Jump to content

Animal-assisted therapy

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Charles danten (talk | contribs) at 13:01, 1 November 2014 (→Alleged benefits for disabled and autistic children). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Animal-assisted therapy (AAT) is a type of therapy that involves animals as a form of treatment. The goal of AAT is to improve a patient’s social, emotional, or cognitive functioning. Advocates state that animals can be useful for educational and motivational effectiveness for participants.[1] A therapist who brings along a pet may be viewed as being less threatening, increasing the rapport between patient and therapist.[2] Animals used in therapy include domesticated pets, farm animals and marine mammals (such as dolphins). While the research literature presents the relationship between humans and companion animals as generally favorable, methodological concerns about the poor quality of the data have led to calls for improved experimental studies.[3]
Wilson’s (1984) biophilia hypothesis is based on the premise that our attachment to and interest in animals stems from the strong possibility that human survival was partly dependent on signals from animals in the environment indicating safety or threat. The biophilia hypothesis suggests that now, if we see animals at rest or in a peaceful state, this may signal to us safety, security and feelings of well-being which in turn may trigger a state where personal change and healing are possible [4]

Dogs are common in animal-assisted therapy.

History

Animal-assisted therapy sprouted from the idea and initial belief in the supernatural powers of animals and animal spirits. It first appeared in the groupings of early hunter gatherer societies. In modern times animals are seen as "agents of socialization" and as providers of "social support and relaxation." [5] Though animal assisted therapy is believed to have began in these early human periods it is undocumented and based on speculation. The earliest reported use of AAT for the mentally ill took place in the late 18th century at the York Retreat in England, led by William Tuke.[6] Patients at this facility were allowed to wander the grounds which contained a population of small domestic animals. These were believed to be effective tools for socialization. In 1860, the Bethlem Hospital in England followed the same trend and added animals to the ward, greatly influencing the morale of the patients living there.[6]

Sigmund Freud kept many dogs and often had his chow Jofi present during his pioneering sessions of psychoanalysis. He noticed that the presence of the dog was helpful because the patient would find that their speech would not shock or disturb the dog and this reassured them and so encouraged them to relax and confide. This was most effective when the patient was a child or adolescent.[7] The theory behind AAT is what is known as Attachment theory.

Therapy involving animals was first used in therapy by Dr. Boris Levinson who accidentally discovered the use of pet therapy with children when he left his dog alone with a difficult child, and upon returning, found the child talking to the dog.[8] However, in other pieces of literature it states that it was founded as early as 1792 at the Quaker Society of Friends York Retreat in England.[9] Velde, Cipriani & Fisher also state “Florence Nightingale appreciated the benefits of pets in the treatment of individuals with illness. The US military promoted the use of dogs as a therapeutic intervention with psychiatric patients in 1919 at St Elizabeth’s Hospital in Washington, DC. Increased recognition of the value of human–pet bonding was noted by Dr. Boris Levinson in 1961”.[9]

Today

Golden Retrievers are often trained as assistance dogs.

Animals can be used in a variety of settings such as prisons, nursing homes, mental institutions,[10] hospitals and in the home.[2] Assistance dogs can assist people with many different disabilities; they are capable of assisting certain life activities and help the individuals navigate outside of the home.[2]

Steps in animal-assisted therapy include three stages for physical and psychological health improvement.

Stage One:
Patient goes to session with therapist without animals present to assess therapy needs. The next session the animal is introduced to the client and interactions between the animal and client begin.

Stage Two:
Developing a bond between the animal and client by developing motor skills. Examples include feeding the animal treats or grooming. Then an introduction of verbal skills using verbal commands such as stay and sit. Therapists use animals as a form of motivation for the client. The client is asked to perform tasks like getting water and food for their animal to improve motor functions like walking. Positive social interactions with animals is translated and generalized to positive human interactions.

Stage Three:
Therapist monitors improvement with animal interaction and human interaction and judges positive social situation. Patients are then given power and independence with the freedom to make choices for the animal assisted therapy partner. After client can interact with humans as well as they can with animals treatment is complete.[11]

As with all other interventions, assessing whether a program is effective as far as its outcomes are concerned is easier when the goals are clear and are able to be specified. The literature review identified a range of goals for animal assisted therapy programs relevant to children and young people. They include enhanced capacity to form positive relationships with others i-relief in pet ownership.[12]

Marcus et al.[13] conducted a study using therapy dogs in an Outpatient Pain management clinic. Patients sat in either a waiting room, or a room with a therapy dog in it. Results demonstrated that there were significant improvements on pain, mood, and other distressful measures when patients or family members were placed in the therapy dog room. The study took place over a 2 month time period. They concluded that patients visited by these therapy dogs have a reduction in their pain rating and an improvement in their mood, with this in mind, there have been many nursing homes and hospitals that elicit the help of cats and dogs as a comfort for patients in their time of need. Patients in these scenarios report elevated mood and comfort when the animal is around. It is also thought that animals create a more positive environment for the hospital or clinic itself, with staff member also reporting elevated moods, as well as creating a more positive appearance of the clinician to the patient. Preliminary findings suggest that stress reduction in healthcare professionals may occur after as little as 5 minutes of interaction with a therapy dog.[14] Another example is Cole's 2007[15] study on patients who were in critical care after experiencing heart failure. The patients were visited three different times over a period of three months by either a volunteer with a therapy dog, a volunteer by themselves, or the usual care that they had been receiving. The results showed a significant decrease in the cardiopulmonary pressure, neurohormone level, and anxiety level of those patients who received the twelve minute visit by the therapy dog. Cole cites many other resources such as Blascovich,[16] and Shykoff [17] where AAT has helped reduce blood pressure and stress among individuals, however these studies focus more on pet ownership as a method rather than AAT.

Pets may promote kindness in children.

Becoming AAT certified

In order to become Animal-Assisted Therapy certified, a pet owner must go through Pet Partners, formerly Delta Society,[18] a nonprofit organization that emphasizes the use of animals in therapy to help people live healthier and happier lifestyles.[19] There is a simple four step process that Pet Partners offers to become a registered Pet Partners Team. The first step is on online or in classroom course where the pet handler, or owner, is trained to guide the animal in therapy sessions. They are also trained on what signs to look for in the patients to make sure they are comfortable and at ease. The next step is a screening of the health of the animal for any diseases or issues that may inhibit the animal from being useful in therapy. The animal needs to be approved by a professional veterinarian before moving on to the next step. The third step includes a test that checks the skills and ability of the animal and handler to react in therapy sessions. The last step is the submission of the Registration Application. Once approved, the animal and their owner are certified to assist in therapy in hospitals, retirement homes, and other places.[20]

Benefiting children

Children also can receive positive benefits from Animal Assisted therapy in the class setting. Frieson[21] (2010) conducted a study with children and therapy dogs in a class room setting and found that the animals provide a social and emotional support system for the child, with assumptions that because the animal seems non-judgmental to the child, it is perceived as comforting, raises the child's self-esteem and makes it easier for the child to express themselves.[22]

Therapists rely on techniques such as monitoring a child’s behavior with animal, their tone of voice, and indirect interviewing. These techniques are used, along with the child’s pet or other animal, in order to gain information.[8] Before pet therapy can be useful, the child and the animal must first develop a sense of comfort with each other, which is easier to achieve if the child’s own pet is used.[8] The applied technique that generates the most helpful information about the victim’s experience is telling the child that the animal wants to know how they are feeling or what happened. Applying pet therapy to victims of sexual assault can also reduce depression, anxiety, and other symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder. Pet therapy promotes social interaction and is increasingly more accessible to those who already have pets. Victims of sexual assault are less likely to be anxious and are comforted by the presence of a companion that is offered through pet therapy.[23] While there are other ways in which victims of sexual assault can receive therapy, the application of pet therapy does have a certain degree of success in these situations. For example, pet therapy helps the counselor and victim develop a positive alliance and a great sense of rapport more quickly.[23] As mentioned before, the presence of a pet or other animal helps victims of sexual assault feel more comfortable in a therapy setting. The application of pet therapy in sexual assault cases has also contributed positively to victims outside of counseling sessions.[23] The positive feelings that pet therapy induces during therapy sessions with sexual assault victims will carry over with victims outside of therapy. The increased comfort that having a companion builds will also help victims remain more comfortable from day to day, which will lead to fast recovery.[8] Studies of the human-companion animal bond reveal many physiological and psychological benefits. “Petting a dog with which one is bonded to promotes relaxation, characterized by decreased blood pressure and increases in peripheral skin temperature”.[9] Other benefits include releasing stress, increasing morale, increased calmness, decrease preoperative anxiety, improve patient outlook, reduce the need for preoperative medication, reduce fear and anxiety in patients with a psychiatric condition. Velde, Cipriani & Fisher (2005) also stated “Motivation is increased with animal interaction. For example, persons who had refused therapy came to the therapy sessions when they knew animals were going to be present.[9] Interaction with animals changes the morale of long-term care residents. Occupational therapy participants continue doing therapeutic activities for a longer duration when animals are present, thereby potentially increasing the benefits of this therapy.[9]

Mental institutions, hospitals and nursing homes

A 1998 study looked at the use of AAT in reducing anxiety levels of institutionalized patients. They determined that anxiety levels were significantly reduced in patients with mood disorders and psychotic disorders after a session of AAT. In fact, for the patients with psychotic disorders, those who participated in AAT had twice the reduction in anxiety scores as those who participated in some other form of recreational activity. This suggests the low demands of human-animal interaction was effective for individuals with psychotic disorders as compared to traditional therapy.[24] A controlled study of 20 elderly schizophrenic patients found significant improvements through the use of cats and dogs as companions, indicating that this population may benefit from the companionship of an animal, especially if they do not have access to friends or family.[25][medical citation needed] Pets may also provide an opportunity for fun and relaxation.[2] Another example can be seen with the famous case of Oscar the cat and a Providence, Rhode Island nursing home. Patients and family member reported a sense of calming when the cat would enter their room. Although the cat was a sign that the patient was dying, family members were thankful for the comfort that the cat seemed to instill in their loved one. The cat would jump on the patients lap and stay with them until they passed. In [26] National Capital Therapy Dogs Inc., a non-profit, all-volunteer organization that provides animal-assisted therapy to many people in health facilities, shelters, schools and libraries, has more than fifty teams of pet/human therapist combinations that work with patients that have severe medical conditions. They are able to improve morale for people who are undergoing intense medical treatments, reducing depression and anxiety as well as chronic pain.

Nursing homes

Animal assisted therapy draws on the bond between animals and humans in order to help improve and maintain an individual’s function and is being used to assist in the process of enhancing the individual’s quality of life in nursing homes.[27] Psychologists and therapists notice increasing unfavorable behaviors of elderly people that are transferred to nursing homes. Once the patients become settled into their new environment, they lose their sense of self-efficacy and independence. Simple, everyday tasks are taken away from them and the patients become lethargic, depressed, and anti-social if they do not have regular visitors.[28]

Animal assisted therapy (AAT) is a type of therapy that incorporates animals in the treatment of a person; especially elderly people in nursing homes or long term care (LTC) facilities. The goal of using animals as a treatment option is to improve the person’s social, emotional, and cognitive functioning and reduce passivity. When elderly people are transferred to nursing homes or LTC facilities, they often become passive, agitated, withdrawn, depressed, and inactive because of the lack of regular visitors or the loss of loved ones.[29] Supporters of AAT say that animals can be helpful in motivating the patients to be active mentally and physically, keeping their minds sharp and bodies healthy.[30] Therapists or visitors who bring animals into their sessions at the nursing home are often viewed as less threatening, which increases the relationship between the therapist/visitor and patient.[31]

There are numerous techniques used in AAT, depending on the needs and condition of the patient. For elderly dementia patients, hands on interactions with the animal are the most important aspect. Animal assisted therapy provides these patients with opportunities to have close physical contact with the animals warm bodies, feeling heartbeats, caress soft skins and coats, notice breathing, and giving hugs. Animal assisted therapy counselors also plan activities for patients that need physical movement. These planned tasks include petting the animal, walking the animal, and grooming the animal. These experiences seem so common and simple, but elderly dementia patients do not typically have these interactions with people because their loved ones have passed or no one comes to visit them. Their mind needs to be stimulated in the ways it once was. Animals provide a sense of meaning and belonging to these patients and offer something to look forward to during their long days.[28]

The AAT program encourages expressions of emotions and cognitive stimulation through discussions and reminiscing of memories while the patient bonds with the animal. Many of the troubling symptoms in elderly dementia patients include decreased physical functioning, apathy, depression, loneliness, and disturbing behaviors and are all positively affected by AAT interventions. Animal assisted therapy is very useful in helping these negative behaviors decrease by focusing their attention on something positive (the animal) rather than their physical illness, motivating them to be physically active and encouraging communication skills for those with memory loss.[28] Numerous researchers found that communication with animals have a positive effect on older adults by increasing their social behavior and verbal interaction, while also decreasing tense behavior and loneliness.[32]

Types

There are many types of AAT ranging from the use of dogs, to cats, even to small animals such as fish and hamsters. The most popular forms of AAT include Canine therapy, Dolphin therapy, and Equine therapy.

Dolphin therapy

Dolphin assisted therapy refers to the practice of swimming with dolphins. Proponents claim for such encounters "extraordinary results of the therapy and breakthroughs in outcomes",[33] however this form of therapy has been strongly criticised as having no long term benefit,[34] and being based on flawed observations.[35] Psychologists have cautioned that dolphin assisted therapy is not effective for any known condition and presents considerable risks to both human patients and the captive dolphins.[36]

Equine therapy

Hippotherapy can be used as a treatment for people with physical or mental challenges.
Main article: Hippotherapy

A distinction exists between hippotherapy and therapeutic horseback riding. The American Hippotherapy Association defines hippotherapy as a physical, occupational, and speech-language therapy treatment strategy that utilizes equine movement as part of an integrated intervention program to achieve functional outcomes, while the Professional Association of Therapeutic Horsemanship International (PATHI) defines therapeutic riding as a riding lesson specially adapted for people with special needs.[37] According to Marty Becker, hippotherapy programs are active "in twenty-four countries and the horse's functions have expanded to therapeutic riding for people with physical, psychological, cognitive, social, and behavioral problems".[38] Hippotherapy has also been approved by the American Speech and Hearing Association as a treatment method for individuals with speech disorders.[37] In addition, equine assisted psychotherapy (EAP) uses horses for work with persons who have mental health issues. EAP often does not involve riding.[39][40] Additional information pertaining to equine assisted therapy can be seen with Laira Gold's open clinical study of EAT [41]

Criticisms of animal-assisted-therapy

Although animal assisted therapy has been hailed as a new way to stimulate good conduct in children, encourage the development of their sense of empathy and compassion, redeem delinquents, contribute to better health, lead to a greater respect for nature and animals, increase the survival rate of cancer patients, help autistic and other childhood ailments (such as attention deficit disorder), facilitate social interactions, relieve stress, anxiety, loneliness, depression, and post-traumatic stress syndrome, etc., there has been major criticism as to the effectiveness of the human-animal interaction.[42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53]

How does science work?

In science, there are two approaches to conducting research:

1. Hypothesis-generating studies These are presented in the form of anecdotal reports. This kind of study is extremely useful in identifying novel phenomena. They help form a hypothesis, which must then be tested by more controlled studies. They rarely demonstrate the value of a treatment or the existence of a causal relationship. Anecdotal reports and expert opinions are the weakest form of evidence. Unless they are documented by hard facts, they do not make a science.

2. Hypothesis-testing studies Newly discovered phenomena are tested with experimental studies or epidemiologic surveys that utilize carefully constructed control groups and allow for the possibility that the hypothesis being tested is false. In other words, it is not enough to “know” something is true; one must prove it by following standard protocols. These are devised to eliminate any biases, which could influence the results and conclusions of a study and thus lead us astray.[54][55][56]

The objective of good science is more about disproving a theory than about proving it. If a theory cannot be refuted after a significant number of attempts, it becomes a truth until proven otherwise. Good science always leaves the door open to revision of accepted truths. But one must be extra cautious here because a study of the second type mentioned above can be as flawed as one from the first category. The psychological hang-ups and mental mechanisms of its users being the principal Achilles’ heel of science, before yelling “Eureka!” one must consider the source of financing and the quality of the scientific methodology used.[57][58]

Source of financing

Research in the field of ATT is financed almost exclusively by the pet industry. Pets make up the eighth largest retail industry in the U.S., bigger than toys, hardware, and jewellery, valued at 55 billion dollars in 2013.[59] According to French ethnologist Jean-Pierre Digard: “Big Pharma and pet food companies finance the bulk of the research in this field. Top priority is given to the studies on: 1) pet food (this can lead to greater product diversification and more profits); 2) the human-pet bond; 3) the human health benefits of animals (on which depends the popularity of pets); 4) animal well-being which has a positive effect on image and profits.” [60] The financial domination of the pet industry would not be a problem if the science it produced weren’t so bad.

Major methodology flaws

The large majority of studies on the benefits of ATT fit into the first category, hypothesis-generating studies. The contributions of pioneers like New York psychiatrist Boris Levinson are merely simple anecdotal observations rather than scientific experiments. Nevertheless, these are the types of studies used to promote the benefits of the human-animal bond.[61]

The theorists and most outspoken proponents of this field of study belong for the most part to the field of psychology and social sciences in general. This raises a serious credibility problem since in general research in these fields does not follow the scientific method.[62][63][64][65] According to Jacques Forget, vice-dean of research in social sciences at the University of Quebec in Montreal, "a psychology which purports to be scientific should follow the scientific method. However, in many cases, it prefers to rely strictly on authority. [...] In addition, in the field of vocational psychology, descriptive research [hypothesis-generating studies] is the preferred type of research. […] yet, and in spite of its relevance, it can never replace quantitative research [hypothesis-testing research] based on evidence and on numerous experimental studies."[66]

In a landmark article published in 1984 in the Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, American scientists Alan M. Beck and Aaron Honori Katcher warned of the poor quality of research being conducted in animal-assisted therapy. [67] They debunked the claimed benefits of pets so thoroughly that it is a wonder that 30 years later “research” in this field continues with exactly the same flaws.[68][69][70][71][72][73]

In 1997, after reviewing more than a thousand studies, epidemiologist Dr. T. Allen reported in the above publication: “Most reports describing the effects of human-canine inter-actions fall into categories at the bottom of the hierarchy ladder [of scientific validity]. There are no studies that compare a group of people with pets and one without.” [74]

In 2006, Drs. K. A. Kruger and J. A. Serpell stated:

“As demonstrated, animal-assisted interventions draw from an impressive variety of disciplines and perspectives (e.g., genetics, developmental psychology, psychoanalytic theory, behaviourism). […] While impressive in their variety and scope, not a single theory [that appear in this chapter] has been adequately tested empirically, and most studies have returned equivocal or conflicting results when the necessary testing has been attempted.” [75]

While the hypothesis-generating studies have found that positive short-term effects of the placebo type accrue from interacting with animals, most of the independent quality hypothesis-testing studies, which are cited below, have found that the health and happiness of pet owners is no better, and in some cases worse, than that of non–pet owners. As stated in 2011 by scientist Harold Herzog, “the existence of a generalized “pet effect” on human mental and physical health is at present not a fact but an unsubstantiated hypothesis.” [76]

According to Lilienfeld and Arkowitz animal-assisted therapy is better considered a temporary fix. They point to the lack of longitudinal data or research to see if there is evidence for long term improvement in patients undergoing the therapy. They then suggest that this further supports the idea that AAT is more of a quick-fix therapy rather than a behavioural treatment. They also state the dangers of these therapy programs.[77]

Alleged health benefits

In a comparative study, designed to test a hypothesis, professor Mike Kelly of Greenwich University showed that walking without a dog is far healthier than walking with one. Because of a dog’s numerous “pit stops” along the way – which the researchers called “lamppost syndrome” – the owner’s heart is never sufficiently stimulated to benefit. After only fourteen weeks, the weights, cholesterol levels, and blood pressures of the non-owners were significantly lower than of those of the group that owned dogs. Overall, the general health of the group without four-legged companions was much better than that of the group saddled with canine company. [78]

A Finnish study published in 2006, which surveyed 21,000 Finnish adults aged 20 to 54, is one of the few independent studies that has looked at the effects of pets on the general population. In this hypothesis-testing study, scientists Leena K. Koivusilta and Ansa Ojanlatva showed that pet owners are sick more often and do a below-average amount of exercise: 26% of the pet owners in the study were overweight, compared with 21% for those who did not have pets; 16% of the pet owners exercised less than once a month in comparison to 2% for those without pets. The risk of having health problems is 10% to 20% higher in pet owners than in non-pet owners, even when factors such as age and socio-economic level are considered. This is comparable to the risk in bachelors, widowers, and divorcees. Overall, this study associated pet ownership with poor, rather than good, health. [79]

In another very rare (type 2) peer-reviewed comparative study to determine whether pet ownership by elderly people is associated with lower use of health services, Dr. Anthony Jorm from Australia showed that “elderly pet owners did not differ from non-owners on any of the physical or mental health measures or in use of health services.” [80]

Another hypothesis-testing study of 425 heart-attack victims found that pet owners were more likely than non-pet owners to die or suffer remissions within a year of suffering their heart attack. [81]

As for Friedmann's study on the anxiolytic effects of pets[82], the most frequently cited study by pet therapy advocates, it is as deeply flawed [83] as the other studies in this field:

"These [types of] studies suggest that the presence of pets may lower our blood pressure and stress levels, although they do not tell us the reasons for this effect. They also do not inform us whether we would observe similar effects with other preferred stimuli, such as a good luck charm or a favorite doll." [84]

The Japanese, for example, have shown conclusively that the same results can be achieved with pet robots designed for that purpose. [85]

Animals have no mysterious qualities that make them irreplaceable. [86]

Alleged psychological benefits

The impact of pets on psychological well-being is far from being a statement of fact either. People whose lives are socially unsatisfactory often try to spice things up by acquiring an animal, but according to a recent study by psychologist Andrew Gilbey, older adults who are highly attached to their dogs tend to be more depressed than individuals who are not as attached to their pets. [87] According to a Pew Research Center survey of 3,000 Americans, pet owners are not happier than non-owners.[88] Researchers in England found that individuals who had acquired pets were just as lonely as they were before they got their pet, and were no happier than participants who had not gotten a pet.[89] In fact, some scientists, such as Finnish researchers Leena K. Koivusilta and Ansa Ojanlatva, believe that a pet is more likely to exacerbate underlying problems, which remain unaddressed. [90]

One study of 40,000 Swedes, for example, found that pet owners suffered more than non-pet owners from psychological problems such as anxiety, chronic tiredness, insomnia, and depression. [91] An Australian study of 2,551 elderly adults found that dog ownership was associated with poorer physical health and with depression. [92] Finally, in a study of 12,000 American adults, cat or dog ownership was unrelated to mortality rates. [93]

Alleged benefits for disabled and autistic children

Parents of mentally disabled and autistic children are willing, and rightly so, to do just about anything to help their children improve. Dolphin-assisted therapy (DAT), like many types of animal-assisted therapy (AAT), is one of the more popular means at their disposal. Before spending time, money, and energy on such an approach, however, they would be wise to consider the following. In 2007, in a paper entitled “Dolphin-Assisted Therapy: More Flawed Data and More Flawed Conclusions,” Emory University scientists Lori Marino and Scott Lilienfeld, two of the world’s greatest experts on dolphins, said the following:

"Nearly a decade following our initial review, there remains no compelling evidence that Dolphin-Assisted therapy (DAT) is a legitimate therapy, or that it affords any more than a fleeting improvement in mood. […] The claims for efficacy of DAT remain invalid. […] The studies [reviewed] were either too small, prone to some obvious bias, or offered no long-term perspective. […] The evidence that it [DAT] produces enduring improvement in the core symptoms of any psychological disorder is nil." [94]

Other studies have corroborated what Lori and Scott have found. [95][96][97]

One must also take into account the overall effect of DAT not only on dolphin, but on children. According to scientists Marino and Lilienfield, dolphins are subjected to an endless and cruel hunt. Children are frequently injured during DAT sessions. Infections are also common in that environment. [98][99]

Finally, these types of therapies therapies can “produce what economists term ‘opportunity costs’ – the time, money and effort expended in seeking out ineffective treatments. Because of such costs, parents may forfeit the chance to seek out effective treatments for their children.” [100]

What Marino and Lilienfeld have found about dolphin-assisted therapy is true for any type of AAT. There is no evidence to this day, after more than fifty years of intense “research” and countless articles published, that this “therapy” works to combat any form of disability, disease, or condition, psychological or otherwise. [101]

AAT in the treatment of sexually assaulted adults and children

Another limitation of pet therapy also centers on the application during scenarios that involve adults who have been sexually assaulted. While pets do tend to cause more comfort to victims, pet therapy may not be the catalyst that provides positive success in therapy sessions. As mentioned above, adults tend not to focus as much on having an animal companion, and therefore, pet therapy cannot be attributed as the reason for success in those types of therapy sessions.[8] Pet therapy does not raise any ethical concerns as far as advancing nonscientific agendas. On the other hand, there are some ethical concerns that arise when applying pet therapy to younger victims of sexual assault. For example, if a child is introduced to an animal that is not their pet, the application of pet therapy can cause some concerns. First of all, some children may not be comfortable with animals or may be frightened, so there would be ethical concerns with using pet therapy, which could be avoided by asking permission to use animals in therapy. Second, a special bond is created between animal and child during pet therapy. Therefore, if the animal in question does not belong to the child, there may be some negative side effects when the child discontinues therapy. The child will have become attached to the animal, which does raise some ethical issues as far as subjecting a child to the disappointment and possible relapse that can occur after therapy discontinues.[8]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Animal Assisted Therapy". American Humane Association.
  2. ^ a b c d Beck, Alan (1983). Between Pets and People: the Importance of Animal Companionship. New York: Putnam. ISBN 0-399-12775-5.
  3. ^ Chur-Hansen, A.; Winefield, H. (2010). "Gaps in the evidence about companion animals and human health: some suggestions for progress". International Journal of Evidence-Based Healthcare. 8 (3): 140–146. doi:10.1111/j.1744-1609.2010.00176.x. PMID 21199382. See also: Serpell (1990), Walsh (2009), and Wilson (2006).
  4. ^ Schaefer K (2002) Human-animal interactions as a therapeutic intervention Counseling and Human Development, 34(5) pp.1-18.
  5. ^ Serpell JA. 2006. Animal-assisted interventions in historical perspective. In: Fine AH, ed. Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy: Theoretical Foundations and Guidelines for Practice. San Diego: Elsevier. p 3-17
  6. ^ a b Serpell, James (2000). "Animal Companions and Human Well-Being: An Historical Exploration of the Value of Human-Animal Relationships". Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy: Theoretical Foundations and Guidelines for Practice: 3–17.
  7. ^ Stanley Coren (2010), "Foreword", Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy, Academic Press, ISBN 978-0-12-381453-1
  8. ^ a b c d e f Reichert, E. (1998). Individual counseling for sexually abused children: A role for animals and storytelling. Child & Adolescent Social Work Journal, 15, 177-185. doi:10.1023/A:1022284418096
  9. ^ a b c d e Velde, B. P., Cipriani, J., & Fisher, G. (2005). Resident and therapist views of animal-assisted therapy: Implications for occupational therapy practice. Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, 52(1), 43-50. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1630.2004.00442.x
  10. ^ Barker, Kathryn S.; Dawson (1998). "The Effects of Animal-Assisted Therapy on Anxiety Ratings of Hospitalized Psychiatric Patients". Psychiatric Services. 49 (6): 797–801. Retrieved 2012-03-18. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  11. ^ http://sethhillery.wix.com/animal-assisted-therapy#!__aat-timeline/page-1
  12. ^ Friedmann E, Katcher AH, Lynch JJ, Thomas SA (1980). "Animal companions and one-year survival of patients after discharge from a coronary care unit". Public Health Rep. 95 (4): 307–12. PMC 1422527. PMID 6999524.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ^ Marcus, Dawn (2012). "Animal-assisted therapy at an Outpatient Pain management clinic". Pain Medicine. 13 (1): 45–57. doi:10.1111/j.1526-4637.2011.01294.x. PMID 22233395. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  14. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 16050629, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=16050629 instead.
  15. ^ Cole, Kathie; Anna Gawlinski; Neil Steers; Jenny Kotlerman (2007). "Animal-Assisted Therapy in Patients Hospitalized With Heart Failure". American Journal of Critical Care. 16 (6): 575–85, quiz 586, discussion 587–8. PMID 17962502.
  16. ^ Blascovich, Allen; Tomaka J; Kelsey R (1991). "Presence of human friends and pet dogs as moderators of autonomic responses to stress in women". J Pers Soc Psychol. 61 (4): 582–589. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.61.4.582. PMID 1960650.
  17. ^ Shykoff, Allen; Izzo JL Jr (2001). "Pet ownership, but not ACE inhibitor therapy, blunts home blood pressure responses to mental stress". Hypertension. 38 (4): 815–820. PMID 11641292.
  18. ^ "ASPCA Animal Assisted Therapy Programs". ASPCA. Retrieved 29 October 2013.
  19. ^ "Welcome to Pet Partners!". Pet Partners. Pet Partners. Retrieved 29 October 2013.
  20. ^ "How to Become Registered Therapy Animal Team". Pet Partners. Retrieved 29 October 2013.
  21. ^ Friesen, L (2010). "Exploring Animal-Assisted Programs with Children in School and Therapeutic Contexts". Early Childhood Education Journal. 37 (4): 261–267. doi:10.1007/s10643-009-0349-5. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  22. ^ Reichart. "Trauma/Sexual Abuse". Retrieved 27 June 2012.
  23. ^ a b c Lefkowitz, C., Paharia, I., Prout, M., Debiak, D., & Bleiberg, J. (2005). Animal assisted prolonged exposure: A treatment for survivors of sexual assault suffering posttraumatic stress disorder. Society Animals: Journal of Human-Animal Studies, 13, 275-295. doi:10.1163/156853005774653654
  24. ^ Barker & Dawson 1998, pp. 797–801.
  25. ^ Barak, Yoram; Savorai, Osnat; Mavashev, Svetlana; Beni, Avshalom (2001). "Animal-Assisted Therapy for Elderly Schizophrenic Patients: A One-Year Controlled Trial". American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry. 9 (4): 439–442. Retrieved 2012-03-18. [dead link‍]
  26. ^ "Nursing home cat can predict impending death". New york post. Retrieved 24 April 2012.
  27. ^ Martindale, B., P. (2008). Effect of animal-assisted therapy on engagement of rural nursing home resident. American journal of recreation therapy, 7, 45-53
  28. ^ a b c .Buttner, L. L., Fitzsimmons, S., & Barba, B. (2011). Animal-assisted therapy for clients with dementia. Journal of gerontological nursing, 37
  29. ^ .Sutton, D., M. (1984). Use of pets in therapy with elderly nursing home residents. Toronto, Canada: American Psychological Association
  30. ^ .“Animal Assisted Therapy.” American Humane Association. Retrieved from: http://www.americanhumane.org/interaction/programs/animal-assisted-therapy/Date: October 20, 2012 [dead link‍]
  31. ^ .Marx, M., S., Mansfield, J., C., Regier, N., G., Dakheel-Ali, M., Srihari, A., & Thein,k. (2010). The impact of different dog-related stimuli on engagement of persons with dementia. American journal of alzheimer’s disease and other dementias,25, 37-45.
  32. ^ .Kawamura, N., Niiyama, M., & Niiyama, H. (2009). Animal-assisted activity: Experiences of institutionalized japanese older adults. Journal of psychosocial nursing and mental health services, 47
  33. ^ "Dolphin Assisted Therapy Essentials". [dead link‍]
  34. ^ Nathanson, David E. (1998). "Long-Term Effectiveness of Dolphin-Assisted Therapy for Children with Severe Disabilities". Anthrozoos: A Multidisciplinary Journal of The Interactions of People & Animals. 11 (1): 22–32. doi:10.2752/089279398787000896.
  35. ^ Marino, Lori; Lilienfeld, Scott O. (2007). "Dolphin-Assisted Therapy: More Flawed Data and More Flawed Conclusions". Anthrozoos: A Multidisciplinary Journal of The Interactions of People & Animals. 20 (3): 239–249. doi:10.2752/089279307X224782.
  36. ^ "Dolphin 'Therapy' A Dangerous Fad, Researchers Warn". Science Daily. 2007-12-18. Retrieved 2012-03-18.
  37. ^ a b Becker, Marty (2002). The Healing Power of Pets: Harnessing the Amazing Ability of Pets to Make and Keep People Happy and Healthy. New York: Hyperion. ISBN 0-7868-6808-2.
  38. ^ Becker 2002, p. 124.
  39. ^ "What is EAP and EAL?". Equine Assisted Growth and Learning Association. Retrieved 2012-03-18.
  40. ^ Quiroz Rothe et al. (2005). "From kids and horses: Equine facilitated psychotherapy for children". International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology. 5 (2): 373-383. ISSN 1697-2600
  41. ^ Klontz, B; Bivens, A.; Leinart, D.; Klontz, T. (2007). "The Effectiveness of Equine-Assisted Experiential Therapy: Results of an Open Clinical Trial". Society & Animals. 15 (3): 257–267. doi:10.1163/156853007x217195. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  42. ^ Chur-Hansen, A., McArthur, M., Winefield, H., Hanieh, E., & Hazel, S. (2014). Animal-assisted interventions in children's hospitals: A critical review of the literature. Anthrozoös, 27(1), 5-18.
  43. ^ Chur-Hansen, A., Zambrano, S. C., & Crawford, G. B. (2013). Furry and feathered family members-A critical review of their role in palliative care. The American Journal of Hospice & Palliative Care, 31(6), 672-677.
  44. ^ Chur‐Hansen, A., Stern, C., & Winefield, H. (2010). Commentary: Gaps in the evidence about companion animals and human health: Some suggestions for progress. International Journal of Evidence‐Based Healthcare, 8(3), 140-146.
  45. ^ Anestis, M. D., Anestis, J. C., Zawilinski, L. L., Hopkins, T. A., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (in press). Equine‐Related treatments for mental disorders lack empirical support: A systematic review of empirical investigations. Journal of Clinical Psychology,
  46. ^ Herzog, Harold (2011). “The Impact of Pets on Human Health and Psychological Well-Being: Fact, Fiction, or Hypothesis?” Current Directions in Psychological Science 20(4) 236–239.
  47. ^ Koivusilta, Leena K. and Ojanlatva, Ansa (2006). “To Have or Not to Have a Pet for Better Health?” PLoS One1(1).
  48. ^ Parker, G., Gayed, A., Owen, C., Hyett, M., Hilton, T., & Heruc, G. (2010). Survival following an acute coronary syndrome: A pet theory put to the test. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 121, 65–70.
  49. ^ Lilienfeld, Scott O. and Arkowitz, Hal (2008). “Is Animal Assisted Therapy Really the Cat's Meow? The jury's out on whether animals can initiate long-lasting improvements in mental health.” Scientific American;
  50. ^ Herzog, H. (2010). Some we love, some we hate, some we eat: Why it’s so hard to think straight about animals. New York, NY: Harper.
  51. ^ Müllersdorf, M., Granström, F., Sahlqvist, L., & Tillgren, P. (2010). Aspects of health, physical/leisure activities, work and socio-demographics associated with pet ownership in Sweden. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 38, 53–63.
  52. ^ Gillum, R.F., & Obisesan, T.O. (2010). Living with companion animals, physical activity and mortality in a US national cohort. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 7, 2452–2459.
  53. ^ O'Haire, M. E., McKenzie, S. J., Beck, A. M., & Slaughter, V. (2013). Social behaviors increase in children with autism in the presence of animals compared to toys. PloS One, 8(2), e57010.
  54. ^ Ioannidis, J. P. (2005). Why most published research findings are false. PLoS Medicine, 2(8), e124.
  55. ^ Wilson, C.C. and Barker, S.B. (2003). “Challenges in Designing Human-Animal Interaction Research.” American Behaviour Scientist; 47 (1): 16-23
  56. ^ Evaluating Quality of the Evidence. Guide to Clinical Preventive Services. 3rd Edition, XIXVIII (2002)
  57. ^ Freedman, D. H. (2010). Lies, damned lies, and medical science. The Atlantic, 306(4), 76-84.
  58. ^ Michaels, David (2008). Doubt is Their Product. How Industry’s Assault on Science Threatens your Health. Oxford University Press
  59. ^ Pet Industry Market Size & Ownership (2013). American Pet Products Association.
  60. ^ Digard, Jean-Pierre (2005). Les Français et leurs animaux: Ethnologie d’un phénomène de société. Paris: Hachette littératures, Pluriel: ethnologie: 41;
  61. ^ For an insider look at “research” in ATT see: Kaiser, Lana et al. (2004). “Can a Week of Therapeutic Riding Make a Difference? A Pilot Study.” Anthrozoös, 17 (1): 63-72.
  62. ^ Ioannidis, J., Munafò, M. R., Fusar-Poli, P., Nosek, B. A., & David, S. P. (2014). Publication and other reporting biases in cognitive sciences: Detection, prevalence, and prevention. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18(5), 235-241.
  63. ^ Fanelli, D. (2010). “Positive” results increase down the hierarchy of the sciences. PloS One, 5(4), e10068.
  64. ^ Ferguson, C. J. (2009). An effect size primer: A guide for clinicians and researchers. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 40(5), 532.
  65. ^ Franco, A., Malhotra, N., Simonovits, G. (2014). Publication bias in the social sciences: Unlocking the file drawer. Science, 345(6203), 1502-1505.
  66. ^ Jacques Forget (2009). « La psychologie est-elle une vraie science? » Conference presented to the Quebec skeptics: http://www.sceptiques.qc.ca/activites/conferences
  67. ^ Beck, A.M. and Katcher, A.H. (1984). “A New Look at Pet-Facilitated Therapy.” Journal of the American veterinary Association (JAVMA); 184 (4): 15.
  68. ^ Chur‐Hansen, A., Stern, C., & Winefield, H. (2010). Commentary: Gaps in the evidence about companion animals and human health: Some suggestions for progress. International Journal of Evidence‐Based Healthcare, 8(3), 140-146.
  69. ^ Palley, L. S., O'Rourke, P. P., & Niemi, S. M. (2010). Mainstreaming animal-assisted therapy. ILAR Journal, 51(3), 199-207.
  70. ^ Wells, D. L. (2009a). The effects of animals on human health and Well‐Being. Journal of Social Issues, 65(3), 523-543.
  71. ^ Kazdin, A. E. (2011). Establishing the effectiveness of animal-assisted therapies: Methodological standards, issues and strategies. In P. McCardle, McCune, S., J. A. Griffin & V. Maholmes (Eds.), How animals affect us: Examining the influence of human-animal interactions on child development and human health (pp. 35-51). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
  72. ^ Marino, L. (2012). Construct validity of Animal-Assisted-therapy and activities: How important is the animal in AAT? Anthrozoös, 25(Supplement 1), 139-151.
  73. ^ Kamioka, H., Okada, S., Tsutani, K., Park, H., Okuizumi, H., Handa, S., Oshio, T., Park, S., Kitayuguchi, J., Abe, T., Honda, T., & Mutoh, Y. (2014). Effectiveness of animal-assisted therapy: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Complementary Therapies in Medicine, 22(2), 371-390.
  74. ^ Allen, David T. (1997). “Effects of Dogs on Human Health.” JAVMA; 210 (7).
  75. ^ Kruger, K.A. and Serpell, J.A. (2006). “Animal-Assisted Interventions in Mental Health: Definitions and Theoretical Foundations.” In: Fine, A.H. (Ed.) Handbook on Animal- Assisted Therapy: Theoretical Foundations and Guidelines for Practice, 2nd Edition. New York: Academic Press: 21-38.
  76. ^ Herzog, Harold (2011). “The Impact of Pets on Human Health and Psychological Well-Being: Fact, Fiction, or Hypothesis?” Current Directions in Psychological Science 20(4) 236–239.
  77. ^ Marino, Lori and Lilienfeld, Scott (2007). “Dolphin-Assisted Therapy: More Flawed Data and More Flawed Conclusions.” Anthrozoös; 20 (3): 239-249
  78. ^ Dobson, Roger. 1998. “Walking the Dog Not as Good as Walking Alone.” The Independent (London) March 5:
  79. ^ Koivusilta, Leena K. and Ojanlatva, Ansa (2006). “To Have or Not to Have a Pet for Better Health?” PLoS One1(1).
  80. ^ Jorm, A.F. et al (1997). “Impact of pet ownership on elderly Australians’ use of medical services: An analysis using medicare data”. Medical Journal of Australia; 166: 367-377.
  81. ^ Parker, G., Gayed, A., Owen, C., Hyett, M., Hilton, T., & Heruc, G. (2010). Survival following an acute coronary syndrome: A pet theory put to the test. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 121, 65–70.
  82. ^ Friedman, E, Katcher, A.H., Thomas, S. A., Lynch, J. J., and Messent, P. R. (1983). “Social interaction and blood pressure: Influence of animal companions”. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease; 171: 461-465.
  83. ^ Pachana, Nancy et al. (2005). “Relations between Companion Animals and Self-Reported Health in Older Women: Cause, Effect or Artifact?” International Journal of Behavioral Medicine; 2 (2): 103-110.
  84. ^ Lilienfeld, Scott O. and Arkowitz, Hal (2008). Art. cited.
  85. ^ Shibata, Takanori and Kazuyoshi Wada (2011). “Robot Therapy: A New Approach for Mental Healthcare of the Elderly – A Mini-Review”. Gerontology; 57: 378–386.
  86. ^ Kruger, K.A. and Serpell, J.A. (2006). “Animal-Assisted Interventions in Mental Health: Definitions and Theoretical Foundations.” In: Fine, A.H. (Ed.) Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy: Theoretical Foundations and Guidelines for Practice, 2nd Edition. New York: Academic Press: 21-38.
  87. ^ Gilbey, Andrew et al. (2007). “A Longitudinal Test of the Belief that Companion Animal Ownership Can Help Reduce Loneliness.” Anthrozoös; 20 (4): 345-353.
  88. ^ Herzog, H. (2010). Some we love, some we hate, some we eat: Why it’s so hard to think straight about animals. New York, NY: Harper.
  89. ^ Miltiades, H., & Shearer, J. (2011). Attachment to pet dogs and depression in rural older adults. Anthrozoös, 24, 147–154.
  90. ^ Koivusilta, Leena K. and Ojanlatva, Ansa. Art. cited.
  91. ^ Müllersdorf, M., Granström, F., Sahlqvist, L., & Tillgren, P. (2010). Aspects of health, physical/leisure activities, work and socio-demographics associated with pet ownership in Sweden. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 38, 53–63.
  92. ^ Parslow, R. A., Jorm, A. F., Christensen, H., & Rodgers, B. (2005). Pet ownership and health in older adults: Findings from a survey of 2,551 community-based Australians aged 60–64. Gerontology, 51, 40–47.
  93. ^ Gillum, R.F., & Obisesan, T.O. (2010). Living with companion animals, physical activity and mortality in a US national cohort. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 7, 2452–2459.
  94. ^ Marino, Lori and Lilienfeld, Scott (2007). “Dolphin-Assisted Therapy: More Flawed Data and More Flawed Conclusions.” Anthrozoös; 20 (3): 239-249
  95. ^ Humphries, Tracy L. (2003). “Effectiveness of Dolphin-Assisted therapy as a behavioral intervention for young children with disabilities.” Bridges; 1(6)
  96. ^ Baverstock, A. and Finlay, F. (2008). Archives of Disease in Childhood. 93 (11): 994-995
  97. ^ Kruger, K.A. and Serpell, J.A. (2006). “Animal-Assisted Interventions in Mental Health.” Art. cited
  98. ^ Ibid.
  99. ^ Lilienfeld, Scott O. and Arkowitz, Hal (2008). “Is Animal Assisted Therapy Really the Cat's Meow? The jury's out on whether animals can initiate long-lasting improvements in mental health.” Scientific American.
  100. ^ Ibid.
  101. ^ Ibid.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Animal-assisted therapy.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Animal-assisted_therapy&oldid=632007024"