Christianity

Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teaching of Jesus Christ as presented by his early followers and found primarily in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. It has the largest number of adherents of any world religion, with an estimated total of 2.1 billion, or about one-third of the total world population. It shares several features with Judaism, which is generally seen as a predecessor, including the Hebrew Scriptures^[1] (typically called the Old Testament by Christians), and is sometimes termed an Abrahamic religion, along with Judaism and Islam.

The names "Christian" and hence "Christianity" are first attested in Acts 11:26, "For a whole year they met with the church and taught a great many people. And in Antioch Jesus' disciples were first called Christians" (Gr. χριστιανους, from Christ Gr. Χριστός, which means "the anointed").

Christianity encompasses numerous religious traditions that widely vary by culture and place, as well as many diverse beliefs and sects. Since the Reformation, Christianity is usually represented as being divided into three main branches:

Catholicism: With over 1 billion baptized members, this category includes the Catholic Church (or Roman Catholic Church), the largest single body—which includes several Eastern Catholic communities—as well as certain smaller communities (e.g., the Old Catholic Church) not in full communion with the (Roman) Catholic Church, many of whom reject the primacy of the pope, hold that the papacy is vacant, or recognize a different pope.
Eastern Christianity includes the Eastern Orthodox Churches, the Oriental Orthodox Churches and the Assyrian Church of the East, all with a combined membership of over 240 million baptized members;
Protestantism: This group includes numerous denominations and schools of thought such as: Anglicanism, Reformed, Lutheran, Methodist, Anabaptist, Evangelicalism, Charismatics and Pentecostalism, all of which are descended, directly or indirectly, from the Roman Church via the Reformation of the 16th century. Many identify themselves simply as Christian. Worldwide total is just under 500 million.

Other denominations and churches which self-identify as Christian but which distance themselves from the above classifications together claim around 275 million members. These include African Indigenous Churches with up to 110 million members (estimates vary widely), Jehovah's Witness with approximately 15 million members, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (also called Mormons) with over 12 million members, and other groups. (Source:Adherents website)

These broad divisions are not equally uniform. On the contrary, some branches encompass vast disagreements, and in other cases the division overlooks existing sympathies. But this is the convenient standard overview of distinctions, especially as Christianity has been viewed in the Western world.

Groups with restorationist beliefs – including the Churches of Christ, some Anabaptists, the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers), and others – sometimes regard themselves as entirely separate from Protestantism, with which they have often been included.

The Churches of the Anglican Communion speak of themselves as following a "via media," a "middle way," between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism and therefore are also often listed separately. One sometimes reads of a "liturgical family" including Anglicanism, Catholicism, and Orthodoxy. At the same time, Anglicanism is comprised of "Anglo-Catholic," "Evangelical," and "Broad" or "Latitudinarian" factions as well as those who might be called "culturally Christian," and thus finds itself pulled in several directions simultaneously.

A number of groups hold that the branches of Christianity presented above devolved from the original church instituted and founded by Christ as a result of a Great Apostasy. These groups, although historically founded many centuries after the death of Jesus, claim direct theological descent from the original Church portrayed in the New Testament or claim a complete restoration of the original Church directly by Christ Himself. Examples would include the The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, the Church of the New Jerusalem (Swedenborgians), Jehovah's Witnesses, the 7th day Church of God groups, the Christadelphians, and the "Jesus only" or "oneness" Pentecostals.

A chart showing the development of various churches from their roots in early Christianity.

History

Main article: History of Christianity

See also: Timeline of Christianity

The history of Christianity is difficult to extricate from that of the European West (and several other culture-regions) in general. By way of summary, we may note Christianity's early geographic expansion from the Levant into various regions of the Mediterranean Sea; its legalization under Constantine the Great and establishment as the official religion of the Roman Empire under Justinian I; its conversion of various northern European kingdoms (e.g. Ireland in the 5th century, Russia in 988); the Great Schism which divided Eastern Christianity from Roman Catholicism (conventionally dated 1054); the loss of north Africa and the Middle East to Islam (numerous military struggles--see Battle of Tours, Crusades, Reconquista, Fall of Constantinople); the Protestant Reformation (Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses to the Wittenberg church door in 1517); Christianity's spread to the Americas, sub-Saharan Africa, the Philippines, and South Korea through some combination of imperialism and missionary work; and 19th- and 20th-century debates about science (especially evolution), biblical criticism, and feminism.

Beliefs

Enormous diversity obviously exists in the beliefs of those who call themselves Christians. For example Unitarians, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Oneness Pentecostals reject the Trinity, which most others recognize as an absolutely essential article of faith. Conversely, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints proclaim there is one God or Godhead, but there are three distinct "personages" or personal beings: God the Father, his Son Jesus, and the Holy Spirit, with the Father and Jesus having distinct, perfected, physical bodies of flesh and bone. Taken together, these groups are considered heretical or even "non-Christian" by many of the mainstream Christian groups, on account of their deviation from tenets considered basic to mainstream Christianity, especially the doctrine of the Trinity.

And yet, it is possible to venture general statements which describe the beliefs of a large majority of all who self-identify as Christian. One such statement is the Nicene Creed, ratified as the universal creed of Orthodox and Catholic Christendom by the Council of Ephesus in 431. Translated from the Greek, it reads as follows:

I [or "We"] believe in one God, the Father, the Almighty

Maker of heaven and earth

And of all things visible and invisible.

And in his only Son Jesus Christ, our Lord

begotten [or "born": most literally, "generated"] of the Father before all ages,

God of God, light of light, true God of true God,

Begotten [see above], not made

Of one essence [or "being"] with the Father

By Whom all things were made.

For us humans and for our salvation he came down from heaven

And was incarnate by the Holy Spirit of the Virgin Mary

And was made human.

He was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate

He suffered death and was buried.

On the third day he rose again in accordance with the Scriptures

He ascended into heaven

And is seated at the right hand of the Father.

He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead.

His kingdom will have no end.

And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life

Who proceeds from the Father [Western churches add, ..."and the Son"--see filioque]

Who together with the Father and the Son is worshipped and glorified

Who spoke through the prophets

And in one holy catholic and apostolic Church.

I acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins.

I expect the resurrection of the dead,

And the life of the age to come. Amen.

Central Christian beliefs which are affirmed in the Nicene Creed include, but are not limited to:

The Trinity: God is a single eternal being who exists as three eternal persons: Father, Son (Divine Logos, incarnated as Jesus Christ), and Holy Spirit (or Holy Ghost).
Jesus Christ is both fully God (divine) and fully human: two natures in one person. He is without sin.
That Salvation from "sin and death" is available through the person and work of Jesus Christ, especially his execution and resurrection. Protestants, Catholics, and Orthodox Christians have arrived at several explanations as to exactly how salvation occurs. (See soteriology.)
Jesus's virgin birth, crucifixion, resurrection, ascension, and Second Coming.
The "General Resurrection," in which all people who have ever lived will rise from the dead at the end of time, to be judged by the returned Christ.

Obviously, not all Christians have accepted all of these articles of faith, or else such a creed would never have been written. In fact its lines frequently target certain opposing beliefs of other early Christians, which the creed regards as heretical. Examples would include Ebionite groups which denied Jesus's divinity, a well as Docetist groups which denied that Christ was a human being.

Again, while some churches take exception to some of these articles, to the extent that they do so, this usually represents a conscious departure from the Christian mainstream. Note that many churches (such as the Baptists) would accept these beliefs, but not the creed itself, since they regard all creeds as necessarily unscriptural.

Scriptures

Virtually all Christian churches accept the authority of the Bible, including the Old Testament and the New Testament. Differences exist in the canons of the Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant churches - chiefly, their treatment of the the Deuterocanonical books used by Catholic and Orthodox Churches, but rejected by Protestants as Apocrypha. However, apart from the issue of canonicity itself, this affects doctrinal issues only indirectly. More theologically significant is the Swedenborgian churches' rejection of the New Testament Epistles, a stance which has not won acceptance from any other denomination.

Whereas Jews see the Torah as the most important part of the Bible, most Christians regard the Gospels, which tell of the life and teachings of Jesus, as central. Ornamental books of the four gospels are sometimes used in church liturgies. These may be carried into the church in procession, and laid upon the altar during the first part of the service. The "gospel" (in the singular) can also mean the "good news" (that word's literal meaning) of the Christian message, which Christians regularly disseminate to others. This may include missionary work as well as the translation and distribution of Bibles, as practiced for example by Gideons International.

If Christians largely agree on the content of the Bible, no such consensus is forthcoming on the crucial matter of its interpretation, an issue which divides denominations from within as well as from one another. "Biblical literalism" or "Christian fundamentalism" describe well-known conservative hermeneutic stances with respect to Christian scriptures, and are mainly associated with Protestantism. Swedenborg taught an allegorical interpretation of the Bible--the method is an ancient one (and can be traced back to Aristobulus, Philo of Alexandria, Origen, and Clement of Alexandria), though Swedenborg's particular reading is not.

Catholics, Orthodox, and some Anglicans consider the Bible as one phase (albeit formative) of church tradition, which has continued through the decisions of the ecumenical councils, and the writings of the Church Fathers, and indeed is alive today. Protestants meanwhile tend to accept Martin Luther's dictum of sola scriptura, which sees the Bible as the ultimate source of faith and doctrine, and assumes that any Christian believer is capable of interpreting it. Even Protestants concede that this raises difficulties, especially in view of the wide variety of practices and beliefs which have some claim to biblical warrant.

Some Christian groups have also elevated additional writings to the status of inspired scripture. Well-known examples would include the Book of Mormon, considered to be "another Testament of Jesus Christ" by the Latter Day Saints; or Science and Health With Key to the Scriptures, by Christian Science founder Mary Baker Eddy. Others, such as the Jehovah's Witnesses, have produced translations of the Bible which they hold to be alone wholly reliable. This elevantion of other writings to the same level as accepted scriptures is a main cause for disputes between these groups and mainstream Christians. One might expect Lutherans and Calvinists to regard the interpretations of Luther and Calvin, respectively, with similar reverence; in fact most Catholic and Protestant theologians would agree that their writings are a mixture of good and bad and are in no way "inspired."

The Afterlife

Christian views of the afterlife generally involve heaven and (somewhat less frequently) hell, with Catholicism adding an intermediate realm of purgatory. Except for purgatory (whose denizens will ultimately enter heaven, after "purification"), these realms are usually assumed to be eternal. There is, however, some debate on this point, for example among the Orthodox. Much the same spectrum of opinion obtains with respect to the other denizens of heaven and hell, namely angels and demons.

Many Christians interpret "salvation" to mean being able to enter heaven (and escape hell) after death, though some theologians have lamented this tendency. The question of "who is saved" has long been considered a dark mystery by many theologians, though some Protestants consider it a relatively simple issue of whether one has accepted Jesus. On one hand, a major theme of Christianity is that Christ is the way to salvation. On the other hand, few would ascribe to God a willingness to damn infants, persons living prior to the birth of Christ, those who lack exposure to Christianity, and so on. The belief that all will be saved is known as Universalism.

It is generally unclear how the afterlife fits together with the doctrine of the General Resurrection--i.e. whether eternal life begins immediately after death, or at the end of time; and whether this afterlife will involve the resurrection of one's physical body (perhaps in a glorified spiritual form). Most Christians hold that one's consciousness, the soul, survives the death of the physical body, although the Jehovah's Witnesses, among others, reject this, saying that only the good will be physically resurrected (the others to remain in the grave).

A few Christian denominations, and many more individuals, have promoted belief in reincarnation (chiefly New Thought and New Age churches) or ghosts (many Spiritualist churches identify themselves as Christian). These groups typically teach that such doctrines are to be found in the Bible and/or early Christian tradition.

The End of the World

The Nicene Creed affirms that this world will one day come to an end, whereupon Christ will return (see Second Coming) to judge the living and the dead. Biblical literature adds details such as the reign of the Antichrist, Armageddon, the Rapture, and the Millennium. Possibly a majority of Christians and Christian denominations deemphasize such eschatological teachings. Some expect these events to occur in the very distant future, while others interpret them symbolically (when they do not doubt them altogether).

Still others insist that the Last Judgement is imminent, following an ancient line of thinking which possibly extends back to Jesus himself. While Jesus claimed ignorance of the "day or hour," others have proved bolder, predicting the end of the world in the year 1000 (the "Long Night of Terror"); 1666; and 1844 (the Great Disappointment of Adventist history), just to name a few historic episodes. Such expectations are an easy target for humor (for example the Miller's Tale from the Canterbury Tales). And yet, say believers, one day the Last Judgment will come, and many will find themselves unprepared. The books The Late, Great Planet Earth and Left Behind have rekindled interest in the "end times" in recent years; the latter series of novels has sold more than [number t.k.] copies.

A few groups hold that some or all of these events have already occurred. The Jehovah's Witnesses say that "the last days" referred to in the Bible began in 1914. The Unification Church teaches that Christ has returned in the person of their founder, Sun Myung Moon. Swedenborg revealed that Christ returned in 1757, but as an internal, spiritual event. (Curiously, he made this "prediction" in 1758.) Many Christians would greet the spirit of his declaration, if not the named year, with sympathy.

Practices

Orthodox and Catholic believers describe Christian practice in terms of the seven sacraments:

Many Protestant groups, following Martin Luther, recognize the sacramental nature of baptism and communion, but not the other five. Anabaptist and Brethren groups would add feet washing. Pentecostal, Charismatic, and Holiness Churches emphasize "gifts of the Spirit" such as spiritual healing, prophecy, exorcism, speaking in tongues, or (very occasionally) snake handling. The Quakers deny the entire concept of sacraments, but their "testimonies" affirming peace, integrity, equality, and simplicity might be mentioned as rough functional equivalents.

In general, mainline Protestants tend to see ritual more as a commemoration than a mystery. Their concept of Christian practice is more likely to include acts of personal piety such as prayer, Bible reading, and attempting to live a moral lifestyle. A strong tradition holds that it is impossible for people to reform themselves, but that progress can only occur with the grace of God.

Baptism

Baptism is the usual ritual whereby one is welcomed into Christianity. It involves either sprinkling or pouring water upon the forehead, or immersion in water. It may be applied either to infants or to "adult believers" (which might include young teenagers). Some traditions, such as that held by the Baptists, insist that baptism by immersion of adult believers is the only valid method. Others, such as the Catholics and Orthodox, recognize both methods and all ages, but place restrictions on who may validly perform the ritual for others.

Baptism is derived from the Jewish practice of immersion (mikveh) for purposes of ritual purity. The Christian practice is derived from John the Baptist's call to repentance and conversion (metanoia), and is said to mark a new, spiritual birth. Unlike Jewish ritual immersion, a Christian may only be (validly) baptized once.

In ancient Christianity, baptism was regarded as a kind of initiation ceremony. Those who were not yet baptised were not allowed to enter the church proper, but had to stand before the entrance, in the narthex.

Weekly Worship

Justin Martyr (First Apology, chapter LXVII) describes a second-century church service thus:

And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the president verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people assent, saying Amen; and there is a distribution to each, and a participation of that over which thanks have been given, and to those who are absent a portion is sent by the deacons. And they who are well to do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who succours the orphans and widows and those who, through sickness or any other cause, are in want, and those who are in bonds and the strangers sojourning among us, and in a word takes care of all who are in need.

Justin's description, which would apply equally well to most church services today, alludes to the following components:

Scripture readings drawn from the Old Testament, one of the Gospels, or an Epistle. Often these are arranged systematically around an annual cycle, using a book called a lectionary.

A sermon. In ancient times this followed the scripture readings; today this more often occurs later in the service.

Congregational prayer and thanksgiving. These will probably occur regularly throughout the service. Justin does not mention this, but some of these are likely to be sung in the form of hymns. The Lord's Prayer is especially likely to be recited.

The Eucharist (also called Holy Communion, or the Lord's Supper) -- a ritual in which small amounts of bread and wine are eaten and drunk. Protestants say these represent the body and blood of Christ; Orthodox and Catholics say that they become the body and blood of Christ (the doctrine of the Real Presence). Churches in the "liturgical" family (Orthodox, Catholic, and some Anglican) see this as the main part of the service, while Protestants may celebrate it less frequently. In many cases there are restriction on who may partake, which visitors should apprise themselves of. For example, only Catholics may take communion at a Catholic church (and not even all of them would be permitted).

A "collection" or "offering" in which the people are asked to contribute money. One common method is to pass around a collection plate. Christians traditionally use these monies not only for upkeep for the church, but also for charitable work of various types.

A number of variations or exceptions exist. Sometimes these are due to special events, such as baptisms or weddings which are incorporated into the service. In many churches today, children and youth will be excused from the main service in order to attend Sunday school. Many denominations depart from this general pattern in a more fundamental way. For example, the Seventh-Day Adventists meet on Saturday (the biblical Sabbath), not Sunday. Charismatic or Pentecostal congregations may be spontaneously moved by the Holy Spirit, rather tha follow a formal order of service. At a Quaker meeting, participants sit quietly until moved by the Holy Spirit to speak.

In some denominations (mainly liturgical ones), the service is led by a priest. In others (mainly among Protestants), there is a minister, preacher, or pastor. Still others may lack formal leaders, either in principle or by local necessity. In addition, there are "high" church services, characterized by greater solemnity and ritual, and "low" services at which a more casual atmosphere prevails, even if the service in question is liturgical in nature.

In Orthodox churches, the congregation traditionally stands throughout the liturgy (although allowances are made for human weakness). Roman Catholics and many Protestant churches follow a custom in which participants stand to sing, kneel to pray, and sit to listen (e.g., to the sermon). Others are less programmed, and may be quite lively and spontaneous. Music is usually incorporated, and often involves a choir and/or organ. Some churches use only a capella music, either on principle (many Churches of Christ object to the use of musical instruments in worship) or by tradition (as in Orthodoxy). A recent trend is the growth of "convergence worship" which combines liturgy with spontaneity. This sort of worship is often a result of the influence of charismatic renewal within Churches which are traditionally liturgical. Convergence worship has spawned at least one new denomination, the Charismatic Episcopal Church.

Moral Lifestyle

Unlike some other religions, Christianity has not developed a code of religious law--perhaps because the Roman Empire already had a functioning criminal code, making it unnecessary for Christian authorities to duplicate its various prohibitions.

On one hand, there exists a long tradition within Christianity of saying that Christ supersedes/fulfills the laws of Judaism; that love--of God, and one's "neighbor"--is the "Greatest Commandment," from which all other moral rules spring; that no human being can hope to avoid sin completely; that one ought not to judge others; and so on. On the other hand, Christians have long emphasized the practice of morality. Consider the following observation from (non-Christian) Pliny the Younger, from around the year 100:

...on a fixed day they [the Christians] used to meet before dawn and recite a hymn among themselves to Christ, as though he were a god. So far from binding themselves by oath to commit any crime, they swore to keep from theft, robbery, adultery, breach of faith, and not to deny any trust money deposited with them when called upon to deliver it. This ceremony over, they used to depart and meet again to take food — but it was of no special character, and entirely harmless.

Pliny's informants were probably alluding to the Ten Commandments, which most Christians consider to represent a basic foundation for morality. Other than the Ten Commandments, Christians do not generally adhere to the ceremonial or civil sections of Jewish law as contained in the Old Testament.

The New Testament also contains important moral guidance for Christians. Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount asks followers to love their enemies, and give to all who ask; in Mark 10:21 he calls upon the "rich young man" to sell all his possessions, and give the money to the poor. Most Christians concede these directives to be extraordinarily difficult, bordering on the impractical. At the same time, most Christians would admire those whose lives seem to embody these principles, for example Albert Schweitzer or Mother Teresa.

Some of Jesus's moral judgments are rather more feasible, but still not in general practice among Christians. In the Sermon on the Mount he speaks out against divorce (a controversial issue in many Christian denominations) and against oaths.

Prayer

Main article: Prayer in Christianity

Every known version and variation of Christianity practices prayer. Christian prayers may be formulaic, improvised, or (say Charismatics) inspired by the Holy Spirit. They include categories of thanksgiving, petition, adoration, intercession, and communion. Christian prayers may be addressed to God or Christ, or (for Catholic and Orthodox) to a particular saint. Catholics have developed the devotional practice of praying the rosary; among Orthodox, the Jesus prayer plays a similar role. Among forumulaic prayers, the Lord's Prayer and the Psalms (and in Catholic circles, the Hail Mary) are especially likely to be encountered.

The question of the efficacy of prayer is fraught with theological difficulty. On one hand, Christians generally believe that God "answers" prayer (though not necessarily with a yes). On the other hand, it seems perverse to imagine God caring more for the famous or popular (who can be expected to have more prayers said on their behalf) than for the obscure or unpopular. Some churches teach that prayer is capable of altering the physical environment, thus accounting for such things as spiritual healing. Examples would include Christian Science as well as the several New Thought churches. In this context we might also cite the word of faith movement and the Prayer of Jabez, recently popularized among Evangelicals.

At the conclusion of a prayer, it is customary to say Amen ("so be it").

Holidays

Catholics, Eastern Christians, and about half of the Protestants follow a liturgical calendar with various holidays. These include feasts (days of celebration--this means special worship services, not only eating) as well as fasts. Typically, a feast will be found preceded by a traditional fast of several weeks' duration.

An ancient tradition in Christianity (which Jesus himself practiced), fasting does not usually involve going without any food whatsoever; but rather abstinence from a varying list of foods such as red meat, eggs, or cheese. Catholics distinguish between a "fast" (involving three daily meals, only one of which may include red meat) and "abstinence" (no red meat whatsoever). The best-known fasting period is Lent. Most Protestants lack a tradition of fasting, and has fallen out of practice among many Catholics as well.

Even Christians who do not follow a liturgical tradition can generally be found celebrating Christmas and Easter, despite some disagreement as to dates. A few churches object to the recognition of special holidays, but nevertheless affirm the events which these holidays celebrate. For that matter, Christ's incarnation and resurrection are celebrated in every church service.

Symbols

The best-known Christian symbol is surely the cross, of which many varieties exist. (Some regard the cross as the world's first successful logo.) For convenience of recognition, several denominations tend to favor distinctive crosses: the crucifix for Catholics, the crux orthodoxa for Orthodox, and the unadorned cross for Protestants. However, this is not a hard-and-fast rule. Other Christian symbols include the ichthys ("fish") symbol, or in ancient times, an anchor.

Church Structure

The Roman Catholic Church and most Orthodox and Oriental churches are governed by a hierarchy: bishops lead local regions (called diocese) and appoint priests to administer individual congegrations. Supreme authority is held by the Bishop of Rome, who is called "the pope" (from Latin papa, meaning "Father"). He is elected by the College of cardinals.

The Orthodox and Oriental churches can be described as networks of churches whose bishops are "in communion" with one another. They don't have an office resembling the pope, though patriarchs presiding over certain parts of the church exist. Churches in the Anglican Communion are also episcopal ("led by bishops") in governance. Unlike their Orthodox counterparts, these vote in national meetings as well as exercise local authority.

The Old Believers arose when some Russian Orthodox believers revolted against their bishops over the issue of the Patriarch Nikon's "reforms." Although their original motivation was to prevent changes to their religion, they eventually found themselves in the position of having to function without bishops or priests (since these must be ordained by bishops). Some eliminated the priestly role, while others sought to recruit new priests from among the Orthodox.

Most Protestant churches lack the sort of hierarchy that characterizes the liturgical denominations. The role of "preachers" or "minister" is often treated almost as an ordinary job, which many churches believe could be filled by any knowledgable believer. Others specify that the leader of a congregation should have a seminary education and/or a sense of being "called" (vocation) by God to that role.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is directed by a hierarchy consisting of a prophet and twelve apostles. They believe this is the same structure as was found in the ancient church. Their direction is implemented in local congregations by Stake Presidents and local bishops. Bishops operate similar to priests or pastors in other demoninations where they preside over a single congregation. Most Mormon men hold "priestly ordinances."

Supra-congregational organizations are rejected by a few churches (e.g., the Churches of Christ), but most Protestants find themselves organized into denominations. In European countries these may be organized by the state--this reflects the legacy of the "Majesterial Reformation, in which some state-run Catholic churches became state-run Protestant churches. Depending on the country and denomination, they are equally likely to form part of voluntary groupings, from which individual congregations may withdraw (e.g. the Baptists), or a looser, more democratic form of hierarchy (like the Methodists).

An important theological issue is, "What is the church?" Most Christians accept that there is really just one Church (to which the classical creeds refer), which is identified with "the body of Christ." Both Roman Catholics and Orthodox consider the church both a spiritual reality and also a visibly existing community. Roman Catholics identify this church as subsisting in the Roman Catholic Church, whereas Orthodox consider their branch of churches as the true church. Protestants tend to "the church" as a invisible entity to be distinguished from the union of all believers existing within various human denominations. Some groups (Jehovah's Witnesses, Boston Movement, Mormons) however insist that they alone are the true church.

Christianity's relationship with other faiths

Due to its diverse history and its numerous denominations and branches, it is difficult to give an accurate account of Christianity's current relationship with the various other religions. After all, this varies from region to region, and from denomination to denomination. The following synopsis may perhaps be helpful:

Paganism

Christianity and the pagan religions of classical antiquity are popularly understood to have been rivals, with each seeking to persecute and destroy the other. This is a gross simplification. Even the pagan, anti-Christian emperor Julian the Apostate (361-363) conceded that "These godless Galileans (i.e. Christians) feed not only their own poor but ours: our poor lack our care". [2] The Church Fathers had a wide spectrum of attitudes toward pagan learning which ranged from utter rejection, to recognition of the partial inspiration of philosophers such as Plato (whose image is found among the saints in a number of church and monastery walls).

Judaism

See also * Comparing and contrasting Judaism and Christianity and Judeo-Christian

Historically, the relationship between Judaism and Christianity has been strained, to say the least. In the past, Christians were often taught that "the Jews" killed Christ, for which "murder" they bear a collective guilt (an interpretation which most major denominations now reject). Jews meanwhile have tended to associate Christianity with various pogroms, or in better times, with the dangers of assimilation. Anti-Semitism has a long history in Christianity (see Christianity and anti-Semitism), and indeed is far from dead (for example, in contemporary Russia). However, since the Holocaust, much dialogue aimed at Christian-Jewish reconciliation has taken place, and relations have greatly improved. Today, many conservative evangelicals support Christian Zionism, much to the irritation of Arab Christians, based partly on the Millenialist belief that the modern state of Israel represents the fulfillment of Biblical prophecy.

The phenomenon of Messianic Judaism has become something of an irritant to Jewish / Christian relations. Messianic Jews--who generally seek to combine a Jewish identity with the recognition of Jesus-- are rejected by mainstream Jewish groups, who dismiss Messianic Judaism as little more than Christianity with Jewish undertones.

Islam

Adherents of Islam have historically referred to themselves, Jews, and Christians (among others) as People of the Book since they all base their religion on books that are considered to have a divine origin. Christians however neither recognize the Qur'an as a genuine book of divine revelation, nor agree with its assessment of Jesus as a mere prophet, on par with Muhammad, nor for that matter accept that Muhammad was a genuine prophet.

Muslims, for their part, believe that parts of the Gospels, Torah and Jewish prophetic books have been forgotten, misinterpreted, or distorted by their followers. Based on that perspective, Muslims view the Qur'an as correcting the errors of Christianity. For example, Muslims reject belief in the Trinity, or any other expression of the divinity of Jesus, as incompatible with monotheism.

Not surprisingly, the two faiths have often experienced controversy and conflict (an example being the Crusades). At the same time, much fruitful dialogue has occurred as well. The writings of superlative Catholic theologian Thomas Aquinas frequently cite those of the Jewish philosopher Moses Maimonides as well as Muslim thinker Averoes ('Ibn-Rushd).

On May 6, 2001, Pope John Paul II, the first pope to pray in a mosque, delivered an address at Omayyad Mosque in Damascus, saying: "It is important that Muslims and Christians continue to explore philosophical and theological questions together, in order to come to a more objective and comprehensive knowledge of each others’ religious beliefs. Better mutual understanding will surely lead, at the practical level, to a new way of presenting our two religions not in opposition, as has happened too often in the past, but in partnership for the good of the human family."

Other

Christian-Hindu relations are a mixed bag. On one hand, Hinduism's natural tendency has been to recognize the divine basis of various other religions, and to revere their founders and saintly practitioners. On the other hand, perceptions of aggressive proselytism on the part of Christianity have led to an upsurge of anti-Christian violence, often fueled by Hindu nationalist political parties. In Western countries, Vedanta has influenced some Christian thinkers, while others in the anti-cult movement have reacted against the activities of immigrant gurus and their followers.

Buddhism and Protestantism came into political conflict in 19th century Sri Lanka, to the eventual embarrassment of the Christians; and in Tibet circa 1904 (the Younghusband Expedition), with the same result. Various events have cooperated to introduce various strains of Buddhist theology and meditation to several generations of Western spiritual seekers (including some Catholic religious), to the point where Buddhism has become a minor competitor with Christianity on it's "home ground," so to speak. Nevertheless, relations are generally good, except perhaps in South Korea and Vietnam. The Russian republic of Kalmykia recognizes both Tibetan Buddhism and Russian Orthodoxy as its official religions.

Western esoteric and magical groups have often arisen partly as a protest against Christianity. Some of these, such as Theosophy or Scientology, have produced rather hostile polemics against Christianity. More often, such groups attempt to claim Jesus on behalf of whatever the group teaches, saying that mainstream Christianity has misunderstood him. An example would be A Course In Miracles, which purports to be a channeled message from Jesus Christ.

Christianity and persecution

Historically Christians, both as groups and individuals, have like many other religious traditions, been both the victims and perpetrators of persecution. Some forms of persecution of Christians and on the part of Christians continue to the present day.

Persecution of Christians

(For full article, see Persecution of Christians)

Christian martyrs in the first three centuries were crucified, torn apart by chariots, cut down, or impaled on pikes in much the same manner as other Roman political prisoners and rebels. Many were forced to fight in Roman coliseums as fodder for famous gladiators, or forced to fight each other for entertainment and as punishment. When early Christians refused to fight each other, wild beasts or gladiators would often be set loose to slaughter them, providing sinister entertainment for betting Roman citizens. Bets were often cast on which Christian would die first, whether or not one would raise arms against another, and how long one would last before having his or her torso ripped apart. They are recognized as martyrs because they chose to die rather than renounce their Christian faith.

In the modern Middle East and Africa, Christians face a great deal of persecution, including arrests for "blasphemy" in the Middle East and even being targeted for assassination and acts of terrorism. In China there are also laws against proselytizing, so while it's not illegal to convert to Christianity, one can be fined or imprisoned for attempting to convert others, especially publicly. Predominantly Christian regions (such as East Timor) have chosen independence partly for this reason. Because of this, many Christian converts from these parts of the world have left for Europe, the United States, Canada and Australia.

Some Christians see restrictions placed on some forms of religious activity, whether of Christianity or other religions, in the public sphere as a form of discrimination against religious people in general.

Persecution by Christians

(For full article, see Historical persecution by Christians.)

Christians have not only been the victims of persecution. After the Roman Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity, Christian mobs frequently molested pagans and destroyed their temples, sometimes with government support. The philosopher Hypatia of Alexandria was murdered by such a mob in 415. Many of the Christians who did not accept the Council of Nicea, or other pronouncements, were considered heretical and often had to flee persectution once Christianity was accepted by Constantine and his successors.

In 380, Roman emperor Theodosius I made Christianity the official religion of the Empire and outlawed the practising of paganism and Manichaeism. Judaism remained legal, but Jewish communities suffered from recurrent violent attacks and expulsions, especially in the latter half of the Middle Ages.

During the Crusades, Christian Crusaders committed atrocities against Jews across Europe and massacred non-combatants in Palestine and Syria. Crusaders also sacked and plundered the city of Constantinople and persecuted many Pagans, Muslims, and Jews.

Christians have at times persecuted other Christians over doctrinal and ethnic differences. During the Arian disputes in the 4th century, Arians harassed their orthodox brethren, and were supported in this by various emperors. When Priscillian was executed by the state in 385, this was widely denounced by leading Church figures of the time. By the Middle Ages, however, the Church was the executor of persecution, setting up the Inquisition to fight heresy by judicial means including torture. The Crusades, while primarily aimed at non-Christians, also included incidents such as the sack and plunder of Constantinople. The Early Modern period saw the phenomenon of Witch hunts, which were frequent in Western Europe, especially Germany, and later also in New England. This period was also typified by violence between Catholics and the emerging Protestant movement.

Allegations of Christian persecution of others continue to the present day. Christians in the Western world are often accused of engaging in discrimination against other religions, denominations, and minorities. For example, some claim persecution in the opposition of some Christians to giving equal status to homosexual activities; rare individual instances of religiously motivated violence and vandalism also occur. Such offenses, however, are usually on a smaller scale than the persecution seen in the rest of the world.

In the second half of the 20th century, ethnic or social conflicts are sometimes reinforced by religious antagonism. In Northern Ireland, the struggle for independence is exacerbated by denominational differences; in general terms, Catholics support independence, while Protestants desire to remain part of the United Kingdom. The region of former Yugoslavia contains many groups fighting for control, most of which are typified by strong cultural and religious solidarity.

Migration of Christians

Due to the continuing persecution of Christians in places like the Middle East, North Africa, Asia, and the Indian Sub-Continent, many Christians have migrated to foreign lands. Christians that have been migrating from their native lands range from Middle Eastern Christians leaving the Middle East due to persecution from the Muslim majority, to Chinese Christians leaving China because of Communist China's stance on Christianity.

Note

^ : While sharing the Hebrew Scriptures or Old Testament, Christianity nonetheless disagrees with many points of the Jewish understanding of these texts, or their significance for practice.

References and Select Bibliography

The Story of Christianity by Justo L. Gonzalez (1984, 1985, 1999, ISBN 1565635221)
Christian Theology: An Introduction by Alister McGrath (ISBN 0631225285)
Christian Theology Reader by Alister McGrath (ISBN 063120637X)
Mere Christianity. C.S. Lewis
Systematic Theology, an ecumenical trilogy by Thomas Oden
- Volume 1: The Living God (1992, ISBN 0060663634)
- Volume 2: The Word of Life (1992, ISBN 0060663642)
- Volume 3: Life in the Spirit (1994, ISBN 0060663626)
The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine. Jaroslav Pelikan. 5 Volumes, published between 1971-1989.
The Kingdom of God is Within You [3] by Leo Tolstoy (1894, ISBN 0803294042)
Tomkins, Stephen. A Short History of Christianity (Lion, 2005)
Heindel, Max, The Rosicrucian Christianity Lectures, November 1908 (twenty lectures delivered in Columbus, Ohio), ISBN 0-911274-84-7 www

External links

General on-line sources

ReligionFacts.com: Christianity Fast facts, glossary, timeline, history, beliefs, texts, holidays, symbols, people, etc.
The Christian Classics Ethereal Library, containing the works of a wide spectrum of authors in doctrine, history, devotion, and Bible commentary
WikiChristian, a wiki book on Christianity, church history and doctrine, and Christian art and music
The Catholic Encyclopedia, containing detailed information on Catholic beliefs and history and the Catholic view of other churches and beliefs
The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge from a Protestant perspective
The Vatican contains much official information related to the Roman Catholic Church in many languages
Syriac Orthodox Resources Large compendium of information and links relating to Oriental Orthodoxy.
Rosicrucian Interpretation of Christianity, an esoteric view of Christian teachings.
Bible Gateway The Bible online

Criticisms

Why I am not a Christian by Nobel Prize laureate Bertrand Russell.
Who is a Christian? by Tamas B..

Criticisms, responses to

Why Russell Said He Could Not Be a Christian -- Dr. Greg Bahnsen on Bertrand Russell

Advocacy, arguments for

The Institute for Christianity, research material in defense of Christianity

Directories

Dmoz.org Open Directory Project: Christianity (a list of links with information about Christianity)
Dmoz.org Open Directory Project: Contra Christianity (a list of links of opposing views on Christianity)

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