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Religion in Europe

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  • More than 75% of those asked by the Eurobarometer 2010 poll expressed positive "belief in God" in Malta, Turkey, Cyprus, Romania, Greece, and Poland.
  • More than 25% of those asked expressed positive Atheism in France, the Czech Republic, the Netherlands, Belgium, Estonia, Slovenia, Sweden, United Kingdom, Norway, and Germany.[1]
  • Picture information refers to old Eurobarometer 2005 poll.

    • Europe religiosity[2][3][4][5][6]

      Catholicism (35%)
      Orthodoxy (26.7%)
      Protestantism (13.7%)
      No religion (18%)
      Islam (5.2%)
      Buddhism (0.4%)
      Hinduism (0.2%)
      Other religions (0.8%)

    Religion in Europe has been a major influence on art, culture, philosophy and law. The largest religion in Europe for at least a millennium and a half has been Christianity. Three countries in Southeastern Europe have Muslim majorities. Ancient European religions included veneration for deities such as Zeus and Odin. Modern revival movements of these religions include Heathenism, Rodnovery, Romuva, Druidry, Wicca, and others. Smaller religions include Judaism, Dharmic religions, and some East Asian religions, which are found in their largest groups in Britain, France, and Kalmykia.

    Over the last several decades, religious practice has been on the decline in a process of secularization.[7]

    History

    Little is known about the prehistoric religion of Neolithic Europe. Bronze and Iron Age religion in Europe as elsewhere was predominantly polytheistic (Ancient Greek religion, Ancient Roman religion, Finnish paganism, Celtic polytheism, Germanic paganism, etc.). The Roman Empire officially adopted Christianity in AD 380. During the Early Middle Ages, most of Europe underwent Christianization, a process essentially complete with the Christianization of Scandinavia in the High Middle Ages. The emergence of the notion of "Europe" or "Western World" is intimately connected with the idea of "Christendom", especially since Christianity in the Middle East was marginalized by the rise of Islam from the 8th century, a constellation that led to the Crusades, which although unsuccessful militarily were an important step in the emergence of a religious identity of Europe. At all times, traditions of folk religion existed largely independent from official denomination or dogmatic theology.

    The Great Schism of the 11th and Reformation of the 16th century were to tear apart Christendom into hostile factions, and following the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, atheism and agnosticism have spread across Europe. 19th century Orientalism contributed to a certain popularity of Buddhism, and the 20th century brought increasing syncretism, New Age, and various new religious movements divorcing spirituality from inherited traditions for many Europeans. The latest history brought increased secularisation, and religious pluralism.[8]

    Religiosity

    European countries have experienced a decline in church membership and church attendance.[9] A relevant example of ongoing trend is Sweden where the church of Sweden, previously the state-church until 2000, claimed to have 82.9% of the Swedish population as its flock in 2000. Surveys showed this had dropped to 72.9% by 2008.[10] However in the 2005 eurobarometer poll only 23%[11] and in the 2010 eurobarometer poll only 18%[1] of the Swedish population said they believed in a personal God.

    Gallup poll 2007–2008

    Lack of Importance of Religion in Europe by Gallup poll (2007–2008)
    Country Percentage
     Estonia
     
    		 84%
     Sweden
     
    		 83%
     Denmark
     
    		 80%
     Norway
     
    		 78%
     Azerbaijan
     
    		 74%
     Czech Republic
     
    		 74%
     France
     
    		 73%
     United Kingdom
     
    		 71%
     Finland
     
    		 69%
     Netherlands
     
    		 66%
     Belarus
     
    		 65%
     Russia
     
    		 63%
     Albania
     
    		 63%
     Bulgaria
     
    		 62%
     Latvia
     
    		 62%
     Belgium
     
    		 61%
     Hungary
     
    		 59%
     Slovenia
     
    		 59%
     Spain
     
    		 59%
     Germany
     
    		 57%
     Switzerland
     
    		 56%
     Ukraine
     
    		 54%
     Lithuania
     
    		 52%
     Slovakia
     
    		 51%
     Montenegro
     
    		 48%
     Serbia
     
    		 45%
     Austria
     
    		 42%
     Ireland
     
    		 42%
     Moldova
     
    		 31%
     Croatia
     
    		 30%
     Greece
     
    		 30%
     Armenia
     
    		 29%
     Bosnia and Herzegovina
     
    		 29%
     Portugal
     
    		 27%
     Italy
     
    		 26%
     Cyprus
     
    		 24%
     Poland
     
    		 23%
     Georgia
     
    		 22%
     North Macedonia
     
    		 20%
     Romania
     
    		 18%
     Turkey
     
    		 9%

    During 2007–2008, a Gallup poll asked in several countries the question "Does religion occupy an important place in your life?" The table on right shows percentage of people who answered "No".[12]

    Eurobarometer poll 2010

    The Eurobarometer Poll 2010[1] found that, on average, 51% of the citizens of EU member states state that they "believe in God", 26% "believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" while 20% "do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God or life force". 3% declined to answer. According to a recent study (Dogan, Mattei, Religious Beliefs in Europe: Factors of Accelerated Decline), 47% of Frenchmen declared themselves as agnostic in 2003. This situation is often called "Post-Christian Europe". A decrease in religiousness and church attendance in Denmark, Belgium, France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Sweden has been noted, despite a concurrent increase in some countries Greece (2% in 1 year) [citation needed]. The Eurobarometer poll must be taken with caution, however, as there are discrepancies between it and national census results. For example in the United Kingdom, the 2001 census revealed over 70% of the population regarded themselves as "Christian" with only 15% professing to have "no religion", though the wording of the question has been criticized as "leading" by the British Humanist Association.[13] Romania, one of the most religious countries in Europe, witnessed a threefold increase in the number of atheists between 2002 and 2011, as revealed by the most recent national census.[14]

    Eurobarometer Poll 2005 chart results

    The following is a list of European countries ranked by religiosity, based on belief in a God, according to the Eurobarometer Poll 2010.[1] The 2010 Eurobarometer Poll asked whether the person believed "there is a God", believed "there is some sort of spirit of life force", or "didn't believe there is any sort of spirit, God or life force".

    Eurobarometer Poll 2010[1]
    Country "I believe
    there is a God"    		 "I believe there is some
    sort of spirit or life force"    		 "I don't believe there is any sort
    of spirit, God or life force"
    Malta Malta 94% 4% 2%
    Romania Romania 92% 7% 1%
    Cyprus Cyprus 88% 8% 3%
    Greece Greece 79% 16% 4%
    Poland Poland 79% 14% 5%
    Italy Italy 74% 20% 6%
    Republic of Ireland Ireland 70% 20% 7%
    Portugal Portugal 70% 15% 12%
    Slovakia Slovakia 63% 23% 13%
    Spain Spain 59% 20% 19%
    Lithuania Lithuania 47% 37% 12%
    Luxembourg Luxembourg 46% 22% 24%
    Hungary Hungary 45% 34% 20%
    Austria Austria 44% 38% 12%
    Germany Germany 44% 25% 27%
    Latvia Latvia 38% 48% 11%
    United Kingdom United Kingdom 37% 33% 25%
    Belgium Belgium 37% 31% 27%
    Bulgaria Bulgaria 36% 43% 15%
    Finland Finland 33% 42% 22%
    Slovenia Slovenia 32% 36% 26%
    Denmark Denmark 28% 47% 24%
    Netherlands Netherlands 28% 39% 30%
    France France 27% 27% 40%
    Estonia Estonia 18% 50% 29%
    Sweden Sweden 18% 45% 34%
    Czech Republic Czech Republic 16% 44% 37%
    European Union EU27 51% 26% 20%
    Turkey Turkey (EU candidate) 94% 1% 1%
    Croatia Croatia (joined EU in 2013) 69% 22% 7%
    Switzerland Switzerland (EFTA) 44% 39% 11%
    Iceland Iceland (EEA, not EU) 31% 49% 18%
    Norway Norway (EEA, not EU) 22% 44% 29%

    The decrease in theism is illustrated in the 1981 and 1999 according to the World Values Survey,[15] both for traditionally strongly theist countries (Spain: 86.8%:81.1%; Ireland 94.8%:93.7%) and for traditionally secular countries (Sweden: 51.9%:46.6%; France 61.8%:56.1%; Netherlands 65.3%:58.0%). Some countries nevertheless show increase of theism over the period, Italy 84.1%:87.8%, Denmark 57.8%:62.1%. For a comprehensive study on Europe, see Mattei Dogan's "Religious Beliefs in Europe: Factors of Accelerated Decline" in Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion. Turkey and Malta are the most religious countries and Estonia and Czech Republic are the least religious countries in Europe.

    Maps

    • Belief that "there is a God" per country based on old Eurobaromer 2005 poll
      Belief that "there is a God" per country based on old Eurobaromer 2005 poll
    • Belief that "there is some sort of spirit or life force" per country based on old Eurobarometer 2005 poll
      Belief that "there is some sort of spirit or life force" per country based on old Eurobarometer 2005 poll
    • No belief in "any sort of spirit, God or life force" per country based on old Eurobarometer 2005 poll
      No belief in "any sort of spirit, God or life force" per country based on old Eurobarometer 2005 poll

    Abrahamic religions

    Baha'i Faith

    There are an estimated 5,000–6,000 Bahá'ís in Germany.[16] Including Iranian Bahá'í refugees and convert Danes, the modern community was[when?] about 330 Bahá'ís in Denmark.[17] The Association of Religion Data Archives (relying mostly on the World Christian Encyclopedia) estimated 4,900 Bahá'ís in Italy in 2005. In 2004, there were about 5,000 Bahá'ís in the United Kingdom.[18]

    Christianity

    Main article: Christianity in Europe

    The vast majority of theist Europeans describe themselves as Christians, divided into a large number of denominations. Christian denominations are usually classed in three categories: Catholicism, Orthodoxy and Protestantism (a diverse group including Lutheranism-Zwinglianism, Calvinism-Presbyterianism, and Anglicanism as well as numerous minor denominations, including Baptism, Methodism, Evangelicalism, Pentecostalism, etc.).

    Throughout most of its history, Europe has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture,[19] The Christian culture was the predominant force in western civilization, guiding the course of philosophy, art, and science.[20][21]

    Christianity is still the largest religion in Europe, with 76.2% of Europeans considering themselves Christian,[22]

    View of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, the largest Major basilica in the Roman Catholic Church.

    Roman Catholicism is the largest denomination with adherents mostly existing in Latin Europe (which includes France, Italy, Spain, southern [Wallon] Belgium, Portugal and, Romania), Ireland, Lithuania, Poland, Hungary, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, western Ukraine, and the Czech Republic, but also the southern parts of Germanic Europe (which includes Austria, Luxembourg, northern [Flemish] Belgium, southern and western Germany, and Liechtenstein).

    The Alexander Nevsky Cathedral in Sofia is one of the largest Orthodox cathedrals.
    File:Church in Korçë.jpg
    Orthodox Cathedral of Korçë.
    The St John's Church, Bergen is a Lutheran church in Norway.
    Calvinist Temple Saint-Étienne (Protestant St. Stephen's Church) in France

    There are numerous minor Protestant movements, including various Evangelical congregations.

    Islam

    Baitul Futuh Mosque in the UK, the largest in western Europe.
    Further information: Islam in Europe

    Islam came to parts of European islands and coasts on the Mediterranean during the 8th century Muslim conquests. In the Iberian Peninsula and parts of southern France, various Muslim states existed before the Reconquista; Islam spread in southern Italy briefly through the Emirate of Sicily and Emirate of Bari. During the Ottoman expansion, Islam was spread into the Balkans and even part of central Europe. Muslims have also been historically present in modern-day Russia, beginning with Volga Bulgaria in the 10th century and the conversion of the Golden Horde to Islam. In recent years, Muslims have migrated to Europe as residents and temporary workers.

    Muslims make up over 98% of the population in Turkey,[23] 90% in Kosovo, 40% in Bosnia and Herzegovina,[24] 70% in Albania,[25][26] 33% in Macedonia,[27] 19,11% in Montenegro,[28] between 10 and 15% in Russia,[29] 9% in France,[30][31][32] 8% in Bulgaria,[33] 6% in the Netherlands, 5% in Denmark, just over 4% in Switzerland and Austria, between 3 and 4% in Greece and almost 3% in the United Kingdom.[34]

    Judaism

    Further information: History of the Jews in Europe, Jews and Judaism in Europe, Jews by country
    The Jubilee Synagogue in Prague, Czech Republic.

    The Jews were dispersed within the Roman Empire from the 2nd century. At one time Judaism was practiced widely throughout the European continent; throughout the Middle Ages, Jews were frequently accused of ritual murder and faced pogroms and legal discrimination. The Holocaust perpetrated by Nazi Germany decimated Jewish population, and today, France is the home of largest Jewish community in Europe with 1% of the total population.[35] Other European countries with notable Jewish populations include Germany, the United Kingdom, and Russia.

    Deism

    Main article: Deism

    During the Enlightenment, Deism became influential especially in England and France. Biblical concepts were challenged by concepts such as a heleocentric universe and other scientific challenges to the Bible.[36] Notable early deists include Voltaire.[37]

    Irreligion

    Further information: Secularism, Irreligion, and Postchristianity

    The trend towards secularism during the 20th century has a number of reasons, depending on the individual country:

    • France has been traditionally laicist since the French Revolution. However, since the French state does not collect any statistics on religiosity, there are no official figures on the recent development of religious demographics.
    • Much of Europe was secularized as a matter of state doctrine under Communist rule in the countries of the former Eastern Bloc. Albania was an officially (and constitutionally binding) atheist state from 1967 to 1991.[38] The countries where the fewest people reported a religious belief were the Czech Republic (19%, traditionally Catholic) and Estonia (16%, traditionally Lutheran).[39] The region of Eastern Germany, which was also under Soviet occupation, is believed to be the least religious region in Europe.[40][41] Other post-communist countries, however, have seen the opposite effect, with religion being very important in countries such as Romania and Poland.
    • The traditionally Protestant countries have seen a general decrease in church attendance since the 1970s. This concerns Germany, the UK, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia.[42]

    The trend towards secularism has been less pronounced in traditionally Catholic countries. Greece as the only traditionally Eastern Orthodox country in Europe which has not been part of the communist Eastern Bloc also retains a very high religiosity, with in excess of 95% of Greeks adhering to the Greek Orthodox Church. The trend is also visible in the decrease of the importance of marriage: in 2011, 39.5% of births in the European Union were outside of marriage.[43] Several countries in Europe recorded a majority of births outside of marriage in 2011 - these include Iceland (65.0%), Estonia (59.7%), Slovenia (56.8%), Bulgaria (56.1%), France (55.8%), Norway (55.0%), Sweden (54.3%).[43] These countries tend to be less religious ones (less than half of the population believing in God) whereas half of the European population believes in God.[44]

    According to Pew Research Center survey in 2012 religiously unaffiliated (include agnostic and atheist) make up about 18.2% of Europeans population.[45] according to the same survey religiously unaffiliated make up a majority of the population only in two European countries: Czech Republic (75%) and Estonia (60%).[45]

    Agnosticism

    Main article: Agnosticism

    During the late 20th and early 21st centuries, atheism or agnosticism has increased, with falling church attendance and membership in various European countries.[46] The 2010 eurobarometer poll found that on total average, of the EU27 population, 51% "believe in a God", 26% believe in "some sort of spirit or life force" and 20% had neither of these forms of belief.[1] Across the EU, belief was higher among women, increased with age, those with strict upbringing, those with the lowest levels of formal education and those leaning towards right-wing politics.[39]: 10–11 

    Atheism

    A 2010 Eurostat Eurobarometer poll, revealed that 51% of European Union citizens responded that "they believe there is a God", whereas 26% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and 20% that "they do not believe there is a spirit, God, nor life force". Results were varied widely between different countries, on the one end 94% of Maltese respondents stating that they believe in God and on the other end only 16% of the people of Czech Republic stating the same.[1]

    Neopaganism

    Wicca

    Wicca English: /ˈwɪkə/ is a modern pagan religion. Developed in England in the first half of the 20th century,[47] Wicca was popularised in the 1950s and early 1960s by a retired British civil servant named Gerald Gardner, who at the time called it the "witch cult" and "witchcraft", and its adherents "the Wica".[48][non-primary source needed] From the 1960s onward, the name of the religion was normalised to "Wicca".[49]

    Druidry

    The religious development of Druidry was largely influenced by Iolo Morganwg.[50] Modern practises aim to imitate the practises of the Celtic peoples of the Iron Age.[51]

    Dharmic religions

    Jain temple in Antwerp, Belgium

    Buddhism

    Buddhism is thinly spread throughout Europe, and the fastest growing religion in recent years [52][53] with about 3 million adherents.[54][55] In Kalmykia, Tibetan Buddhism is prevalent.[56]

    Hinduism

    Hinduism mainly among Indian immigrants. Growing rapidly in recent years, notably in the United Kingdom, France, and the Netherlands.[57][58] In 1998, there were an estimated 1.4 million Hindu adherents in Europe.[59]

    Jainism

    Jainism, small membership rolls, mainly among Indian immigrants in Belgium and the United Kingdom, as well as several converts from western and northern Europe.[60][61]

    Sikhism

    Sikhism has nearly 1 million adherents in Europe. Most of the community live in United Kingdom (750,000) and Italy (70,000).[62][63] Around 10,000 in Belgium and France.[64] Netherlands and Germany have a Sikh population of 12,000.[65][66] All other countries have 5,000 or fewer Sikhs.

    Other religions

    Other religions represented in Europe includes:

    Official religions

    A number of countries in Europe have official religions, including Liechtenstein, Monaco, the Vatican City (Catholic); Greece (Eastern Orthodox); Denmark, Iceland and the United Kingdom (England alone) (Anglican). In Switzerland, some cantons are officially Catholic, others Reformed Protestant. Some Swiss villages even have their religion as well as the village name written on the signs at their entrances.

    Georgia has no established church, but the Georgian Orthodox Church enjoys de facto privileged status. Much the same applies in Germany with the Evangelical Church and the Roman Catholic Church, the Old Catholic Church, and the Jewish community. In Finland, both the Finnish Orthodox Church and the Lutheran Church are official. England, a part of the United Kingdom, has Anglicanism as its official religion. Scotland, another part of the UK, has Presbyterianism as its national church, but it is no longer "official". In Sweden, the national church used to be Lutheranism, but it is no longer "official" since 2000. Azerbaijan, France, Ireland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Spain and Turkey are officially "secular".

    Rastafari, communities in the United Kingdom, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy and elsewhere. Traditional African Religions (including Muti), mainly in the United Kingdom and France, including West African Vodun and Haitian Vodou (Voodoo), mainly among West African and black Caribbean immigrants in the UK and France.

    See also

    References

    1. ^ a b c d e f g "Special Eurobarometer, biotechnology, page 381" (PDF). Fieldwork: Jan-Feb 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
    2. ^ Christianity in Europe → 46% Catholics of all 76.2% Christians is about 35% in total, 35% Orthodox of all is about 26.7% in total and 18% Protestants (other traditional Christians) of all is about 13.7% in total.
    3. ^ The 2005 Eurostat Eurobarometer poll states 18% of irreligious.
    4. ^ http://www.pewforum.org/uploadedfiles/Topics/Demographics/Muslimpopulation.pdf Islam in Europe states 3.2% Muslims in European Union, but non-European Union countries harbour even more Muslims so percents go to about 5.2%.
    5. ^ http://www.dhammawiki.com/index.php?title=Buddhists_in_the_world Buddhism in Europe with over 3 million practicing Buddhists (mixed adherents of East Asian religions are not included) or about 0.4% of the continent's population.
    6. ^ http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_306.html Hinduism in Europe with over 1.5 million or 0.2% of the population.
    7. ^ http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/31/arts/31iht-idlede1.html?_r=1&pagewanted=all
    8. ^ Henkel, Reinhard; Knippenberg, Hans (2005). Knippenberg (ed.). The Changing Religious Landscape of Europe. Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis. pp. 7–9. ISBN 9-055-89248-3.
    9. ^ Church attendance faces decline almost everywhere retrieved 3 July 2011
    10. ^ Template:Sv Svenska Kyrkan Statistiek pagina Medlemmar 1972-2008 excel file
    11. ^ Eurobarometer Poll 2005
    12. ^ Gallup Poll
    13. ^ Census 2011
    14. ^ "Tot mai mulți români "s-au lepădat" de Dumnezeu. HARTA ATEILOR din România Citiţi mai mult: Tot mai mulți români "s-au lepădat" de Dumnezeu. HARTA ATEILOR din România - Social > EVZ.ro http://www.evz.ro/detalii/stiri/tot-mai-multi-romani-s-au-lepadat-de-dumnezeu-harta-ateilor-din-romania-1014215.html#ixzz2PUnVRlWg EVZ.ro". 4 December 2012. Retrieved 4 April 2013. {{cite web}}: External link in |title= (help)
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    19. ^ Dawson, Christopher (1961). Crisis in Western Education (reprint ed.). p. 108. ISBN 978-0-8132-1683-6. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
    20. ^ Koch, Carl (1994). The Catholic Church: Journey, Wisdom, and Mission. Early Middle Ages: St. Mary's Press. ISBN 978-0-88489-298-4.
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    25. ^ CIA - The World Factbook - Albania - People
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    28. ^ "Popis stanovništva, domaćinstava i stanova u Crnoj Gori 2011. godine" (PDF) (Press release) (in Serbo-Croatian and English). Statistical office, Montenegro. 12 July 2011. Retrieved 24 February 2013. {{cite press release}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
    29. ^ CIA - The World Factbook - Russia
    30. ^ Minister of the Interior (France) (28 June 2010). "Entre 5 et 6 Millions de Musulmans en France" (in French). Le Point.
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    33. ^ CIA - The World Factbook - Bulgaria
    34. ^ Muslims in Europe: Country guide, BBC News, 23 December 2005, accessed 3 May 2007
    35. ^ CIA The World Factbook -- France
    36. ^ Encyclopedia Of The Enlightenment Ellen Judy Wilson, Peter Hanns Reill - 2004
    37. ^ The Founders' Facade R. L. Worthy - 2004
    38. ^ Gallagher, Amelia (1997). "The Albanian atheist state, 1967–1991".
    39. ^ a b "Eurobarometer 225: Social values, Science & Technology" (PDF). Eurostat. 2005. Retrieved 21 July 2007. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
    40. ^ "WHY EASTERN GERMANY IS THE MOST GODLESS PLACE ON EARTH". Die Welt. 2012. Retrieved 24 May 2009.
    41. ^ "East Germany the "most atheistic" of any region". Dialog International. 2012. Retrieved 24 May 2009.
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    44. ^ Evolution on the family in Europe page 42 out of 82[unreliable source?]
    45. ^ a b Religiously Unaffiliated
    46. ^ Zuckerman, Phil (2005). "Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns" (PDF). Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 21 July 2007. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
    47. ^ Hutton, Ronald (1999). The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft. Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press. p. vii. ISBN 0-19-820744-1.
    48. ^ Gardner, Gerald B (1999) [1954]. Witchcraft Today. Lake Toxaway, NC: Mercury Publishing. ISBN 0-8065-2593-2. OCLC 44936549.
    49. ^ Seims, Melissa (2008). "Wica or Wicca? - Politics and the Power of Words". The Cauldron (129).
    50. ^ Grimoire for the Apprentice Wizard - Page 353, Oberon Zell-Ravenheart - 2004
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    53. ^ Buddhism fastest growing religion in West. Asian Tribune (2008-04-07). Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
    54. ^ "Vipassana Foundation - Buddhists around the world".
    55. ^ "BuddhaNet - Buddhism in the West".
    56. ^ Contemporary Buddhist Revival in Kalmykia: Survey of the Present State of Religiosity | AsiaPortal - Infocus. Infocus.asiaportal.info (2012-02-06). Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
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    61. ^ A Brief Introduction to Jainism | religion | resources. Kwintessential.co.uk. Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
    62. ^ UK | Wales | South East Wales | Sikhs celebrate harvest festival. BBC News (2003-05-10). Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
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