps and black dorsal colouring. The head and lower jaw are covered with knobs called tubercles, which are actually hair follicles and are characteristic of the species. The tail flukes, which are lifted high in the dive sequence, have wavy rear edges.[5]

The long black and white tail fin, which can be up to a third of body length, and the pectoral fins have unique patterns, which enable individual whales to be recognised.[6][7] Several suggestions have been made to explain the evolution of the Humpback's pectoral fins, which are proportionally the longest fins of any cetacean. The two most enduring hypotheses are the higher maneuverability afforded by long fins, or that the increased surface area is useful for temperature control when migrating between warm and cold climates.

A Humpback Whale tail has wavy rear edges.
A tail from a different individual - the tail of each Humpback Whale is unique.

Humpbacks have 270 to 400 darkly coloured baleen plates on each side of the mouth. Ventral grooves run from the lower jaw to the umbilicus about halfway along the bottom of the whale. These grooves are less numerous (usually 16–20) and consequently more prominent than in other rorquals. The stubby dorsal fin is visible soon after the blow when the whale surfaces, but has disappeared by the time the flukes emerge. Humpbacks have a distinctive 3 m (10 ft) bushy blow.

Calves are about 4–4.5 m (13–15 ft) long when born and weigh approximately 700 kg (1500 lb). They are nursed by their mothers for their first six months, then are sustained through a mixture of nursing and independent feeding for a further six months. Calves leave their mothers at the start of their second year, when they are typically 9 m (30 ft) long. Both sexes reach sexual maturity at the age of five with full adult size being achieved a little later. Fully grown the males average 15–16 m (49–52 ft), the females being slightly larger at 16–17 m (52–56 ft), with a weight of 40,000 kg (or 44 tons); the largest recorded specimen was 19 m (62 ft) long and had pectoral fins measuring 6 m (20 ft) each.[8]

Females have a lobe about 15 centimetres (6 in) in diameter in their genital region. This allows males and females to be distinguished if the underside of the whale can be seen, even though the male's penis usually remains unseen in the genital slit. Male whales have distinctive scarring patterns and pigmentations on their underside, some resulting from high speed courtship chases of females.

Females typically breed every two or three years. The gestation period is 11 months, yet some individuals can breed in two consecutive years. Humpback Whales can live for 40–50 years.

Identification

The varying patterns on the Humpback's tail flukes are sufficient to identify an individual. Unique visual identification is not possible in most cetacean species (exceptions include Orcas and Right Whales), so the Humpback has become one of the most-studied species. A study using data from 1973 to 1998 on whales in the North Atlantic gave researchers detailed information on gestation times, growth rates, and calving periods, as well as allowing more accurate population predictions by simulating the mark-release-recapture technique. A photographic catalogue of all known whales in the North Atlantic was developed over this period and is currently maintained by Wheelock College.[9] Similar photographic identification projects have subsequently begun in the North Pacific by SPLASH (Structure of Populations, Levels of Abundance and Status of Humpbacks), and around the world.

Social structure and courtship

Humpbacks frequently breach, throwing their bodies out of their water.
See also: Whale behaviour

The Humpback social structure is loose-knit. Usually, individuals live alone or in small transient groups that assemble and break up over the course of a few hours. Groups may stay together a little longer in summer in order to forage and feed cooperatively. Longer-term relationships between pairs or small groups, lasting months or even years, have been observed, but are rare. The range of the Humpback overlaps considerably with many other whale and dolphin species — whilst it may be seen near other species (for instance, the Minke Whale), it rarely interacts socially with them.

Courtship rituals take place during the winter months, when the whales migrate towards the equator from their summer feeding grounds closer to the poles. Humpback Whales do not feed while in their wintering waters. Competition for a mate is usually fierce, and female whales as well as mother-calf dyads are frequently trailed by unrelated male whales dubbed escorts by researcher Louis Herman. Groups of two to twenty males typically gather around a single female and exhibit a variety of behaviours in order to establish dominance in what is known as a competitive pod. The displays last several hours, the group size may ebb and flow as unsuccessful males retreat and others arrive to try their luck. Techniques used include breaching, spy-hopping, lob-tailing, tail-slapping, flipper-slapping, charging and parrying.

Whale song is assumed to have an important role in mate selection; however, scientists remain unsure whether the song is used between males in order to establish identity and dominance, between a male and a female as a mating call, or a mixture of the two. All these vocal and physical techniques have also been observed while not in the presence of potential mates. This indicates that they are probably important as a more general communication tool.

Feeding

A pair of Humpback Whales feeding by lunging.
Slapping flippers may help Humpbacks forage for food by startling fish.

The species feeds only in summer and lives off fat reserves during winter. It is an energetic feeder, taking krill and small schooling fish, such as herring (Clupea harengus), salmon, capelin (Mallotus villosus) and sand lance (Ammodytes americanus) as well as Mackerel (Scomber scombrus), pollock (Pollachius virens) and haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) in the North Atlantic.[10][11][12] Krill and Copepods have been recorded from Australian and Antarctic waters.[13] It hunts fish by direct attack or by stunning them by hitting the water with its flippers or flukes.

The Humpback has the most diverse repertoire of feeding methods of all baleen whales.[14] Its most inventive technique is known as bubble net fishing: a group of whales blows bubbles while swimming to create a visual barrier against fish, while one or more whales in the group make vocalizations that drive the fish against the wall. The bubble wall is then closed, encircling the fish, which are confined in an ever-tighter area. The whales then suddenly swim upwards through the bubble net, mouths agape, swallowing thousands of fish in one gulp. This technique can involve a ring of bubbles up to 30 m (100 ft) in diameter and the cooperation of a dozen animals. It is one of the more spectacular acts of collaboration among marine mammals.

Humpback Whales are preyed upon by Orcas. The result of these attacks is generally nothing more serious than some scarring of the skin, but it is likely that young calves are sometimes killed.[15]

Song

Main article: Whale song

Both male and female Humpback Whales can produce sounds, however only the males produce the long, loud, complex "songs" for which the species is famous. Each song consists of several sounds in a low register that vary in amplitude and frequency, and typically lasts from 10 to 20 minutes.[16] Songs may be repeated continuously for several hours; Humpback Whales have been observed to sing continuously for more than 24 hours at a time. As cetaceans have no vocal chords, whales generate their song by forcing air through their massive nasal cavities.

Whales within an area sing the same song, for example all of the Humpback Whales of the North Atlantic sing the same song, and those of the North Pacific sing a different song. Each population's song changes slowly over a period of years —never returning to the same sequence of notes.[16]

Scientists are still unsure of the purpose of whale song. Only male Humpbacks sing, so it was initially assumed that the purpose of the songs was to attract females. However, many of the whales observed to approach singing whales have been other males, with the meeting resulting in a conflict. Thus, one interpretation is that the whale songs serve as a threat to other males.[17] Some scientists have hypothesized that the song may serve an echolocative function.[18] During the feeding season, Humpback Whales make altogether different vocalizations, which they use to herd fish into their bubble nets.[19]

Population and distribution

The Humpback Whale is found in all the major oceans, in a wide band running from the Antarctic ice edge to 65° N latitude, though is not found in the eastern Mediterranean, the Baltic Sea or the Arctic Ocean. Estimating cetacean poplation levels is difficult; current estimates for Humpbacks are in the 30,000[16] to 60,000[20] range, down from a pre-whaling population of 125,000.

The Humpback is a migratory species, spending its summers in cooler, high-latitude waters, but mating and calving in tropical and sub-tropical waters.[16] An exception to this rule is a population in the Arabian Sea, which remains in these tropical waters year-round.[16] Annual migrations of up to 25,000 kilometres (16,000 statute miles) are typical, making it one of the farthest-travelling of any mammalian species.

A 2007 study identified seven individual whales wintering off the Pacific coast of Costa Rica as those which had made a trip from the Antarctic of around 8300 km. Identified by their unique tail patterns, these animals have made the longest documented migration by a mammal.[21]

In Australia, two main migratory populations have been identified, off the west and east coast respectively. These two populations are distinct with only a few females in each generation crossing between the two groups.[22]

Whaling

Main article: Whaling

The first recorded Humpback kill was made in 1608 off Nantucket. Opportunistic killing of the species is likely to have occurred long before, and it continued with increasing pace in the following centuries. By the 18th century, the commercial value of Humpback Whales had been recognized, and they became a common target for whalers for many years.

By the 19th century, many nations (and the United States in particular), were hunting the animal heavily in the Atlantic Ocean — and to a lesser extent in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. However, it was the introduction of the explosive harpoon in the late 19th century that allowed whalers to accelerate their take. This, coupled with the opening-up of the Antarctic seas in 1904, led to a sharp decline in all whale populations.

It is estimated that during the 20th century at least 200,000 Humpbacks were taken, reducing the global population by over 90%, with the population in the North Atlantic estimated to have dropped to as low as 700 individuals.[23] To prevent species extinction, a general moratorium on the hunting of Humpbacks was introduced in 1966 and is still in force today. In his book Humpback Whales (1996), Phil Clapham, a scientist at the Smithsonian Institute, said "This wanton destruction of some of the earth's most magnificent creatures [is] one of the greatest of our many environmental crimes."

By the time the International Whaling Commission (IWC) members agreed on a moratorium on Humpback hunting in 1966, the whales were so scarce that commercial hunting was no longer worthwhile. At this time, 250,000 were recorded killed. However, the true toll is likely to be significantly higher. It is now known that the Soviet Union was deliberately under-recording its kills; the total Soviet Humpback kill was reported at 2,820 whereas the true number is now believed to be over 48,000.[24]

As of 2004, hunting of Humpback Whales is restricted to a few animals each year off the Caribbean island Bequia in the nation of St. Vincent and the Grenadines.[14] The take is not believed to threaten the local population.

2007 Japanese whaling

Starting in November 2007, Japan is planning to kill 50 Humpback Whales a year in the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary under its JARPA-II research program. The announcement sparked global protests[25].

In New Zealand, protests have come from Maori and Pacific community leaders. Whales hold a significant place in the tradition and culture of many Pacific countries, according to Melino Maka, chairman of the Tongan Advisory Council. "We have a spiritual connection with our whales in our waters." he said.

Protests occurred 20 centres around Australia as well as Tonga. Many whales known to locals and tourism operators in Australian waters were born after whaling finished, so around humans they're benign. Japan's resumption of whaling may cause the remaining animals to become nervous, agitated or belligerent around humans and vessels. It is feared this will damage tourism. The Australian government has been vocal in its opposition to whaling, but has been criticized for not taking legal action against it.[26] The Australian shadow environment minister, Peter Garrett, has announced a policy whereby Australian navy ships would intercept and board whaling vessels in the lead up to the Federal election. Whale watching is worth an estimated $260 million in Australia.

Anti-whaling commercials with the slogan "Tell Japan We'll Keep the Ban", narrated by Sir Trevor McDonald, were launched in the Caribbean by Lord Ashcroft, the deputy chairman of the Conservative Party. The Antiguan and Dominican governments have blocked the ad from being shown on their state owned channels, as has the MTV's Tempo network across the Carabian. The ad is being broadcast in Antigua & Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Kitts & Nevis, Saint Lucia and Saint Vincent & the Grenadines.[27]

There are only around 2,000 humpbacks in the entire South Pacific. The local populations are critically endangered in Fiji and Samoa. Whaling may also cause naturally isolated populations to mix, reducing distinct genetic groups.

Conservation

A dead Humpback washed up near Big Sur, California.

Internationally this species is considered vulnerable. Most monitored stocks of Humpback Whales have rebounded well since the end of the commercial whaling era.[1] However, the species is considered endangered in some countries where local populations have recovered slowly, including the United States.[28]

Today, individuals are vulnerable to collisions with ships, entanglement in fishing gear, and noise pollution.[1] Like other cetaceans, Humpbacks are sensitive to noise and can even be injured by it. In the 19th century, two Humpback Whales were found dead near sites of repeated oceanic sub-bottom blasting, with traumatic injuries and fractures in the ears.[29]

The ingestion of saxitoxin, a PSP (paralytic shellfish poison) from contaminated mackerel has been implicated in Humpback Whale deaths.[30]

Some countries are creating action plans to protect the Humpback; for example, in the United Kingdom, the Humpback Whale has been designated as a priority species under the national Biodiversity Action Plan, generating a set of actions to conserve the species. The sanctuary provided by National Parks such as Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve and Cape Hatteras National Seashore, among others, have also become a major factor in sustaining the populations of the species in those areas.[31]

Although much was known about the Humpback Whale due to information obtained through whaling, the migratory patterns and social interactions of the species were not well known until two separate studies by R. Chittleborough and W. H. Dawbin in the 1960s.[32] Roger Payne and Scott McVay made further studies of the species in 1971.[33] Their analysis of whale song led to worldwide media interest in the species, and left an impression in the public mind that whales were a highly intelligent cetacean species, a contributing factor to the anti-whaling stance of many countries.

Whale-watching

See also: Whale-watching
Humpback near Hervey Bay, Queensland

Humpback Whales are generally curious about objects in their environment. They will often approach and circle boats. Whilst this inquisitiveness was akin to suicide when the vessel was a whaling ship, it has become an attraction of whale-watching tourism in many locations around the world since the 1990s.

Whale-watching locations include the Atlantic coast off the Samana province of the Dominican Republic, the Pacific coast off Oregon, Washington, Vancouver, Hawaii and Alaska, the Bay of Biscay to the west of France, Byron Bay north of Sydney, Hervey Bay north of Brisbane, the coasts of New England and Newfoundland, New Zealand, the Tongan islands, the northern St. Lawrence River and the Snaefellsnes peninsula in the west of Iceland. The species is popular because it breaches regularly and spectacularly, and displays a range of other social behaviours.

As with other cetacean species, however, a mother whale will generally be extremely protective of her infant, and will seek to place herself between any boat and the calf before moving quickly away from the vessel. Whale-watching tour operators are asked to avoid stressing the mother.

Famous Humpbacks

Migaloo

An albino Humpback Whale that travels up and down the east coast of Australia has become famous in the local media, on account of its extremely rare all-white appearance. The whale, born in 1990, is called Migaloo (a word for "white fellow" from one of the languages of the Indigenous Australians). Speculation about the whale's gender was resolved in June 2004, when it found a mate for the first time, and was proven to be a male. Because of the intense interest, environmentalists feared that the whale was becoming distressed by the number of boats following it each day. In response, the Queensland government ordered the maintenance of a 500 m (1,600 ft) exclusion zone around the whale. Recent close up pictures have shown Migaloo to have skin cancer and/or skin cysts as a result of his lack of protection from the sun.[34]

Humphrey

Main article: Humphrey the whale

One of the most notable Humpback Whales is Humphrey the whale, who was rescued twice in California by The Marine Mammal Center and other concerned groups.[35][36] The first rescue was in 1985, when he swam into San Francisco Bay and then up the Sacramento River towards Rio Vista.[37] Five years later, Humphrey returned and became stuck on a mudflat in San Francisco Bay immediately north of Sierra Point below the view of onlookers from the upper floors of the Dakin Building. He was pulled off the mudflat with a large cargo net and the help of a Coast Guard boat. Both times he was successfully guided back to the Pacific Ocean using a "sound net" in which people in a flotilla of boats made unpleasant noises behind the whale by banging on steel pipes, a Japanese fishing technique known as "oikami." At the same time, the attractive sounds of Humpback Whales preparing to feed were broadcast from a boat headed towards the open ocean.[38] Since leaving the San Francisco Bay in 1990 Humphrey has been seen only once, at the Farallon Islands in 1991.

Delta and Dawn

On May 9th 2007, two whales, a mother and a calf, entered the San Fransisco Bay and left their salt water habitat and headed north up the Sacramento River. Soon they took a turn into the Sacramento deep water channel and ended up in the deep water port in Sacramento, California. There they stayed for approx a week and drew crowds in the hundreds to thousands. They were named Delta and Dawn. On May 20 2007 Delta and Dawn heard some tugboats in the deep water ports start up and suddenly and suprisingly began heading back south down the deep water channel. Biologists, Coast Guard, Fish and Game and other experts began following the whales discouraging them from turning back up north, the channel was cleared and everyone waited to see if the whales would make it.

In Moby-Dick, a novel where the chief whale protagonist is a Sperm Whale, Herman Melville describes the Humpback Whale as "the most gamesome and light-hearted of all the whales, making more gay foam and white water than any other of them".

Humpback Whales were a plot element in the film Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home. In the film, an alien probe arrives at 23rd century Earth and attempts to contact the by then extinct whales. The crew of the Enterprise travel back in time to obtain a breeding pair of Humpbacks to communicate with the probe and forestall the Earth's destruction. In Disney's Fantasia 2000, a segment featuring a pod of frolicking Humpback Whales in the air and within icebergs is set to Ottorino Respighi's Pines of Rome, and in Disney/Pixar's Finding Nemo, a Humpback Whale guides Marlin and Dory to Sydney, Australia.

Judy Collins' 1970 album Whales and Nightingales featured a recording of the traditional song "Farewell To Tarwathie", on which Collins sang to the accompaniment of a recording of a Humpback Whale.

Media

See also: List of whale songs

Template:Multi-listen start Template:Multi-listen item Template:Multi-listen item Template:Multi-listen item Template:Multi-listen item Template:Multi-listen end

Footnotes

  1. ^ a b c Template:IUCN2006 Database entry includes a lengthy justification of why this species is vulnerable
  2. ^ Gingerich P (2004). "Whale Evolution". McGraw-Hill Yearbook of Science & Technology. The McGraw Hill Companies.
  3. ^ a b Martin S (2002). The Whales' Journey. Allen & Unwin Pty., Limited. p. 251. ISBN 1865082325.
  4. ^ Liddell & Scott (1980). Greek-English Lexicon, Abridged Edition. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. ISBN 0-19-910207-4.
  5. ^ "Final Recovery Plan for the Humpback Whale Megaptera novaeangliae" (PDF). U.S. Department of Commerce. 1991. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  6. ^ Katona S.K. and Whitehead, H.P. (1981). "Identifying humpback whales using their mural markings". Polar Record (20): 439–444.
  7. ^ Kaufman G., Smultea M.A. and Forestell P. (1987). "Use of lateral body pigmentation patterns for photo ID of east Australian (Area V) humpback whales". Cetus. 7 (1): 5–13.
  8. ^ Clapham P. "Humpback Whale". Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals. pp. 589–592. ISBN 0125513402.
  9. ^ Williamson JM (2005). "Whalenet Data Search". Wheelock College. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  10. ^ Overholtz W.J. and Nicholas J.R. (1979). "Apparent feeding by the fin whale, Balaenoptera physalus, and humpback whale, Megaptera novaeangliae, on the American sand lance, Ammodytes americanus, in the Northwest Atlantic". Fish. Bull. (77): 285–287. {{cite journal}}: line feed character in |title= at position 171 (help)
  11. ^ Whitehead H. (1987). "Updated status of the humpback whale, Megaptera novaeangliae, in Canada". Canadian Field-Naturalist. 101 (2): 284–294.
  12. ^ Meyer T.L., Cooper R.A. and Langton R.W. (1979). "Relative abundance, behavior and food habits of the American sand lance (Ammodytes americanus) from the Gulf of Maine". Fish. Bull. 77 (1): 243–253.
  13. ^ Nemoto T. (1959). "Food of baleen whales with reference to whale movements". Science Report Whales Research Institute Tokyo (14): 149–290. {{cite journal}}: line feed character in |journal= at position 41 (help)
  14. ^ a b Prepared by the Humpback Whale Recovery Team for the National Marine Fisheries Service, Silver Spring, Maryland (1991). Recovery Plan for the Humpback Whale (Megaptera novaeangliae). National Marine Fisheries Service. p. 105.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  15. ^ Clapham, P.J. (1996). "The social and reproductive biology of humpback whales: an ecological perspective" (PDF). Mammal Review (26): 27–49. Retrieved 2007-04-26. {{cite journal}}: line feed character in |journal= at position 7 (help)
  16. ^ a b c d e "American Cetacean Society Fact Sheet". American Cetacean Society. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  17. ^ "Humpback Whales. Song of the Sea". Public Broadcasting Station. Retrieved 2007-04-22.
  18. ^ Mercado E III & Frazer LN (July 2001). "Humpback Whale Song or Humpback Whale Sonar? A Reply to Au et al" (PDF). IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering. 26 (3): 406–415. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help); Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  19. ^ Mercado E III, Herman LM & Pack AA (2003). "Stereotypical sound patterns in humpback whale songs: Usage and function" (PDF). Aquatic Mammals. 29 (1): 37–52. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  20. ^ Humpback Whale Marinebio.org. Retrieved on 2007-04-26
  21. ^ Rasmussen K, Palacios DM, Calambokidis J, Saborío MT, Dalla Rosa L, Secchi ER, Steiger GH, Allen JM, & Stone GS (2007). online link "Southern Hemisphere humpback whales wintering off Central America: insights from water temperature into the longest mammalian migration". Biology Letters (10.1098/rsbl.2007.0067). ISSN 1744-957X. {{cite journal}}: Check |url= value (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ "Megaptera novaeangliae in Species Profile and Threats Database". Australian Government: Department of the Environment and Water Resources. 2007. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  23. ^ Breiwick JM, Mitchell E, Reeves RR (1983) Simulated population trajectories for northwest Atlantic humpback whales 1865–1980. Fifth biennial Conference on Biology of Marine Mammals, Boston Abstract. p14
  24. ^ Prof. Alexey V. Yablokov (1997). "On the Soviet Whaling Falsification, 1947–1972". Whales Alive!. 6 (4). Cetacean Society International.
  25. ^ scoop.co.nz: Leave Humpback Whales Alone Message To Japan 16 May 2007
  26. ^ http://www.news.com.au/travel/story/0,23483,21741734-5012962,00.html
  27. ^ http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/main.jhtml;jsessionid=A4S1KQFOYRZLLQFIQMGSFFWAVCBQWIV0?xml=/earth/2007/05/01/eajapan101.xml
  28. ^ "Humpback Whale (Megaptera novaeangliae)". Division of Wildlife Conservation, Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 2006. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  29. ^ "Blast injury in humpback whale ears". Journal of the Acoustic Society of America (94). 1849–1850.
  30. ^ Dierauf L & Gulland F (2001). Marine Mammal Medicine. CRC Press. ISBN 0849308399.
  31. ^ "Humpback Whale (Megaptera novaeangliae)". National Parks Conservation Association. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  32. ^ Chittleborough RG. (1965) Dynamics of two populations of the humpback whale. Australian Journal of Maritime and Freshwater Resources 16: 33–128.
  33. ^ Payne RS, McVay S. (1971) Songs of humpback whales. Science 173:585–597.
  34. ^ "Migaloo, the White Humpback Whale". Pacific Whale Foundation. 2004. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  35. ^ Tokuda W (1992) Humphrey the lost whale, Heian Intl Publishing Company. ISBN 0-89346-346-9
  36. ^ Callenbach E & Leefeldt C Humphrey the Wayward Whale, ISBN 0-930588-23-1
  37. ^ Jane Kay, San Francisco Examiner Monday, Oct. 9, 1995
  38. ^ Toni Knapp, The Six Bridges of Humphrey the Whale. Illustrated by Craig Brown. Roberts Rinehart, 1993 (1989)

References

Books

  • Clapham, Phil. (1996). Humpback Whales. ISBN 0-948661-87-9
  • Clapham, Phil. Humpback Whale. pp 589–592 in the Encyclopeadia of Marine Mammals. ISBN 0-12-551340-2
  • Reeves, Stewart, Clapham and Powell. Date? National Audubon Society Guide to Marine Mammals of the World. ISBN 0-375-41141-0
  • Dawbin, W. H. The seasonal migratory cycle of humpback whales. In K.S. Norris (ed), Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises. University of California Press.

Journal articles

  • Best, P. B. (1993) Increase rates in severely depleted stocks of baleen whales. ICES Journal of Marine Science 50:169–186.
  • Smith, T.D.; J. Allen, P.J. Clapham, P.S. Hammond, S. Katona, F. Larsen, J. Lien, D. Mattila, P.J. Palsboll, J. Sigurjonsson, P.T. Stevick & N. Oien. (1999) An ocean-basin-wide mark-recapture study of the North Atlantic humpback whale. Marine Mammal Science 15: 1–32.

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