Columbian exchange

Inca-era terraces on Taquile are used to grow traditional Andean staples, such as quinoa and potatoes, alongside wheat, a European introduction.

The Columbian Exchange, also known as the Grand Exchange, was a dramatically widespread exchange of animals, plants, culture, human populations (including slaves), communicable disease, and ideas between the American and Afro-Eurasian Hemispheres following the voyage to the Americas by Christopher Columbus in 1492. The term was coined in 1972 by Alfred W. Crosby, a historian at the University of Texas at Austin, in his eponymous work of environmental history. The contact between the two areas circulated a wide variety of new crops and livestock which supported increases in population in both hemispheres. Explorers returned to Europe with maize, potatoes, and tomatoes, which became very important crops in Eurasia by the 18th century. Similarly, Europeans introduced manioc and the peanuts to tropical Southeast Asia and West Africa, where they flourished and supported growth in populations on soils that otherwise would not produce large yields.

Influence

Portuguese trading animals in Japan; detail of Nanban panel (1570–1616)

In the biological and ecological exchange that took place following Spanish establishment of colonies in New World, people of Europe and Africa settled in the New World, and animals, plants and diseases of Eurasia and the Western Hemisphere were introduced to each area in the interchange.

This exchange of plants and animals transformed European, American, African, and Asian ways of life. New foods became staples of human diets, and new growing regions opened up for crops. For example, before AD 1000, potatoes were not grown outside of South America. By the 1840s, Ireland was so dependent on the potato that a diseased crop led to the devastating Irish Potato Famine. Since being introduced by 16th-century Portuguese traders, who brought them from the Americas, maize and manioc replaced traditional African crops as the continent's most important staple food crops. New staple crops that were introduced to Asia from the Americas via Spanish colonizers in the 16th century, including maize and sweet potatoes, contributed to the population growth in Asia. European exploration of tropical areas was aided by the New World discovery of quinine, the first effective treatment for malaria.This caused the slave trade.

One of the first European export, the horse, changed the lives of many Native American tribes on the Great Plains, allowing them to shift to a nomadic lifestyle based on hunting bison on horseback. Tomato sauce, made from New World tomatoes, became an Italian trademark and tomatoes were widely used in France, while coffee from Africa and sugar cane from Asia became the main commodity crops of extensive Latin American plantations. Introduced to India by the Portuguese, chili/paprika from South America is today an integral part of Indian cuisine, as are potatoes.

New World native plants. Clockwise, from top left: 1. Maize (Zea mays) 2. Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) 3. Potato (Solanum tuberosum) 4. Vanilla (Vanilla) 5. Pará rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) 6. Cacao (Theobroma cacao) 7. Tobacco (Nicotiana rustica)

Before regular communication had been established between the two hemispheres, the varieties of domesticated animals and infectious diseases that jumped to humans, such as smallpox, were strikingly larger in the Old World than in the New. Many had migrated west with animals or people, or were brought by traders from Asia, so diseases of two continents were suffered by all. While Europeans and Asians were affected by the Eurasian diseases, their endemic status in those continents over centuries caused many people to acquire immunity. By contrast, "Old World" diseases had a devastating impact on Native American populations because they had no natural immunity to the new diseases.The smallpox epidemics are believed to have resulted in the largest death tolls among Native Americans, surpassing any wars and far exceeding the mortality from the Black Death. It is estimated that upwards of 80–95 percent of the Native American population was decimated within the first 100–150 years following 1492; the most affected regions in the Americas lost 100% of their population.

Before the Columbian Exchange, there were no oranges in Florida, no bananas in Ecuador, no paprika in Hungary, no tomatoes in Italy, no potatoes in Ireland, no coffee in Colombia, no pineapples in Hawaii, no rubber trees in Africa, no cattle in Texas, no donkeys in Mexico, no chili peppers in Thailand or India, and no chocolate in Switzerland.

Tomatoes in the Old World

It took three centuries after their introduction in Europe for tomatoes to become readily accepted. In fact, of all the New World plants in Italy, only the potato took as long as the tomato to gain acceptance. In large part this was due to sixteenth-century physicians believing that this native Mexican fruit was poisonous and the generator of "melancholic humors." In 1544, Pietro Andrea Mattioli, a Tuscan physician and botanist, suggested that tomatoes might be edible, but no record exists of anyone consuming them at this time. On October 31, 1548 the tomato was given its first name anywhere in Europe when a house steward of Cosimo de' Medici, the grand duke of Tuscany, wrote to the Medici private secretary that the basket of pomi d'oro "had arrived safely." At this time the label pomi d'oro was also used to refer to figs, melons, and citrus fruits in treatises by scientists.

Tomatoes were grown mainly as ornamentals early on after their arrival in Italy. For example, the Florentine aristocrat Giovanvettorio Soderini wrote how they "were to be sought only for their beauty" and were grown only in gardens or flower beds. In fact, tomatoes were grown in elite town and country gardens in the fifty years or so following their arrival in Europe and were only occasionally depicted in works of art. However, in 1592 the head gardener at the botanical garden of Aranjuez near Madrid, under the patronage of Philip II of Spain wrote that "it is said [tomatoes] are good for sauces." Besides this account, tomatoes remained exotic plants grown for ornamental purposes, but rarely for culinary use. The combination of pasta with tomato sauce only dates back to the late nineteenth century. There are around 32,000 acres (12,950 ha) of tomatoes cultivated in Italy today and there are still areas where relatively few tomatoes are grown and consumed.

Old World native plants. Clockwise, from top left: 1. Citrus (Rutaceae); 2. Apple (Malus domestica); 3. Banana (Musa); 4. Mango (Mangifera); 5. Onion (Allium); 6. Coffee (Coffea); 7. Wheat (Triticum spp.); 8. Rice (Oryza sativa)

Examples

It is difficult to imagine what the cuisines of South and Southeast Asia would be like without the chili pepper

See also: New World crops and Agriculture in Mesoamerica

Post-Columbian Transfers of Native Organisms with Close Ties to Humans

Type of organism	Old World to New World	New World to Old World
Domesticated animals	cat (domestic – wild species already present) camel chicken cow donkey ferret goat (domestic – wild species already present) goose (domestic – wild species already present) honey bee horse rabbit (domestic) pig rats rock pigeon sheep (domestic) silkworm water buffalo guineafowl	alpaca American Mink (fur farming) guinea pig llama Muscovy Duck turkey
Domesticated plants	ackee almond apple apricot artichoke asparagus banana barley beet bilberry ("blueberry", "blaeberry") bitter melon black pepper Brassica oleracea-derived vegetables kale and collard greens broccoli cabbage brussels sprouts cauliflower cantaloupe carambola cardamom carrot cinnamon clove coffee citrus (orange, lemon, etc.) cucumber date palm fig flax garlic grape (fox grape and other species used as rootstocks) hazelnut hemp (including cannabis/marijuana) kiwifruit kola nut lettuce mango Melissa millet nutmeg oats okra olive onion opium peach pea pear pistachio radish rhubarb rice rye soybean sugarcane taro tea turnip wheat walnut (English) watermelon Wine grape yam (sometimes misnamed "sweet potato")	agave amaranth (as grain) arrowroot avocado common beans (pinto, lima, kidney, etc.) black raspberry bell pepper blueberry (not to be confused with bilberry, also called blueberry) canistel cashew chia chicle chirimoya chili peppers cranberries (large cranberry, or bearberry species) coca cocoa cotton (long staple species) custard apple guava (common) huckleberry Jerusalem artichoke jicama maize (referred to in North America as "corn") manioc (cassava, tapioca, yuca) papaya passionfruit peanut pecan pineapple potato prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) pumpkin quinoa rubber sapodilla squash strawberry (commercial varieties) sugar-apple sunflower sweet potato tobacco tomato vanilla wild rice (Indian rice, not directly related to Asian rice) yerba maté yucca zucchini (courgette)
Infectious diseases	bubonic plague chicken pox cholera common cold diphtheria influenza leprosy malaria measles scarlet fever smallpox typhoid typhus whooping cough yellow fever yaws	bejel Chagas disease pinta syphilis

Unintentional introductions

Further information: Introduced species, Invasive species, and List of invasive species

Plants that arrived by land, sea, or air in "ancient" times (or before 1492 in the U.K.) are called archaeophytes, and plants introduced to Europe after those times are called neophytes. In addition to the diseases mentioned above, many species of organisms were introduced to new habitats on the other side of the world accidentally or incidentally. These include such animals as brown rats, earthworms (apparently absent from parts of the pre-Columbian New World), and zebra mussels, which arrived on ships.

Invasive species of plants and pathogens also were introduced by chance, including such weeds as tumbleweeds (Salsola spp.) and Wild oats (Avena fatua). Some plants introduced intentionally, such as the Kudzu vine introduced in 1894 from Japan to the United States to help control soil erosion, have since been found to be invasive pests in the new environment. Fungi have been transported, such as the one responsible for Dutch elm disease, killing American elms in North American forests and cities, where many had been planted as street trees. Some of the invasive species have become serious ecosystem and economic problems after establishing in the New World environments.

A beneficial, although probable unintentional, introduction is Saccharomyces eubayanus, the yeast responsible for lager beer now thought to have originated in Patagonia.

Introduced feral populations

Escaped and feral populations of non-indigenous animals have thrived in both the Old and New Worlds, often displacing native species.

Gray squirrels have been particularly successful in colonising Great Britain and populations of raccoons can now be found in some regions of Germany, the Caucasus and Japan. Fur farm escapees such as coypu and American Mink have extensive populations in the Old World.

In the New World, populations of feral European cats, pigs, horses and cattle are common.

See also

• Alfred Crosby
• Domestication
• Great American Interchange
• Guns, Germs, and Steel
• Population history of American indigenous peoples
• Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact
• Transformation of culture
• 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created
• 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus

External links

• The Columbian Exchange: Plants, Animals, and Disease between the Old and New Worlds in the Encyclopedia of Earth by Alfred W. Crosby
• Worlds Together, Worlds Apart by Jeremy Adelman, Stephen Aron, Stephen Kotkin, et al.
• New study blames Columbus for syphilis spread from Reuters Jan 15, 2008
• Foods that Changed the World
• The Columbian Exchange study guide, analysis, and teaching guide